Moon

The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It orbits at an average distance of 384,400 km
(238,900 mi), about 30 times the diameter of Earth. Over time Earth's gravity has caused tidal
locking, causing the same side of the Moon to always face Earth. Because of this, the lunar day and
the lunar month are the same length, at 29.5 Earth days. The Moon's gravitational pull – and to a
lesser extent, the Sun's – are the main drivers of Earth's tides.
In geophysical terms the Moon is a planetary-mass object or satellite planet. Its mass is 1.2% that of
the Earth, and its diameter is 3,474 km (2,159 mi), roughly one-quarter of Earth's (about as wide
as Australia.[17]) Within the Solar System, it is the largest and most massive satellite in relation to
its parent planet, the fifth largest and most massive moon overall, and larger and more massive than
all known dwarf planets.[18] Its surface gravity is about one sixth of Earth's, about half of that of Mars,
and the second highest among all Solar System moons, after Jupiter's moon Io. The body of the
Moon is differentiated and terrestrial, with no significant hydrosphere, atmosphere, or magnetic field.
It formed 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth's formation, out of the debris from a giant
impact between Earth and a hypothesized Mars-sized body called Theia.
The lunar surface is covered in lunar dust and marked by mountains, impact craters, their
ejecta, ray-like streaks and, mostly on the near side of the Moon, by dark maria ("seas"), which are
plains of cooled magma. These maria were formed when molten lava flowed into ancient impact
basins. The Moon is, beside when passing through Earth's shadow during a lunar eclipse, always
illuminated by the Sun, but from Earth the visible illumination shifts during its orbit, producing
the lunar phases.[19] The Moon is the brightest celestial object in Earth's night sky. This is mainly due
to its large angular diameter, while the reflectance of the lunar surface is comparable to that
of asphalt. The apparent size is nearly the same as that of the Sun, allowing it to cover the Sun
almost completely during a total solar eclipse. From Earth about 59% of the lunar surface is visible
over time due to cyclical shifts in perspective (libration), making parts of the far side of the Moon
visible.
For humans the Moon has been an important source of inspiration and knowledge, having been
crucial to cosmography, mythology, religion, art, time keeping, natural science, and spaceflight. On
September 13, 1959, the first human-made object to reach an extraterrestrial body arrived on the
Moon, the Soviet Union's Luna 2 impactor. In 1966, the Moon became the first extraterrestrial body
where soft landings and orbital insertions were achieved. On July 20, 1969, humans for the first time
landed on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body, at Mare Tranquillitatis with the lander Eagle of
the United States' Apollo 11 mission. Five more crews were sent between then and 1972, each with
two men landing on the surface. The longest stay was 75 hours by the Apollo 17 crew. Since
then, exploration of the Moon has continued robotically with crewed missions being planned to
return beginning in the late 2020s.

Names and etymology

See also: Moon § Cultural representation
The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is simply Moon, with a capital M.[20][21] The
noun moon is derived from Old English mōna, which (like all its Germanic cognates) stems
from Proto-Germanic *mēnōn,[22] which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-
European *mēnsis "month"[23] (from earlier *mēnōt, genitive *mēneses) which may be related to the
verb "measure" (of time).[24]
Occasionally, the name Luna /ˈluːnə/ is used in scientific writing[25] and especially in science fiction to
distinguish the Earth's moon from others, while in poetry "Luna" has been used to denote
personification of the Moon.[26] Cynthia /ˈsɪnθiə/ is another poetic name, though rare, for the Moon
personified as a goddess,[27] while Selene /səˈliːniː/ (literally "Moon") is the Greek goddess of the
Moon.
The English adjective pertaining to the Moon is "lunar", derived from the Latin word for the
Moon, lūna. Selenian /səliːniən/[28] is an adjective used to describe the Moon as a world, rather than
as a celestial object,[29] but its use is rare. It is derived from σελήνη selēnē, the Greek word for the
Moon, and its cognate selenic was originally a rare synonym[30] but now nearly always refers to the
chemical element selenium.[31] The element name selenium and the prefix seleno- (as
in selenography, the study of the physical features of the Moon) come from this Greek word.[32][33]
The Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, Artemis, equated with the Roman Diana, one of
whose symbols was the Moon and who was often regarded as the goddess of the Moon, was also
called Cynthia, from her legendary birthplace on Mount Cynthus.[34] These names – Luna, Cynthia
and Selene – are reflected in technical terms for lunar orbits such
as apolune, pericynthion and selenocentric.

The astronomical symbol for the Moon is a crescent, , for example in M☾ 'lunar mass' (also ML).

Natural history
Lunar geologic timescale
Main article: Lunar geologic timescale

Millions of years before present

The lunar geological periods are named after their characteristic features, from most impact
craters outside the dark mare, to the mare and later craters, and finally the young, still bright and
therefore readily visible craters with ray systems like Copernicus or Tycho.
Formation
Main articles: Origin of the Moon, Giant-impact hypothesis, and Circumplanetary disk

The far side of the Moon, lacking the near side's characteristic
large dark areas of maria, resembling how the near side of the Moon might have looked early in
the Moon's history [35][36]

Isotope dating of lunar samples suggests the Moon formed around 50 million years after the origin of
the Solar System.[37][38] Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed,[39] but none
satisfactorily explains the features of the Earth–Moon system. A fission of the Moon from Earth's
crust through centrifugal force[40] would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth.
[41]
Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon[42] depends on an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of
Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon.[41] A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together
in the primordial accretion disk does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon.[41] None of these
hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system.[43]
The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact of a Mars-sized
body (named Theia) with the proto-Earth. The oblique impact blasted material into orbit about the
Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon[44][45] just beyond the Earth's Roche limit of
~2.56 R🜨.[46]
Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System. Computer simulations of
giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the
angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations show that most of the Moon
derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth.[47] However, models from 2007 and later
suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth.[48][49][50][51] Other bodies of the inner
Solar System such as Mars and Vesta have, according to meteorites from them, very different
oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have
nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth-Moon system might be
explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two,[52] although this is
debated.[53]
The impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust,
forming a magma ocean. The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon
system.[54][55] The newly formed Moon would have had its own magma ocean; its depth is estimated
from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles).[54]
While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved,
most of which involve the Moon's composition.[56] Models that have the Moon acquiring a significant
amount of the proto-earth are more difficult to reconcile with geochemical data for the isotopes of
zirconium, oxygen, silicon, and other elements.[57] Above a high resolution threshold for simulations,
[clarify]
a study published in 2022 finds that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar
mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit. Even satellites that
initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped
and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits.[58]
On November 1, 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of
a protoplanet, named Theia, could be inside the Earth, left over from a collision with the Earth in
ancient times, and afterwards becoming the Moon.[59][60]
Natural development

