EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 2.

Chemical - involves chemical reactions which

MIDTERM LECTURE NOTES 2 change the rock composition.
a. Dissolution – Occurs when minerals
EARTH’S PROCESSES dissolve in water.
Ex: Formation of Calcite in Caves
Exogenic vs. Endogenic Processes b. Oxidation - Occurs when minerals react with
Oxygen.
Ex: Formation of Rust in Ferrous Rocks
c. Carbonation – Occurs when the formation of
carbonates in rocks.
Ex: Formation of Carbonic Acid in Limestones

3. Biological - involves actions of living things to

facilitate weathering process.
a. Plant Action- Breaking of roots in rocks;
Absorption of minerals from roots
b. Animal Action – Burrowing; Microbes reacting
with chemical composition.
c. Human Action – Caused by various Human-
related activities.

Soil Erosion – Refers to the separation and removal

of rocks and soil due to various agents:
1. Water = considered as the primary agent of
erosion.
2. Wind = carries dust, sand, and volcanic ash.
3. Glaciers = carries soil through frozen water
(ice).
1. Exogenic Processes = involves forces in the 4. Mass Wasting = transport of huge mass of
earth’s surface rocks and soil thru gravity
Examples: Weathering, Erosion, Deposition
2. Endogenic Processes = involves forces under
the earth’s surface (plate tectonics).
Examples: Magma Formation, Diastrophism,
Volcanism, Faulting,

Part 1: Exogenic Processes

Weathering – This is an exogenous process in
which rocks break down into relatively smaller
pieces (sediments).

1. Physical - involves mechanical forces to break

down rocks to sediments.
a. Frost Wedging - freezing water results to
cracks.
b. Exfoliation – outer rock layers are stripped out
due to intense heat.
c. Block Disintegration – occurs when rocks are
exposed to expansion and cooling.

CDADeLeon_EarthLifeSci_MidtermLectureNotes(Part2)
Forms of Soil Erosion Part 2: Endogenic Processes
Diastrophism
- Refers to any movement on the solid part of
the earth’s crust caused by rock
deformation.

1. Splash Erosion = thin layers of soil and

sediments are carried by surface runoff
and rain. 1. Faulting = rocks are displaced from a
2. Sheet Erosion = carries dust, sand, and fracture (fault).\
volcanic ash.
3. Rill Erosion = soil is carried by concentrated
running water
4. Gully Erosion = removal of soil in water
channels or drainage lines.

Deposition – Refers to the process in which

sediments settle out of the transporting medium.
- Sedimentary Environment = the area where
sediments are deposited
- Deposition leads to the formation of various
landforms and bodies of water.
-

• Dip-slip Faults are those fractures that move

on a vertical direction.
o Normal Fault = the hanging wall moves
down from the footwall.
o Reverse Fault = the hanging wall
moves up to the footwall.
• Strike-Slip Faults are those fractures that
move in a parallel and horizontal
direction.

CDADeLeon_EarthLifeSci_MidtermLectureNotes(Part2)
 2. Folding = rocks are pushed from opposite
side.
a. Anticlines = are the upward curves
which form the mountains.
b. Syncline = are the downward curves
which form the valleys.
Magma Formation
1. Magmatism = Subducting Plates causes rocks
to become molten which becomes the
magma
2. Plutonism = Accumulated Magma starts to
rise to the Earth’s Crust
3. Volcanism = Magma erupts to the surface thru
Volcanoes
Metamorphism
Explains the process on how heat and pressure
change the mineral composition and texture of rocks.
CDADeLeon_EarthLifeSci_MidtermLectureNotes(Part2)
PLATE TECTONICS
Internal Structure of the Earth
1. Crust is the thin, outermost layer that varies in
thickness and density.
a. Continental Crust is thicker than
oceanic crust.
b. Oceanic Crust is denser than the
continental crust.
2. Mantle is the thickest layer made up of molten
rocks.
3. Outer Core is made up of liquid Iron (Fe) and
Nickel (Ni)
4. Inner Core is made up of solid Iron (Fe) and
Nickel (Ni)
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener – Continental Drift Theory
-The continents had once been part of a single
supercontinent called Pangaea.
- This was initially supported by the ff: evidence.
a. Matching Fossils = similar fossils on different
landmasses
b. Continental Puzzle = similar rock layers
c. Ancient Climates = similar weather patterns
Seafloor Spreading Theory
Harry Hess and Robert Deitz– Seafloor Spreading
Theory
-New seafloor is formed due to the rising magma on
the mid-oceanic ridges.
Plate Tectonics
A plate is the rigid sections of the lithosphere that
move as a unit over the material of the
asthenosphere.
 • Three (3) sub-types of convergent
boundaries:
o Oceanic-Continental
o Oceanic-Oceanic
o Continental-Continental

