NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY

Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials

(Material component)

Materials, Concrete - Admixtures, Additives & Aggregates

Last week
In the last week, we started the journey of exploring concrete as the most
used construction material in the world with around 7 billion m 3 produced
a year. We found that concrete, not as strong as we have it today, was
used for the first time, around 10000 years ago by mixing limestone,
water and stones. Cement was developed over years till we have Portland
cement which form 95% of the cement used worldwide. Concrete consists
of cement (binding material), water, coarse aggregate (>4.75mm) and
fine aggregate (<4.75mm). additives and admixtures are used also to
replace part of the cement and change some of concrete properties
respectively. Cement is the first and most important component in
concrete. Although, it is not the main element of concrete strength but
without it, the concrete will not work as one element. Portland cement
consists of calcium silicas and calcium aluminium. The cement
manufacturing consists of four main stages stated in session 5-notes. The
chemical reaction of water and cement is called concrete hydration which
is responsible of forming the hard concrete. This process is exothermic.
43% is the optimal water cement ratio for the whole cement to react to
get stronge concrete.

Main themes

In this session, you will explore the rest of concrete components-

aggregate, additives and admixtures:

 Aggregates types and reasons to use.

 The main function of using admixtures and its different types.

 The main function of using additives and its different types.

1. Aggregates

1.1. why we use aggregate in concrete

Aggregates (course and fine) form the skeleton and the inert filler of
concrete. They are approximately 65-80% of the volume and 70-85% of
the mass of concrete. Lightweight aggregates are used for lightweight
concrete. They are the main element of concrete compressive strength
and density (2000 - 2600 kg/m3). They are responsible for reducing
concrete cost as they are cheaper than cement as well as reducing
thermal stresses. They may be used for decorative reasons and to
enhance the fire resistance. They help in limiting the shrinkage in the
cement paste. The aggregates have significant impact on the workability
and durability of concrete.
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

1.2. Aggregates’ classification

Aggregate types affect the concrete properties in terms of strength,

durability and workability. Aggregates can be classified by different
methods: weight, source, shape, size and wetness.

By Weight

Aggregates are classified by weight into Lightweight, Normal and

heavyweight aggregates.

Lightweight aggregates (0.8≤γ≤2.0 with density < 1,100kg/m3), such

as air entrained aggregates (pumice and ash) and expanded aggregates
(expanded clay or blast furnace slag). Light weight aggregates are used to
reduce the loads foundations and provide good thermal resistance. The
lightweight aggregates have a high absorption value and are used as a
filling material in flooring, slabs and insulation. Extra information:
(Expanded clay is manufactured from naturally occurring clay. This is quarried
and then sent to a rotary kiln where it is expanded at a temperature of 1150oC.
The moisture trapped in the clay is forced to turn to steam creating countless tiny
air bubbles surrounded by a hardened shell. It is these sealed pockets which
account for the light weight of expanded clay. As there are voids in aggregate, it
is preferable to compare the different samples by weights rather than volumes).

Normal aggregates (2.55≤γ≤2.75 with density 1,520–1,680kg/m3),

such as sand and crushed stones. Commonly used stones are quartz,
basalt, granite, marble, and limestone. Normal aggregates give the
concrete normal density of 2400-2500 kg/m 3. They are used for beams,
columns and slabs

Heavyweight aggregates (3.5≤γ≤8.9 with density>2080kg/m3), such

as Magnetite (Iron Ore) and Lead shot. This is used mainly for radiation
rooms. The heavyweight concrete has low workability.

Figures 1: Light weight Aggregates (Weber, 2014 )

Figures 2: Normal Aggregates (Weber, 2014; ConcretNetwork, 2020 )

NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

Figures 3: Heavyweight Aggregates (National Slag Association, 2013, Angling

Times, 2007 )
By Source

Aggregates are classified by source into Primary, Secondary and Recycled

aggregates.

Primary aggregates are such as crushed rocks, sand and gravel. They
are available in riverbanks, seashore and pits mines. They should be
tested before being used in the mix.