Artist's depiction of the Moon as it might

have appeared in Earth's sky after the Late Heavy Bombardment around 4 billion years ago. At
that time the Moon orbited the Earth at half its current distance, making it appear 2.8 times larger
than it does today. [61]
The newly formed Moon settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today. Each body therefore
appeared much larger in the sky of the other, eclipses were more frequent, and tidal effects were
stronger.[61] Due to tidal acceleration, the Moon's orbit around Earth has become significantly larger,
with a longer period.[62]
Following formation, the Moon has cooled and most of its atmosphere has been stripped.
[63]
The lunar surface has since been shaped by large impact events and many small ones, forming a
landscape featuring craters of all ages.
The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, which laid down the prominent lunar
maria. Most of the mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though
some are as young as 1.2 billion years[64] and some as old as 4.2 billion years.[65] There are differing
explanations for the eruption of mare basalts, particularly their uneven occurrence which mainly
appear on the near-side. Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not
well understood. Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side.
One possible scenario then is that large impacts on the near side may have made it easier for lava
to flow onto the surface.[66]

Physical characteristics
The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30°
from facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more
elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon
solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its
shape to restore hydrostatic equilibrium at its current orbital distance.[67]
Size and mass
Further information: List of natural satellites

Size comparison of the main moons of the

Solar System with Earth to scale. Nineteen moons are large enough to be round, several
having subsurface oceans and one, Titan, having a considerable atmosphere.
The Moon is by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System, categorizable as
one of its planetary-mass moons, making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the
term.[18] It is smaller than Mercury and considerably larger than the largest dwarf planet of the Solar
System, Pluto. While the minor-planet moon Charon of the Pluto-Charon system is larger relative to
Pluto,[f][68] the Moon is the largest natural satellite of the Solar System relative to their primary planets.
[g]

The Moon's diameter is about 3,500 km, more than a quarter of Earth's, with the face of the Moon
comparable to the width of either Australia,[17] Europe or the US without Alaska.[69] The whole surface
area of the Moon is about 38 million square kilometers, between the size of
the Americas (North and South America) and Africa.
The Moon's mass is 1/81 of Earth's,[70] being the second densest among the planetary moons, and
having the second highest surface gravity, after Io, at 0.1654 g and an escape velocity of
2.38 km/s (8600 km/h; 5300 mph).
Structure
Main articles: Internal structure of the Moon and Geology of the Moon

Moon's internal structure: solid inner core

(iron-metallic), molten outer core, hardened mantle and crust. The crust on the Moon's near side
permanently facing Earth is thinner, featuring larger areas flooded by material of the once molten
mantle forming today's lunar mare.
The Moon is a differentiated body that was initially in hydrostatic equilibrium but has since departed
from this condition.[71] It has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core. The Moon has a solid
iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core
primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a
partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi).[72][73] This structure is
thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly
after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.[74]
Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and
sinking of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the
magma ocean had crystallized, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust
atop.[75] The final liquids to crystallize would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and
mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements.[1] Consistent with this
perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostly anorthosite.
[16]
The Moon rock samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the
mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth.[1] The crust is
on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick.[1]
The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io.[76] However, the inner core of
the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less,[1] around 20% of the radius
of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small
amount of sulfur and nickel; analyzes of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least
partly molten.[77] The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be 5 GPa (49,000 atm).[78]
Gravitational field
 An astronaut jumping on the Moon, illustrating that
the gravitational pull of the Moon is approximately 1/6 of Earth's. The jumping height is limited
by the EVA space suit's weight on the Moon of about 13.6 kg (30 lb) and by the suit's
pressurization resisting the bending of the suit, as needed for jumping. [79][80]

On average the Moon's surface gravity is 1.62 m/s2[4] (0.1654 g; 5.318 ft/s2), about half of the surface
gravity of Mars and about a sixth of Earth's.
The Moon's gravitational field is not uniform. The details of the gravitational field have been
measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The main
lunar gravity features are mascons, large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of
the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins.[81]
[82]
The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles:
lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist
that are not linked to mare volcanism.[83]
Magnetic field
The Moon has an external magnetic field of less than 0.2 nanoteslas,[84] or less than one hundred
thousandth that of Earth. The Moon does not have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has
crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating.[85][86] Early
in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today.
[84]
This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had
crystallized.[84] Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient
magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds. These
clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the
location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins.
[87]

Atmosphere
Main article: Atmosphere of the Moon
 The thin lunar atmosphere is visible on the Moon's surface
at sunrise and sunset with the lunar horizon glow and lunar twilight rays, like
[88]

Earth's crepuscular rays. This Apollo 17 sketch depicts the glow and rays among the
[89]

general zodiacal light.[90][91]

The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum, with a total mass of less than 10
tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).[92] The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 ×
10−15 atm (0.3 nPa); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources include outgassing and sputtering, a
product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions.[16][93] Elements that have been detected
include sodium and potassium, produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres
of Mercury and Io); helium-4 and neon[94] from the solar wind; and argon-40, radon-222,
and polonium-210, outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle.[95]
[96]
The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules)
as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and magnesium, which are present in the regolith, is not
understood.[95] Water vapor has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude,
with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the
regolith.[97] These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to
space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the
solar wind's magnetic field.[95]
Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions demonstrate that the Moon had
once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion
years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice
the thickness of that of present-day Mars. The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped
away by solar winds and dissipated into space.[63]
A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets.
Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the
ejection of dust particles. The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5
minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the
Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface. Dust counts made by LADEE's Lunar Dust
EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during the Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid,
and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers, when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris. The
lunar dust cloud is asymmetric, being more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside
and nightside.[98][99]
Surface conditions
 Gene Cernan with lunar dust stuck on his suit. Lunar dust is
highly abrasive and can cause damage to human lungs, nervous, and cardiovascular systems. [100]