Oceanic-Continental

Plate Boundaries

• Denser oceanic slab sinks into the

asthenosphere.
• Pockets of magma develop and rise.
• Continental volcanic arcs form in part by
volcanic activity caused by the subduction of
oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent.

Oceanic-Oceanic

◆ Divergent boundaries (also called spreading

centers) are the place where two plates move apart.
• Oceanic ridges are continuous elevated
zones on the floor of all major ocean basins.
The rifts at the crest of ridges represent
divergent plate boundaries.
• Rift valleys are deep faulted structures
found along the axes of divergent plate • Two oceanic slabs converge and one
boundaries. They can develop on the descends beneath the other.
seafloor or on land. • This kind of boundary often forms volcanoes
• Seafloor spreading produces new oceanic on the ocean floor.
lithosphere. • Volcanic island arcs form as volcanoes
emerge from the sea.
• When spreading centers develop within a
continent, the landmass may split into two or
Continental-Continental
more smaller segments, forming a
continental rift.

◆ Convergent boundaries form where two plates

move together.
• A subduction zone occurs when one
oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle
beneath a second plate.

CDADeLeon_EarthLifeSci_MidtermLectureNotes(Part2)
 • When subducting plates contain continental
material, two continents collide.
• This kind of boundary can produce new
mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas.
◆ Transform fault boundaries are margins where
two plates grind past each other without the
production or destruction of the lithosphere.
• At a transform fault boundary, plates grind
past each other without destroying the
lithosphere.
Earthquake Hazards
NATURAL HAZARDS AND MANAGEMENT
EARTHQUAKE – Refers to the vibration of Earth
produced by the rapid release of energy.
• Earthquakes has two (2) primary types:
o Tectonic Earthquake – caused by
movement of tectonic plates.
o Volcanic Earthquake – caused by
volcanic activity.
• The anatomy of an earthquake has the
following components:
o Epicenter is the location on the
surface directly above the focus.
o Focus is the point within Earth
where the earthquake starts.
o Faults are fractures in Earth where
movement has occurred.
VOLCANOES – A natural opening in the surface of
the earth where molten rocks, hot gases, smoke, and
ash are ejected.
CDADeLeon_EarthLifeSci_MidtermLectureNotes(Part2)
Measurement of Earthquakes
• Seismographs are instruments that record
earthquake waves.
• Seismograms are the traces of amplified,
electronically recorded ground motion made
by seismographs.
• Magnitude refers to the amount of energy
released by an earthquake. This is usually
measured using the Richter Scale.
• Intensity refers to the damage created by an
earthquake, which is measured using the
Mercalli Scale.
o In the Philippines, the Philippine Institute
of Seismology and Volcanology
(PHIVOLCS), developed a localized
version in measuring the intensity of an
Earthquake, which is also known as the
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity
Scale (PEIS).
1. Ground Shaking – caused by the passage of
seismic waves.
2. Ground Rupture – displacement of the
ground due to the violent shaking of the
surface. Ground rupture typically occurs in
areas that lies above the fault line.
3. Liquefaction – takes place when there is an
increase in water pressure in saturated
soils because of ground shaking.
4. Ground Subsidence – Refers to the lowering
of the land surface due to liquefaction.
5. Tsunami – Refers to the lowering of the land
surface.
6. Earthquake-Induced Landslides – may
happen during or after an earthquake when
a weakened section of the land falls off
primarily due to gravity.
• Active – A volcano that is currently erupting or
is showing signs of volcanic eruption.
• Potentially Active – A volcano that has
erupted then entered a long period of
inactivity.
• Inactive – A volcano that hasn’t exhibited any
record of eruption in the past 10,000 years.
How Volcanic Eruption is Predicted? 4. Ballistic Projectiles – rock fragment ejected
from a volcano during its explosive eruption.
a. Volcanic Bombs – molten magma
b. Volcanic Blocks – solid rocks
5. Volcanic Gases – high concentration of water
vapor, silicon dioxide (SO2), and carbon
dioxide (CO2), which then results to acid
rain.
6. Lahar – mudflow formed due the mixing of
volcanic materials and water.