Secondary aggregates are manufactured materials such as Ferro-

silicate Slag, rubber and glass. The sizes of manufactured aggregates can
be controlled into 10,12 and 20mm.

Recycled aggregates are crushed concrete where are still under test
and validation, so have not been used in the industry widely.

71% of the aggregates used in concrete mix are primary while 29% for
secondary and recycled.

Figures 4: Aggregates sources in the UK (ASC, 2010)

By Shape

Aggregates are classified by shape into rounded, irregular, angular and

elongated aggregates. The shape influences strength but also the
workability of the concrete.
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

Rounded aggregates are uncrushed aggregates and available in the

seashore or riverbank. They produce high workable concrete with fewer
voids, but it has low strength for their low interlocking. They are used for
lintel concrete (Civilplanets, 2020).

Angular aggregates are crushed aggregates that produce low

workability but high strength and less voids as they have high interlocking
(Civilplanets, 2020). Angular particles also require a bit more cement
paste to coat them than rounded particles as they have more surface area
for better workability.

Irregular aggregates are uncrushed aggregates that produce lower

strength and workability than angular (Civilplanets, 2020). They also
require more cement paste.

Elongated aggregates are crushed aggregates that produce low

compressive strength with high voids, so they are not recommended.
(Civilplanets, 2020).

Rounded Irregular Angular Elongated

Figures 5: Aggregates shaped

By Size

Aggregates are classified by size into course and fine aggregates.

Fine aggregates are used to fill the voids and increase workability. The
size is less than 4.74mm.

Coarse aggregates are to develop the strength and shape. They

decrease the workability and have a size greater than 4.75mm.

Sizes tend to be denoted with the (nominal) maximum sizes of the

aggregates used where:

D= 20mm for most reinforced concrete

D= 40mm for mass concrete e.g. Road
D= 10mm for thin section, screed over 50mm

The larger aggregates, the lower sand, the lower specific surface, the less
cement and water. Sieve test is used to get well graded aggregate for the
small aggregates to fill the voids between large aggregates. The
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

aggregates should continuously be graded from the max toward the fine
(cement size) to ensure all voids are filled but not having an excessive
fine. Different aggregates grads are used for different concrete types
according to BS882 (aggregate within the determined zone on the figure 6
would be considered acceptable). Sand should be within the zone and
coarse should be in the BS envelop (Figure 6).

Figures 6: Sieve Test (Hannan, 2016)

Aggregate 20 mm could be: All 20mm (one stockpile), 20mm and sand
(2 stockpiles) and 20, 10 mm and sand (3 stockpiles).

Well-graded aggregates have a gradation of particle sizes that fairly

evenly spans the size from the finest to the coarsest.

Poorly graded aggregates are characterized by small variations in size.

This means that the particles pack together, leaving relatively large voids
in the concrete. They require high amount of cement paste to fill the
voids.

Gap-graded aggregates consist of coarse aggregate particles that are

similar in size but significantly different in size from the fine aggregate.
They are better than poor but worse than well-graded.

Typical aggregate gradations are shown in the figure below:

Figures 7: Different graded aggregates (The concrete countertop institute, 2020)

NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

By Wetness

Aggregates are classified by the amount of moister they have. Aggregate

of all types will have pores, which can become saturated by absorbing
water (%1 of aggregate). The moisture content of an aggregate is an
important factor when developing the proper water/cementitious material
ratio. The moisture content can range from less than 1% in gravel to up
to 40% in very porous sandstone and expanded shale. The moister
content of the aggregates is calculated by using the below equation:

Where:

W1 is the oven dry weight,

W2 is the saturated (surface dry) weight.
Most aggregates are found in the 1%<Abs<3%range.

This is useful to determine the extra amount of water that needs to be

added to the mix, so the aggregate will not absorb some of the water
required for the cement hydration.

Figures 8: Aggregate wetness

Left to right in figure 8 – completely dry, partially saturated pores, fully

saturated but surface dry and wet with excess water. Usually by
determining the humidity of the aggregate, the amount of aggregates to
increase is determined.