Ionizing radiation from cosmic rays, the Sun and the resulting neutron radiation[101] produce radiation
levels on average of 1.369 millisieverts per day during lunar daytime,[14] which is about 2.6 times
more than on the International Space Station with 0.53 millisieverts per day at about 400 km above
Earth in orbit, 5–10 times more than during a trans-Atlantic flight, 200 times more than on Earth's
surface.[102] For further comparison radiation on a flight to Mars is about 1.84 millisieverts per day and
on Mars on average 0.64 millisieverts per day, with some locations on Mars possibly having levels
as low as 0.342 millisieverts per day.[103][104]
The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5427°,[8][105] much less than the 23.44° of
Earth. Because of this small tilt, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season than on
Earth and it allows for the existence of some peaks of eternal light at the Moon's north pole, at the
rim of the crater Peary.
The surface is exposed to drastic temperature differences ranging
from 140 °C to −171 °C depending on the solar irradiance. Because of the lack of atmosphere,
temperatures of different areas vary particularly upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow,
[106]
making topographical details play a decisive role on local surface temperatures.[107] Parts of many
craters, particularly the bottoms of many polar craters,[108] are permanently shadowed, these "craters
of eternal darkness" have extremely low temperatures. The Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C;
−397 °F)[109] and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in the north polar
crater Hermite. This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft,
colder even than the surface of Pluto.[107]
Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller particles)
and impact gardened mostly gray surface layer called regolith, formed by impact processes. The
finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent
resembling spent gunpowder.[110] The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger
surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–15 m (33–49 ft) in the highlands and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in the
maria.[111] Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith, a layer of highly fractured
bedrock many kilometers thick.[112]
These extreme conditions for example are considered to make it unlikely for spacecraft to harbor
bacterial spores at the Moon longer than just one lunar orbit.[113]
Surface features
Main articles: Selenography, Lunar terrane, List of lunar features, and List of quadrangles on the
Moon
 Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt next to a large Moon
boulder
The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis.
[114]
Its most extensive topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin, some
2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed
impact crater in the Solar System.[115][116] At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is the lowest point on the
surface of the Moon.[115][117] The highest elevations of the Moon's surface are located directly to the
northeast, which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–
Aitken basin.[118] Other large impact basins such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii,
and Orientale possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims.[115] The far side of the lunar
surface is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side.[1]
The discovery of fault scarp cliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft)
within the past billion years.[119] Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury. Mare Frigoris, a basin
near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted. Since the Moon
does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat.[120]
Volcanic features
Main article: Volcanism on the Moon

The names of the main volcanic features

the maria (blue) and some crater (brown) features of the near side of the Moon
The main features visible from Earth by the naked eye are dark and relatively featureless lunar
plains called maria (singular mare; Latin for "seas", as they were once believed to be filled with
water)[121] are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava. Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar
basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water.[122] The majority of these lava deposits
erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins. Several geologic
provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side "maria".[123]
Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near
side[70] compared with 2% of the far side.[124] This is likely due to a concentration of heat-producing
elements under the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat
up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt.[75][125][126] Most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted
during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some being as young as 1.2 billion
years[64] and as old as 4.2 billion years.[65]

Old hardened lava flows of Mare Imbrium forming wrinkle

ridges
In 2006, a study of Ina, a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis, found jagged, relatively dust-free
features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years
old.[127] Moonquakes and releases of gas indicate continued lunar activity.[127] Evidence of recent lunar
volcanism has been identified at 70 irregular mare patches, some less than 50 million years old. This
raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near
side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of
radioactive elements.[128][129][130][131] Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic
volcanism within the crater Lowell,[132][133] inside the Orientale basin. Some combination of an initially
hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible
for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin.[134][135]
The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands, because
they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion
years ago, and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean.[65][64] In contrast to
Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events.[136]
The concentration of maria on the near side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the
highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of
Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon's formation.[137][138] Alternatively, it may be a
consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth.[139]
Impact craters
Further information: List of craters on the Moon
 A view of a three kilometer deep larger crater Daedalus on
the Moon's far side
A major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering,[140] with craters
formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly
300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side.[141] The lunar geologic timescale is
based on the most prominent impact events, including Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale; structures
characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material, between hundreds and thousands of kilometers
in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic
horizon.[142] The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of
these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated,
they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant
rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.
[142]
The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between
3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment period of
increased impacts.[143]
High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary
crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated. A secondary cratering
process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale
of 81,000 years.[144][145] This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely
on direct micrometeorite impacts.[146]
Lunar swirls
Main article: Lunar swirls

Wide angle image of a lunar swirl, the 70 kilometer

long Reiner Gamma
Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a
high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith),
and often have a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind
between the bright swirls. They are located in places with enhanced surface magnetic fields and
many are located at the antipodal point of major impacts. Well known swirls include the Reiner
Gamma feature and Mare Ingenii. They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially
shielded from the solar wind, resulting in slower space weathering.[147]
Presence of water
Main article: Lunar water
Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface. When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly
decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space. However, since the
1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or
possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind, leaving
traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on
the Moon.[148][149] Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may
be in permanent shadow.[108] The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important
factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from
Earth would be prohibitively expensive.[150]
In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.[151] In 1994,
the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft, indicated the existence of small,
frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations by Arecibo, suggest
these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters.[152] In 1998, the neutron
spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are
present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions.[153] Volcanic lava beads,
brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior.[154]