OTHER GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

• There are three (3) main factors that are being
observed by volcanologist to predict whether
a possible volcanic eruption may take place:
o Volcanic Gases – high concentration of
water vapor, silicon dioxide (SO2), and
carbon dioxide (CO2)
o Ground Deformation – change in elevation
within the area of the volcano, which is a
result of a rising magma level.
o Ground Vibration – there are frequent
observations of volcanic earthquakes due
to the high pressure caused by the
movement of magma and other volcanic
materials.

Volcanic Hazards

Mass Movement – The transfer of rock and soil

downslope due to gravity. This is primaly affected
based on its moisture and speed.
1. Rockfall – occurs when rocks or rocks
fragments fall freely through the air.
Characterized by a dry and fast movement
1. Lava Flow – mass of magma that flows down 2. Slides - occurs when a block of material
the slope of a volcano moves suddenly along a flat, inclined
2. Pyroclastic Flow – hot dry masses of surface.
volcanic material at a speed greater than • Slump – Refers to the downward
60km per hour movement of a block of material
3. Ash/Tephra Flow – showers of fine (ashes) to along a curved surface.
coarse-grained (lapilli) volcanic materials 3. Flow – Flows are mass movements of
and other airborne products of a volcanic material containing a large amount of
eruption water.
4. Creep – is the slow, downhill movement of
soil and regolith.

CDADeLeon_EarthLifeSci_MidtermLectureNotes(Part2)
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS Anatomy of a Typhoon
Tropical Cyclones and Typhoons
A tropical cyclone is a system of thunderstorms that
are moving around a center. As the winds intensify or
weaken, the category is upgraded or downgraded
accordingly.
1. In a super typhoon, the wind speed is greater
than 185 kilometers per hour (kph).
2. If the wind speed is less, from 118 to 185 kph,
then it is called a typhoon.
3. If the wind speed is between 89 to 117 kph, it • Tropical cyclones develop when water
is called a severe tropical storm. temperatures are warm enough to provide
4. If the wind speed is between 62 to 88 kph, it is the necessary heat and moisture to the air.
called a tropical storm. o Eye- the center-most and calmest part of
5. And when the wind speed is less than 62 kph, the storm
it is a tropical depression. o Eyewall- surrounds the eye and has the
strongest winds.
o Rainbands- clouds that spin and brings
rains

Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR)

• Philippine Area of Responsibility is the area
where PAGASA monitors
tropical typhoon that are expected to affect
the country. Its latitude lies
between 5° and 25° N, while its longitude
lies between 115° and 135° E.

Flooding Refers to the running and overlaying of

water on land that are not ordinarily covered by it

Storm Surge – sudden rise of sea level on the

coast due to a drop in atmospheric pressure and
the force of the wind as a tropical cyclone approaches
Locations of Cyclones the coast.

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