1.3. Bad aggregates

There are some materials that are not preferred to be used as aggregates
in the concrete. If they are going to be used, they need to be treated to
avoid weaknesses in the concrete. Some of these materials are organic
materials, sulphates and silicas.

Organic Materials

The organic materials will be swell on moisture ingress; however, the

hydration reaction causes removal of water from the materials which
causes these materials to shrink creating voids in the concrete causing
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

weakness. However, researchers are working on finding possible solutions

and treatments of the organic materials to allow practitioners to use them
as they have good potential tensile strengths and are considered as
renewable materials.

Sulphates

There are many types of sulphates, that also present in groundwater.

Magnesium Sulphate is the worse. The sulphate will attack and react with
the hardened cement past (HCP) producing expansive materials which
cause the concrete to spall, crack and breakdown. The concrete also will
have whitish appearance. Delayed Ettringite (expansive material) also
happens if the concrete gets too hot and the sulphates are re-absorbed.
On cooling, the sulphates precipitate out and attack from the inside of the
concrete. Sulphate is really dangerous and it may totally destroy the
hardened cement paste.

Figure 9: Cracking pattern in a bridge suffering from internal sulfatic attack

(Germain, 2008)

Sulphate attack is the chemical reaction between sulphate ions and

constituents in concrete that form new products with a relatively
large molar volume.

Silicas

Hardened Cement Paste (HCP) is an alkali solid. When the aggregates

have more than 0.6% as reactive alkali Silica, this will react with HCP with
the presence of water to form a soft gel at aggregate-cement paste
boundaries which expands due to hydraulic pressure and the gel “oozes”
out of cracks making the concrete weaker. This becomes worse for fine
particle concrete and only stopped by eliminating (permanently) water.
Water added to the cement should not also have this material. Silica is
different from Silica’s fume as this can be used in concrete. There are
cases when structural concrete members demolished due to the effect of
Silica.
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

Figure 10: Silica and concrete failure due to silica (Britannica, 2020 & The
constructor, 2020)

Cracking starts in places where water exists such as near the ground
behind retaining walls or to the waterline in piers. Using Silica fume, fly
ash or furnace slag controls the silica’s effect (The constructor, 2020).

1.4. Aggregates main properties

Aggregates’ porosity (the amount of voids the concrete has that allow the
water to pass through), Elasticity (Young Modulus) and strength are the
three main properties of concern for the aggregates used in the concrete
mix.

Aggregates’ porosity will determine the amount of water that the

aggregate will absorb from the concrete mix which affects the hydration
reaction. It may be necessary to soak aggregates in water to limit
absorption before using them or add extra water (free water) to the mix
to be absorbed by the aggregates. It is very important to know the
moister content of the used aggregates to adjust the weight of free water
as discussed previously. 4.5% and 1.5% are the moister required for sand
and coarse aggregates respectively.

The aggregates are the main source of concrete’s elasticity and strength.
Normal weight aggregates are generally stronger than hardened cement
paste. The choice of aggregate is critical for high strength concrete
(compressive strength > 80N/mm2).

2. Admixtures

Admixtures are small components (usually in aqueous solution) which are

used to change one or more properties of the concrete. Around 75% of
concrete is now placed with an admixture included. They should be added
to the water, not the mix and with very small percentages <5% (typically
0.3-1.5%) by mass. They are controlled by BS 5075 as they have side
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

effects. All admixtures are formulated to have plasticising action. There

are different types with different effects.

2.1. Plasticisers (water reducer)

Lignosulphonates & Hydrocarboxylic acids are the most widely used. They
increase workability (or reduce water by ~10%) and may be used to
reduce cement but not good for strength. They disperse cement &
aggregate. But they have side effects such as retarding (increase the
curing time of concrete) and introducing air into the mix which reduces
the concrete strength.

2.2. Super Plasticisers

Sulphonated Melamine is the main component of super plasticisers that is

used as high range water reducer. The super plasticisers increase
workability significantly (12 – 30% water reduction). It would be better if
they are added in 1-2mins after the start of the mixing. They have limited
action time 30-45minutes, so should be added before placing concrete
straight away. They produce self-levelling and compacting concrete
(150mm) but they are expensive.