In 2008, NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper

equipment on India's Chandrayaan-1 discovered, for the first time, water-rich minerals (shown
in blue around a small crater from which they were ejected).
The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using
the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper. The spectrometer observed absorption lines common
to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar
surface. The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm.[155] Using
the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20°
latitude of both poles in 2018.[156] In 2009, LCROSS sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into
a permanently shadowed polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of
ejected material.[157][158] Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected
water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb).[159]
In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was reported,[160] the
famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in
1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion
years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle. Although of
considerable selenological interest, this insight does not mean that water is easily available since the
sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access
that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.
Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first
time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface.[161][162] The data revealed the distinct
reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.[163] The ice
deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where
water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the
surface since they are shielded from the sun.[161][163]
In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon
by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared
Astronomy (SOFIA).[164][165][166][167]

Earth–Moon system
See also: Satellite system (astronomy), Claimed moons of Earth, and Double planet

Orbit
Main articles: Orbit of the Moon and Lunar theory
See also: Lunar orbit and Cislunar space

A view of the rotating Earth and the far side of the Moon as
the Moon passes on its orbit in between the observing DSCOVR satellite and Earth
The Earth and the Moon form the Earth-Moon satellite system with a shared center of mass,
or barycenter. This barycenter is 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the
Earth's surface.
The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.055.[1] The semi-major axis of the
geocentric lunar orbit, called the lunar distance, is approximately 400,000 km (250,000 miles or 1.28
light-seconds), comparable to going around Earth 9.5 times.[168]
The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars, its sidereal period,
about once every 27.3 days.[h] However, because the Earth-Moon system moves at the same time in
its orbit around the Sun, it takes slightly longer, 29.5 days,[i][70] to return at the same lunar phase,
completing a full cycle, as seen from Earth. This synodic period or synodic month is commonly
known as the lunar month and is equal to the length of the solar day on the Moon.[169]
Due to tidal locking, the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance. This rotation–orbit ratio makes the
Moon's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods. This is the reason
for only one side of the Moon, its so-called near side, being visible from Earth. That said, while the
movement of the Moon is in resonance, it still is not without nuances such as libration, resulting in
slightly changing perspectives, making over time and location on Earth about 59% of the Moon's
surface visible from Earth.[170]
Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon's orbital plane is closer to the ecliptic plane than to
the planet's equatorial plane. The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many
small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually
rotates once every 18.61 years,[171] which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on
effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws.[172]

Minimum, mean and maximum distances of the Moon from Earth with its angular diameter as
seen from Earth's surface, to scale
Tidal effects
Main articles: Tidal force, Tidal acceleration, Tide, and Theory of tides

Simplified diagram of the Moon's gravity tidal effect on the

Earth
The gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other
manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting in tidal
forces. Ocean tides are the most widely experienced result of this, but tidal forces also considerably
affect other mechanics of Earth, as well as the Moon and their system.
The lunar solid crust experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with three
components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, a variable tide due
to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.[173] The Earth-
induced variable component arises from changing distance and libration, a result of the Moon's
orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there
would only be solar tides).[173] According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's
influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field.[174]
The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes
are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to
an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations
in the dry fragmented upper crust. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery
from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972.[175]
The most commonly known effect of tidal forces are elevated sea levels called ocean tides.[176] While
the Moon exerts most of the tidal forces, the Sun also exerts tidal forces and therefore contributes to
the tides as much as 40% of the Moon's tidal force; producing in interplay the spring and neap tides.
[176]
The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the
side opposite. As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place
"under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two
low tides in about 24 hours.[176] Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the
Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to
the Moon's time to orbit the Earth.
If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter,
and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:

 the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors
 the inertia of water's movement
 ocean basins that grow shallower near land
 the sloshing of water between different ocean basins[177]
As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are
explained, incidentally, by theory.
System evolution
Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's
rotation. This "drains" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing
the Earth's rotation.[176][173] That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a
process known as tidal acceleration, which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital
speed around the Earth.
Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in
reaction.[173] Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging
experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year (roughly the
rate at which human fingernails grow).[178][179][180] Atomic clocks show that Earth's day lengthens by
about 17 microseconds every year,[181][182][183] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted
by leap seconds.
This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match.
This matching first results in tidally locking the lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the
case with the Moon. Theoretically, in 50 billion years,[184] the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the
point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the
Moon. However, the Sun will become a red giant, most likely engulfing the Earth-Moon system long
before then.[185][186]
If the Earth-Moon system isn't engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere
can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of
18,470 km (11,480 mi), it will cross Earth's Roche limit, meaning that tidal interaction with Earth
would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system. Most of the orbiting rings will begin to
decay, and the debris will impact Earth. Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the
planet may be left moonless.[187]

Position and appearance

See also: Lunar observation
 Libration, the slight variation in the Moon's apparent size and
viewing angle over a single lunar month as viewed from Earth's north
The Moon's highest altitude at culmination varies by its lunar phase, or more correctly its orbital
position, and time of the year, or more correctly the position of the Earth's axis. The full moon is
highest in the sky during winter and lowest during summer (for each hemisphere respectively), with
its altitude changing towards dark moon to the opposite.
At the North and South Poles the Moon is 24 hours above the horizon for two weeks every tropical
month (about 27.3 days), comparable to the polar day of the tropical year. Zooplankton in
the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end.[188]
The apparent orientation of the Moon depends on its position in the sky and the hemisphere of the
Earth from which it is being viewed. In the northern hemisphere it appears upside down compared to
the view from the southern hemisphere.[189] Sometimes the "horns" of a crescent moon appear to be
pointing more upwards than sideways. This phenomenon is called a wet moon and occurs more
frequently in the tropics.[190]
The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) (perigee) to
406,700 km (252,700 mi) (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to
14%.[191][192] On average the Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size
as the Sun (see § Eclipses). In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion,
makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon.[193]
Despite the Moon's tidal locking, the effect of libration makes about 59% of the Moon's surface
visible from Earth over the course of one month.[170][70]
Rotation

Comparison between the Moon on the left, rotating tidally

locked (correct), and with the Moon on the right, without rotation (incorrect)
The tidally locked synchronous rotation of the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping
nearly the same face turned towards the planet. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called
the near side, and the opposite the far side. The far side is often inaccurately called the "dark side",
but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. During dark
moon to new moon, the near side is dark.[194]
The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and
became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated
with tidal deformations caused by Earth.[195] With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis
was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary
scientists using data collected on the 1998-99 NASA Lunar Prospector mission, found two hydrogen-
rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these
patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.[196]
Illumination and phases
See also: Lunar phase, Moonlight, and Halo (optical phenomenon)

