CML 5
⮚ Polygraph Chair – A chair designed to absorb
LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
Polygraphy – Is the scientific method of detecting
deception with the use of polygraph machines.
(Other names: Deceptography and Lie Detection)
Polygraph – An instrument that graphically records the
physiological responses such as respiration, blood
pressure and pulse rate, and skin’s resistance or
conductivity to electricity exhibited in response to a set of
questions. The term literally means “many writings” from
Greek words “poly” and “grapos”. Other names:
Deceptograph, Lie-detector and Pneumo-Galvo-Cardio-
Sphygmograph).
Lie Detector- It is popular but misleading name of the
Polygraph. In Greek, Polygraph means “many writings”
and the instrument was so named because it make
various ink recordings of a person’s body functions.
Is Polygraph Examination result admissible in court?
YES, if allowed by the judge. The judge will unlikely to use
polygraph test if unaccredited and inexperienced examiner
administered the test. There is great deal of action in the
court system today concerning the use of polygraph, the
laws are changing rapidly.
Can a person be compelled to be subjected to a lie
detector test?
In as much as the test requires the subject to answer the
question either by yes or no, it infers the use of
intelligence and attention or other mental faculties which is
self-incriminatory. Therefore, a person CANNOT be
compelled to be subjected to the test.
Concepts of Polygraph Examination
Polygraph Examination is used to test an individual for the
purpose of detecting deception or verifying the
truthfulness of his statements.
It is done by recording identifiable physiological reactions
of the subject, such as blood pressure, pulse rate,
respiration and skin resistance.
The effectiveness of the polygraph in the recording
symptoms of deceptions is based on the theory that “A
conscious mental effort on the part of a normal person to
deceive causes involuntary physiological changes that are
in effect a body’s reaction to an imminent danger to its
well-being”
Types of Polygraph:
1. Analog Polygraph – a polygraph instrument that
directly records the responses of the subject on a piece of
chart.
2. Computerized Polygraph - a polygraph instrument
capable of monitoring, recording, storing, and analyzing
respiratory, electrodermal, and cardiovascular activity.
Main Components:
a. Pneumograph – It records the respiratory activity.
b. Cardiograph/ Cardiosphygmograph – It records the
cardiovascular activity.
c. Galvanograph – Component responsible for producing
the graphic recording of skin resistance or
Electrodermal Activity (EDA). EDA recently
replaced the term Galvanic Skin Response (GSR).
d. Kymograph – a motor that drives the polygraph chart
under the recording pen at a uniform rate of 1 division/ 5
seconds (1 division of the chart is equivalent to ½ inch).
This component is used only in analog polygraphs in
which the polygram is produced simultaneously with the
application of stimulus.
Accessory Components:
concealed muscular movements of the subject. To
serve its purpose, additional recording channel must
be provided in the polygraph to register the
movements of the subject.
⮚ Plethysmograph – Device that measures changes in
blood volume in a part of the body. Two common
types of plethysmographs are occlusion (use of
inflatable cuff to restrict venous return while
measuring volume changes indirectly via pressure or
resistance) and photoelectric (use of infrared light
emitter-collector diode pair that measures volume
changes indirectly by directing light into the skin and
detecting its reflection back).
Polygram – A graphic representation containing selected
physiological data generated by an examinee during the
data collection phase of a polygraph examination. Also
refers to the physiologic recording of responses of the
examinee in response to stimuli. Also known as:
(Polygraph Chart or Test Data)
Types of Polygrams:
1. Analog polygrams
2. Computerized polygrams
Polygraphist – Someone who has successfully
completed formal education and training in conducting
polygraph examinations and is either authorized or
formally certified, by the examiner’s agency, to conduct
such examinations.
Other names: (Polygraph Examiner, Forensic Psycho-
physiologist and Polygrapher)
Subject – Person taking polygraph examination. Also
known as: (Examinee)
Who may take the Polygraph test?
1. Victim
2. Witness
3. Accused
4. Job applicant
5. Employee/ Personnel
Stimulus – Is a force or motion reaching the organism
and excites the perceptors. It is a question formulated by
the polygraphist to be used in the polygraph examination.
Question string – All questions that appear on the
polygram between test commencement (X) and Test
termination (XX).
Serial position – the position of a question within a
question string. Also known as: Question
Purpose of Stimulus:
1. to pose threat to the security of the guilty
subject
2. to establish the innocence of truthful subject
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF POLYGRAPH
WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON (1915)
● The “Father of Modern Polygraphy”
● He dealt with the sphygmomanometer, which was
used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure
reading during the course of a test.
● He also recorded the respiration and noted the time of
the subject’s verbal responses.
● He also experimented with galvanometer to record
skin resistance changes and a gripping device to
record tension.
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
ANGELO MOSSO (1895)
● He studied fear and its influence on the heart. In his
observation subsequently formed the basis for
detecting technique.
● He developed the sphygmomanometer and “scientific
cradle” which was designed to measure the flow of
blood while a person lay on his back in a prone
position as it became concentrated on one part of the
body and then in the other.
CESARE LOMBROSO (1836-1909)
● Employed the first scientific instrument to detect
deception. This instrument is known as hydro-
sphymograph, ”Lombroso’s Glove” which
measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when
suspects were asked about their involvement in or
knowledge of specific response.
● He was accorded the distinction of being the first
person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of
detecting lies.
JOHN LARSON (1921)
● Developed an instrument that continually and
simultaneously measures blood pressure pulse and
respiration. He designed the first two recording
channel polygraph in the history. The first mechanical
form of the present-day polygraph consists of two
recording components and that is the
cardiosphymograph and the pneumograph. He
developed the polygraphic apparatus in a portable
form.