2.3. Accelerators

They increase the initial set strength (1-7 days) but not the final strength.
Some types will increase “final” set strength. They have mainly calcium
chloride CaCl2 which increases the hydration process. But they increase
corrosion and are prohibited to be used in reinforced & pre-stressed.

2.4. Retarders

Lignosulphonate, hydrocarboxylic acids and sugars are considered to be

the main retarders. They delay the setting time of a mix for few hours but
without affecting strength. They help in hot weather or control large pours
(high produced heat). There are many different types of retarders, but a
large overdose will kill the set. Examples for using retarders are to put it
with concrete in a broken truck or to help making structurally continuous
concrete for large pours.

2.5. Air entraining agents

The most famous one is Aluminium powder. They create microscopic

bubbles 0.02-1mm and total of 4-7% bubbles/ no water. The agents
produce concrete with high Freeze/Thaw resistance and increase
insulation properties. They increase also the resistance to segregation and
give good workability. But they reduce the concrete strength.
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

3. Additives

These are the materials that can be used mainly to replace some of
cement content, but they may also modify properties of concrete. For this
reason, they are called admixtures also. They reduce the concrete cost
and environmental impact of cement production. There are two main
categories according to (BS EN 206):

 Nearly inert additions.

 Pozzolanic or latent hydraulic additions.

3.1. Inert additions (Type 1)

This is the ground limestone that was used in the Roman times as a
cement. It improves consistency and cohesiveness of fresh concrete. This
concrete is used for nucleation sites. Significant quantities are used for
self-compacting concrete.

Limestone is a common sedimentary rock. It has been used for a very

long time as a building material. It is one of the main elements of Portland
cement production.

3.2. Active additions (Type 2)

These are mainly the fine waste of other industries that found to have the
ability to replace part of the cement and change concrete properties such
as:

Fly Ash or Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA)Super Plasticisers

Pulverized ash comes from coal burnt in power plants. Typically, it is used
to replace 20-40% of cement but also can be replace up to 70% (High
volume fly ash concrete). It has slower rate of strength gain than Portland
cement but gives lower heat of hydration and lower embodied carbon
than.

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

It is produced by rapid cooling of slag from blast furnace (steel

production). Typically, it is used to replace 40-60% of cement but may
replace higher proportion. It has slower rate of strength gain than
Portland cement but gives lower heat of hydration, lighter grey and lower
embodied carbon.

Condensed silica fume (CSF) = Microsilica

It is very fine particles (~0.01 size of cement) of silicon condensed from

exhaust fumes given off in production of silicon alloys. It is typically used
NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
Module DESN10041 Engineering Materials
(Material component)

to replace 10% of cement. It is important in the production of high

strength concrete which decreases size of pores.

Metakaolin (China Clay)

It is produced by burning and finely grinding china clay (kaolin). It is

typically used to replace 10-20% of cement and produce white concrete.

Other active additives can be calcined clay or shale and natural pozzolans.

4. Summary

This session explored aggregates, additives and admixtures. Aggregates

are mainly used to provide the concrete with its compressive strength, fire
and thaw resistance, shrinkage and for cheaper concrete. Aggregates can
be classified based on weight, shapes, sizes, wetness and origins. Each
classification can change the produced concrete properties. Organic
materials, sulphate and silicas are not good to be used in concrete without
treatment. Admixtures are soluble materials which are used to change one
or more of the concrete properties, e.g., plasticizers, retarders and
accelerators, but all have side effects, so small amounts are used.
Additives are the materials that can be used in concrete to replace part of
the Portland cement to reduce the environmental effects of the concrete.
Inert type such as limestone or active types such as PFA, GGFS and CSF
can replace up to 70% of the cement and producing lower heat and
embodied carbon concrete.

Dr M Zakwan Arab BEng (Hons) PhD FHEA

Senior Lecturer in Civil and Management Engineering
Email: mzakwan.arab@ntu.ac.uk