The
monthly changes in the angle between the direction of sunlight and view from Earth, and
the phases of the Moon that result, as viewed from the Northern Hemisphere. The Earth–Moon
distance is not to scale.
Half of the Moon's surface is always illuminated by the Sun (except during a lunar eclipse). Earth
also reflects light onto the Moon, observable at times as Earthlight when it is reflected back to Earth
from areas of the near side of the Moon that are not illuminated by the Sun.
Since the Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is 1.5427°, in every draconic year (346.62 days)
the Sun moves from being 1.5427° north of the lunar equator to being 1.5427° south of it and then
back, just as on Earth the Sun moves from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn and back
once every tropical year. The poles of the Moon are therefore in the dark for half a draconic year (or
with only part of the Sun visible) and then lit for half a draconic year. The amount of sunlight falling
on horizontal areas near the poles depends on the altitude angle of the Sun. But these "seasons"
have little effect in more equatorial areas.
With the different positions of the Moon, different areas of it are illuminated by the Sun. This
illumination of different lunar areas, as viewed from Earth, produces the different lunar phases during
the synodic month. The phase is equal to the area of the visible lunar sphere that is illuminated by
the Sun. This area or degree of illumination is given by , where is the elongation (i.e., the angle
between Moon, the observer on Earth, and the Sun).
Brightness and apparent size of the Moon changes also due to its elliptic orbit around Earth.
At perigee (closest), since the Moon is up to 14% closer to Earth than at apogee (most distant), it
subtends a solid angle which is up to 30% larger. Consequently, given the same phase, the Moon's
brightness also varies by up to 30% between apogee and perigee.[197] A full (or new) moon at such a
position is called a supermoon.[191][192][198]
Observational phenomena
There has been historical controversy over whether observed features on the Moon's surface
change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation
under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings.
However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of
the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km
(1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million
years ago.[199][200]
Albedo and color

The changing apparent color of the Moon, filtered

by Earth's atmosphere
The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo, giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of
worn asphalt. Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun.[70][j] This is due partly to
the brightness enhancement of the opposition surge; the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as
bright, rather than half as bright, as at full moon.[201] Additionally, color constancy in the visual
system recalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because
the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges
of the full moon seem as bright as the center, without limb darkening, because of the reflective
properties of lunar soil, which retroreflects light more towards the Sun than in other directions. The
Moon's color depends on the light the Moon reflects, which in turn depends on the Moon's surface
and its features, having for example large darker regions. In general the lunar surface reflects a
brown-tinged gray light.[202]
At times, the Moon can appear red or blue. It may appear red during a lunar eclipse, because of the
red spectrum of the Sun's light being refracted onto the Moon by Earth's atmosphere. Because of
this red color, lunar eclipses are also sometimes called blood moons. The Moon can also seem red
when it appears at low angles and through a thick atmosphere.
The Moon may appear blue depending on the presence of certain particles in the air,[202] such as
volcanic particles,[203] in which case it can be called a blue moon.
Because the words "red moon" and "blue moon" can also be used to refer to specific full moons of
the year, they do not always refer to the presence of red or blue moonlight.
Eclipses
Main articles: Solar eclipse, Lunar eclipse, Solar eclipses on the Moon, and Eclipse cycle
A solar eclipse causes the Sun to be covered, revealing the white corona.

The Moon, tinted reddish, during a lunar eclipse

Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "syzygy"). Solar
eclipses occur at new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast, lunar
eclipses occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the
Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree
wide. The Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the
same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth. The
variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though
occurring in different cycles. This makes possible both total (with the Moon appearing larger than the
Sun) and annular (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses.[204] In a total eclipse,
the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked
eye. Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time,[176] the
angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. As it evolves toward becoming a red giant, the size of
the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing.[k] The combination of these two
changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the
Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of
years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not
occur.[205]
Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to the orbit of Earth around
the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must
be near the intersection of the two orbital planes.[206] The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the
Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of
approximately 18 years.[207]
Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky,[l]
[208]
the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the
Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun.
Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible
everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each
year different stars are occulted.[209]
History of exploration and human presence
Main articles: Exploration of the Moon, List of spacecraft that orbited the Moon, List of missions to
the Moon, and List of lunar probes

Pre-telescopic observation (before 1609)

Main article: Exploration of the Moon § Before spaceflight
It is believed by some that 20–30,000 year old tally sticks were used to observe the phases of the
Moon, keeping time using the waxing and waning of the Moon's phases.[210] One of the earliest-
discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 5000-year-old rock carving Orthostat 47 at Knowth,
Ireland.[211][212]
The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both
giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former.[213][214]: 227 Elsewhere in the 5th
century BC to 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18-year Saros
cycle of lunar eclipses,[215] and Indian astronomers had described the Moon's monthly elongation.
[216]
The Chinese astronomer Shi Shen (fl. 4th century BC) gave instructions for predicting solar and
lunar eclipses.[214]: 411
In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the
spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether,
an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries.[217] Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a
planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.[218] In
the 2nd century BC, Seleucus of Seleucia correctly theorized that tides were due to the attraction of
the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.[219] In the same
century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of
about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance.
Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi, their
'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun,
and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon.[214]: 413–414 Ptolemy (90–168 AD) greatly
improved on the numbers of Aristarchus, calculating a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and
a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters, close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively.
[220]
In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel A True Story, in which the heroes travel to the
Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 510 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in
his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon.[221][222] The astronomer
and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror,
but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions.[223] Shen
Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the
Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the
side, would appear to be a crescent.[214]: 415–416
During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly
recognised as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".[224]
Telescopic exploration (1609–1959)
Main article: Exploration of the Moon § Before spaceflight
 Galileo's sketches of the Moon from the ground-breaking Sidereus
Nuncius (1610), publishing among other findings the first descriptions of the Moon's topography
In 1609, Galileo Galilei used an early telescope to make drawings of the Moon for his book Sidereus
Nuncius, and deduced that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Thomas Harriot had
made, but not published such drawings a few months earlier.
Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista
Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today.
The more exact 1834–1836 Mappa Selenographica of Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler,
and their associated 1837 book Der Mond, the first trigonometrically accurate study of lunar features,
included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at
accuracies possible in earthly geography.[225] Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to
be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions.[70] This
view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert, and from
comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s,[226] leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy,
which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology.[70]
First missions to the Moon (1959–1990)
See also: Space Race and Moon landing
After World War II the first launch systems were developed and by the end of the 1950s they
reached capabilities that allowed the Soviet Union and the United States to launch spacecraft into
space. The Cold War fueled a closely followed development of launch systems by the two states,
resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race, accelerating efforts and
interest in exploration of the Moon.

First view of the far side of the Moon, taken by Luna 3,

October 7, 1959. Clearly visible is Mare Moscoviense (top right) and a mare triplet of Mare
Crisium, Mare Marginis and Mare Smythii (left center).
After the first spaceflight of Sputnik 1 in 1957 during International Geophysical Year the spacecraft of
the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals. Following three
unnamed failed missions in 1958,[227] the first human-made object Luna 1 escaped Earth's gravity and
passed near the Moon in 1959. Later that year the first human-made object Luna 2 reached the
Moon's surface by intentionally impacting. By the end of the year Luna 3 reached as the first human-
made object the normally occluded far side of the Moon, taking the first photographs of it. The first
spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first vehicle to orbit the
Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966.[70]

Earthrise, the first color image of Earth taken by a human

from the Moon, during Apollo 8 (1968) the first time a crewed spacecraft left Earth orbit and
reached another astronomical body
Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a crewed Moon landing before the end
of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to
develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory's Ranger program, the Lunar Orbiter program and the Surveyor program. The
crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the
Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing, in
1968 Apollo 8 made the first human mission to lunar orbit (the first Earthlings, two tortoises, had
circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union's Zond 5, followed by turtles on Zond 6).
The subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination
of the Space Race.[228]
Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American
mission Apollo 11 by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on July 21, 1969.[229] An estimated
500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest
television audience for a live broadcast at that time.[230][231] The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo
13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and
soil in 2,196 separate samples.[232]
Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings.
Long-lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were
installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth
concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations,[233][234] but as the stations' lunar laser
ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used.[235] Apollo
17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon. Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated
U.S. probe to the Moon until the 1990s.
The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970
with Luna 17 the first remote controlled rover Lunokhod 1 on an extraterrestrial surface, and
collecting and returning 0.3 kg of rock and soil samples with three Luna sample return
missions (Luna 16 in 1970, Luna 20 in 1972, and Luna 24 in 1976).[236]
Moon Treaty and explorational absence (1976–1990)
Main article: Moon Treaty
A near lunar quietude of fourteen years followed the last Soviet mission to the Moon of 1976.
Astronautics had shifted its focus towards the exploration of the inner (e.g. Venera program)
and outer (e.g. Pioneer 10, 1972) Solar System planets, but also towards Earth orbit, developing and
continuously operating, beside communication satellites, Earth observation satellites (e.g. Landsat
program, 1972), space telescopes and particularly space stations (e.g. Salyut program, 1971).
The until 1979 negotiated Moon treaty, with its ratification in 1984 by its few signatories was about
the only major activity regarding the Moon until 1990.
Renewed exploration (1990–present)

Map of all soft landing

sites on the near side of the Moon (2020)
In 1990 Hiten-Hagoromo,[237] the first dedicated lunar mission since 1976, reached the Moon. Sent
by Japan, it became the first mission that was not a Soviet Union or U.S. mission to the Moon.
In 1994, the U.S. dedicated a mission to fly a spacecraft (Clementine) to the Moon again for the first
time since 1973. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the
first global multispectral images of the lunar surface.[238] In 1998, this was followed by the Lunar
Prospector mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar
poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of
the regolith within permanently shadowed craters.[239]
The next years saw a row of first missions to the Moon by a new group of states actively exploring
the Moon. Between 2004 and 2006 the first spacecraft by the European Space Agency (ESA)
(SMART-1) reached the Moon, recording the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar
surface.[240] The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program reached the Moon for the first time with the
orbiter Chang'e 1 (2007–2009),[241] obtaining a full image map of the Moon. India reached, orbited
and impacted the Moon in 2008 for the first time with its Chandrayaan-1 and Moon Impact Probe,
becoming the fifth and sixth state to do so, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and
photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar
soil.[242]
The U.S. launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the LCROSS impactor on June 18,
2009. LCROSS completed its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the
crater Cabeus on October 9, 2009,[243] whereas LRO is currently in operation, obtaining precise
lunar altimetry and high-resolution imagery.
China continued its lunar program in 2010 with Chang'e 2, mapping the surface at a higher
resolution over an eight-month period, and in 2013 with Chang'e 3, a lunar lander along with a lunar
rover named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; lit. 'Jade Rabbit'). This was the first lunar rover mission
since Lunokhod 2 in 1973 and the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 in 1976, making China the
third country to achieve this.
In 2014 the first privately funded probe, the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, reached the Moon.
Another Chinese rover mission, Chang'e 4, achieved the first landing on the Moon's far side in early
2019.[244]
Also in 2019, India successfully sent its second probe, Chandrayaan-2 to the Moon.
In 2020, China carried out its first robotic sample return mission (Chang'e 5), bringing back 1,731
grams of lunar material to Earth.[245]
With the signing of the U.S.-led Artemis Accords in 2020, the Artemis program aims to return the
astronauts to the Moon in the 2020s.[246] The Accords have been joined by a growing number of
countries. The introduction of the Artemis Accords has fueled a renewed discussion about the
international framework and cooperation of lunar activity, building on the Moon Treaty and the ESA-
led Moon Village concept.[247][248][249] The U.S. developed plans for returning to the Moon beginning in
2004,[250] which resulted in several programs. The Artemis program has advanced the farthest, and
includes plans to send the first woman to the Moon[251] as well as build an international lunar space
station called Lunar Gateway.
2023 and 2024 India and Japan became the fourth and fifth country to soft land a spacecraft on the
Moon, following the Soviet Union and United States in the 1960s, and China in the 2010s.[252]
Future
See also: List of proposed missions to the Moon

Orion spacecraft's flyby of the Moon in the Artemis 1 mission

Upcoming lunar missions include the Artemis program missions and Russia's first lunar
mission, Luna-Glob: an uncrewed lander with a set of seismometers, and an orbiter based on its
failed Martian Fobos-Grunt mission.[253]
In 2021, China announced a plan with Russia to develop and construct an International Lunar
Research Station in the 2030s.

Human presence
See also: Human presence in space
Humans last landed on the Moon during the Apollo Program, a series of crewed exploration
missions carried out from 1969 to 1972. Lunar orbit has seen uninterrupted presence of orbiters
since 2006, performing mainly lunar observation and providing relayed communication for robotic
missions on the lunar surface.
Lunar orbits and orbits around Earth–Moon Lagrange points are used to establish a near-lunar
infrastructure to enable increasing human activity in cislunar space as well as on the Moon's surface.
Missions at the far side of the Moon or the lunar north and south polar regions need spacecraft with
special orbits, such as the Queqiao and Queqiao-2 relay satellite or the planned first extraterrestrial
space station, the Lunar Gateway.[254][255]
Human impact
See also: Space debris, Space sustainability, List of artificial objects on the Moon, Space art § Art
in space, Moonbase, Lunar resources § Mining, Tourism on the Moon, and Space archaeology

Artifacts of human activity, Apollo 17's Lunar Surface

Experiments Package [256]

While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization, its degradation as a
pristine body and scientific place has been discussed.[257] If there is astronomy performed from the
Moon, it will need to be free from any physical and radio pollution. While the Moon has no significant
atmosphere, traffic and impacts on the Moon causes clouds of dust that can spread far and possibly
contaminate the original state of the Moon and its special scientific content.[258] Scholar Alice
Gorman asserts that, although the Moon is inhospitable, it is not dead, and that sustainable human
activity would require treating the Moon's ecology as a co-participant.[259]
The so-called "Tardigrade affair" of the 2019 crashed Beresheet lander and its carrying
of tardigrades has been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international
regulation for planetary protection.[260]
Space debris beyond Earth around the Moon has been considered as a future challenge with
increasing numbers of missions to the Moon, particularly as a danger for such missions.[261][262] As
such lunar waste management has been raised as an issue which future lunar missions, particularly
on the surface, need to tackle.[263][264]
Human remains have been transported to the Moon, including by private companies such
as Celestis and Elysium Space. Because the Moon has been sacred or significant to many cultures,
the practice of space burials have attracted criticism from indigenous peoples leaders. For example,
then–Navajo Nation president Albert Hale criticized NASA for sending the cremated ashes of
scientist Eugene Shoemaker to the Moon in 1998.[265][266]
Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent
installations like the Moon Museum art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages, six lunar plaques,
the Fallen Astronaut memorial, and other artifacts.[256]
Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launched Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter surveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as
the 2013-launched Chang'e 3 with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational.[267] Five
retroreflectors have been installed on the Moon since the 1970s and since used for accurate
measurements of the physical librations through laser ranging to the Moon.
There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned to establish a longterm
human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway as the currently most advanced project as
part of the Artemis program.
Astronomy from the Moon
Further information: Extraterrestrial sky § The Moon

The LCRT concept for a radio telescope on the Moon

The Moon is recognized as an excellent site for telescopes.[268] It is relatively nearby; certain craters
near the poles are permanently dark and cold and especially useful for infrared telescopes;
and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.[269] The lunar
soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon
nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.[270] A
lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid.[271]
In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet
with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.[272]
The Moon has been also a site of Earth observation, particularly culturally as in the photograph
called Earthrise. The Earth appears in the Moon's sky with an apparent size of 1° 48′ to 2°,[273] three
to four times the size of the Moon or Sun in Earth's sky, or about the apparent width of two little
fingers at an arm's length away.
Living on the Moon
Main article: Lunar habitation
 Astronaut Buzz Aldrin in life-supporting suit looking back at
the first lunar habitat and base, the Lunar Module Eagle of Tranquility Base, during Apollo
11 (1969), the first crewed Moon landing
The only instances of humans living on the Moon have taken place in an Apollo Lunar Module for
several days at a time (for example, during the Apollo 17 mission).[274] One challenge to astronauts
during their stay on the surface is that lunar dust sticks to their suits and is carried into their quarters.
Astronauts could taste and smell the dust, calling it the "Apollo aroma".[275] This fine lunar dust
can cause health issues.[275]
In 2019, at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment on the Chang'e 4 lander. It was carried
from Earth along with other small life in its Lunar Micro Ecosystem.[276]

Legal status
See also: Space law, Politics of outer space, Space advocacy, and Colonization of the Moon
Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were
symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of
any part of the Moon's surface.[277] Likewise no private ownership of parts of the Moon, or as a whole,
is considered credible.[278][279][280]
The 1967 Outer Space Treaty defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind".
[277]
It restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations
and weapons of mass destruction.[281] A majority of countries are parties of this treaty.[282] The
1979 Moon Agreement was created to elaborate, and restrict the exploitation of the Moon's
resources by any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime.[283] As of
January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by 18 nations,[284] none of which have human
spaceflight capabilities.
Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords, which are challenging the
treaty. The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidential executive order ("Encouraging
International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources.") that "the United States does
not view outer space as a 'global commons'" and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at
constraining free enterprise."[285][286]
With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as the Artemis Accords in
2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized.[248] In this light an Implementation
Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the
shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the
Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted.[247][249]
In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories,
U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for the conservation of historic
landing sites[287] and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites[288] and
zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization
of the Moon.[260]
In 2021, the Declaration of the Rights of the Moon[289] was created by a group of "lawyers, space
archaeologists and concerned citizens", drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature movement
and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space.[290][291]
Coordination
In light of future development on the Moon some international and multi-space agency organizations
have been created:

 International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG)

 Moon Village Association (MVA)
 International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG)

In culture and life

Timekeeping
Further information: Lunar calendar, Lunisolar calendar, and Metonic cycle

The Venus of Laussel (c. 25,000 BP) holding a crescent

shaped horn. The 13 notches on the horn may symbolize the average number of days from
menstruation to an ovulation, or the approximate number of full menstrual cycles and lunar
cycles per year (although these two phenomena are unrelated). [292][293]

Since pre-historic times people have taken note of the Moon's phases and its waxing and waning
cycle, and used it to keep record of time. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–
30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.[210][294][295] The counting of the
days between the Moon's phases gave eventually rise to generalized time periods of lunar cycles
as months, and possibly of its phases as weeks.[296]
The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of
the month and the Moon etymologically. The English month as well as moon, and its cognates in
other Indo-European languages (e.g. the Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn),
meaning "month")[297][298][299][300] stem from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root of moon, *méh1nōt,
derived from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the
Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. the English words measure and menstrual).[301][302][303] To give
another example from a different language family, the Chinese language uses the same word (月)
for moon as well as for month, which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the word week (星
期).
This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied, lunisolar calendars. The
7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally
determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.[304]
Of particular significance has been the occasion of full moon, highlighted and celebrated in a range
of calendars and cultures, an example being the Buddhist Vesak. The full moon around
the southern or northern autumnal equinox is often called the harvest moon and is celebrated with
festivities such as the Harvest Moon Festival of the Chinese lunar calendar, its second most
important celebration after the Chinese lunisolar Lunar New Year.[305]
Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient
Egyptian temporal and lunar deity Khonsu.
Cultural representation
Further information: Cultural astronomy, Archaeoastronomy, Lunar deity, Selene, Luna
(goddess), Crescent, and Man in the Moon
See also: Nocturne (painting) and Moon magic
Recurring lunar aspects of lunar deities

The crescent of Nanna/Sîn, c. 2100 BC

Crescent headgear, chariot and velificatio of Luna, 2nd–5th century

A Moon rabbit of the Mayan moon goddess, 6th–9th century

Since prehistoric times humans have depicted and later described their perception of the Moon and
its importance for them and their cosmologies. It has been characterized and associated in many
different ways, from having a spirit or being a deity, and an aspect thereof or an aspect in astrology.
Crescent
For the representation of the Moon, especially its lunar phases, the crescent (🌙) has been a recurring
symbol in a range of cultures. In writing systems such as Chinese the crescent has developed into
the symbol 月, the word for Moon, and in ancient Egyptian it was the symbol 𓇹, meaning Moon and
spelled like the ancient Egyptian lunar deity Iah,[307] which the other ancient Egyptian lunar
deities Khonsu and Thoth were associated with.
Iconographically the crescent was used in Mesopotamia as the primary symbol of Nanna/Sîn,[308] the
ancient Sumerian lunar deity,[309][308] who was the father of Innana/Ishtar, the goddess of the
planet Venus (symbolized as the eight pointed Star of Ishtar),[309][308] and Utu/Shamash, the god of the
Sun (symbolized as a disc, optionally with eight rays),[309][308] all three often depicted next to each
other. Nanna/Sîn is, like some other lunar deities, for example Iah and Khonsu of ancient
Egypt, Mene/Selene of ancient Greece and Luna of ancient Rome, depicted as a horned deity,
featuring crescent shaped headgears or crowns.[310][311]

The particular arrangement of the crescent with a star known as the star and crescent () goes back
to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and the planet Venus, in
combination. It came to represent the selene goddess Artemis, and via the patronage of Hecate,
which as triple deity under the epithet trimorphos/trivia included aspects of Artemis/Diana, came to
be used as a symbol of Byzantium, with Virgin Mary (Queen of Heaven) later taking her place,
becoming depicted in Marian veneration on a crescent and adorned with stars. Since then
the heraldric use of the star and crescent proliferated, Byzantium's symbolism possibly influencing
the development of the Ottoman flag, specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star,
[312]
and becoming a popular symbol for Islam (as the hilal of the Islamic calendar) and for a range of
nations.[313]
Other association
The features of the Moon, the contrasting brighter highlands and darker maria, have been seen by
different cultures forming abstract shapes. Such shapes are among others the Man in the
Moon (e.g. Coyolxāuhqui) or the Moon Rabbit (e.g. the Chinese Tu'er Ye or in Indigenous American
mythologies the aspect of the Mayan Moon goddess, from which possibly Awilix is derived, or
of Metztli/Tēcciztēcatl).[306]
Occasionally some lunar deities have been also depicted driving a chariot across the sky, such as
the Hindu Chandra/Soma, the Greek Artemis, which is associated with Selene, or Luna, Selene's
ancient Roman equivalent.
Colour and material wise the Moon has been associated in Western alchemy with silver, while gold
is associated with the Sun.[314]
Through a miracle, the so-called splitting of the Moon (Arabic: ‫ )انشقاق القمر‬in Islam, association with
the Moon applies also to Muhammad.[315]
Modern culture representation
See also: Moon in science fiction and List of appearances of the Moon in fiction
The Moon is prominently featured in Vincent van Gogh's 1889 painting, The Starry Night.

An iconic image of the Man in the Moon from the first science-fiction film set in space, A Trip to the
Moon (1902), inspired by a history of literature about going to the Moon.

The perception of the Moon in modern times has been informed by telescope enabled modern
astronomy and later by spaceflight enabled actual human activity at the Moon, particularly
the culturally impactful lunar landings. These new insights inspired cultural references, connecting
romantic reflections about the Moon[316] and speculative fiction such as science-fiction dealing with
the Moon.[317][318]
Contemporarily the Moon has been seen as a place for economic expansion into space, with
missions prospecting for lunar resources. This has been accompanied with renewed public and
critical reflection on humanity's cultural and legal relation to the celestial body, especially
regarding colonialism,[260] as in the 1970 poem "Whitey on the Moon". In this light the Moon's nature
has been invoked,[289] particularly for lunar conservation[262] and as a common.[319][283][291]
In 2021 20 July, the date of the first crewed moon landing, became the annual International Moon
Day.[320]
Lunar effect
Main article: Lunar effect
The lunar effect is a purported unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day
lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. The
Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the words lunacy and lunatic are
derived from the Latin name for the Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued
that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly
water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight
to affect any single person.[321] Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions
to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but
dozens of studies invalidate these claims.