LEONARDE KEELER
● Developed an improvement of Larson’s apparatus. In
1949, he invented the “Keeler Polygraph” with
components for recording blood pressure, pulse and
respiration changes.
● A Galvanometer what is known as the galvanic skin
reflex or electodermal response generally referred to
as the GSR is also added to his instrument.
● He also demised a metal bellows and designed a
Kymograph that pulled at a constant speed. A chart
paper under the recoding pens from a roll of chart
paper located inside the instrument.
JOHN REID
● He designed a special chair equipped with metal
bellows for recoding unobserved muscular activities of
the arms, thighs and feet, located on the arms of the
chair and on the seat, this transmit singular muscular
activity to the recording polygraph.
PNEUMOGRAPH
VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914)
● He detected deception with a pneumograph, an
instrument that graphically measures the inhalation of
and exhalation.
● He demonstrated the changes in breathing patterns by
noting the changes in respiration expiration during
deception.
HAROLD BURTT (1918)
● He determined that respiratory changes were
indication of deception. He found out that changes in
systolic blood pressure were of greater value in
determining deception than in changes in respiration.
GALVANOGRAPH
LUIGI GALVANI (1791)
● Italian physiologist who developed the Galvanic Skin
Reflex or the galvanometer which records electrical
bodily resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current
ever recorded. The GSR reflected emotional changes
by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to
electricity.
GEORG STICKER (1897)
● He made the first suggestion for using the
galvanograph for detecting deception based on the
works of several predecessors.
● He theorized that GSR is influenced by existing
mental impression and that will have no effect upon it.
OTTO VERAGUTH (1907)
● He was the first one to use the term “psychogalvanic
reflex”. He believed that the electrical phenomenon is
due to the activity of sweat glands.
TECHNIQUE
KEELER (1942)
● He developed the “Relevant- irrelevant” test. The
theory of this test is that a guilty reacts only to relevant
questions and innocent shows no reactions.
● He also added the “Personally Embarrassing”
Question to his “Relevant- irrelevant” test, which was
designed to elicit a reaction only from the innocent
subject, reasoning that the guilty would be still more
concerned with the relevant or crime question.
However, it was found that both the innocent and the
guilty reacted to the question.
JOHN E. REID (1950)
● He developed the “Reviewed Control Question”
consisting of a known lie incorporated in to relevant-
irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the
innocent subject, to identify the general nervous
tension and guilt complex reactor and to improve
contract between innocent and guilty subjects.
● He also discovered the “Guilt-Complex test”
administered to the overly responsive subjects.
CLEVE BACKSTER (1960)
● Backster conceived the psychological sit theory that
forms the basis of his zone of comparison technique
that provides constant monitoring of the subjects
reactivity and designed to disclose outside issue. This
is known as the “Backster Zone Comparison Test”.
EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF POLYGRAPH
▪ Sir James Mackenzie (1906) - He generally
overlooked in the history of the scientific determination
of truth or deception the fact that polygraph was in
existence on 1906. Its invention however, was not for
the purpose of diagnosing truth or deception but rather
for use in medical examinations.
▪ VITTORIO BENUSSI (1913) - He presented a paper
before the second meeting of the Italian Society for
Psychology in Rome, on the subject of his
experiments regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.
▪ RICHARD O. ARCHER (1953) - He is the first
polygraphist to record simultaneously on regular basis
the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was
also the first to record simultaneously 2 galvanic skin
reflexes. In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph
Science, the oldest of the polygraph publication.
▪ RICHARD I. GOLDEN (1969) - He presented a paper
at the Annual Seminar of American Polygraph
Association at Houston, Texas regarding his
experiments using existing control question
techniques but requiring the subject to answer each
question twice. The first time truthfully and the second
time with lie, for the purpose of requiring additional
psycho-physiological data from the examinee by
 comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known
lie to the same question.
Polygraph Examination – A process that encompasses
all activities that take place between a PDD examiner and
an examinee during pretest, data collection, test data
analysis, and post-test phases of a polygraph
examination. Also known as: (Polygraph Test, Lie-
Detector Test and Psychophysiological Detection of
Deception (PDD).
Utility of Polygraph Examination:
Law enforcement agencies and intelligence
agencies in the United States are by far the biggest users
of polygraph technology. In the United States alone all
federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own
polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners
employed in other agencies.
1. Law Enforcement – Polygraph Examination is used as
a tool in the investigation of crime.
2. Legal Community – Result of Polygraph Examination
is used as evidence in court (subject to the existing rules
on the admissibility of polygraph evidence). Polygraph
examination is also used by the Parole and Probation
office in the US to evaluate if the parolees or probationer
follow the conditions of their release.
3. Private Sector – Polygraph examination is used in Pre-
employment Screening to check the honesty of applicants
and to establish background information. It is also used in
Periodic Screening of employees to check their loyalty and
honesty. For issues limited only to a person’s Integrity,
polygraph examination can also be used.
4. Other known application of Polygraph Examination
includes the Test for Espionage and Sabotage (TES) of
the US Department of Defense and Counter Intelligence-
Scope Polygraph Examination (CIS) of the US
Department of Energy. Both examinations are used to test
their applicants and employees especially when giving
security clearance to classified information.
Test Results:
1. Deception Indicated (DI) - An opinion which indicates
that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed the
physiological responses to relevant question(s) is an
indicative of deception.
2. No Deception Indicated (NDI) - An opinion that
indicates that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed
the physiological responses to the relevant question(s)
were not indicative of deception. No Significant Response
(NSR) is an equivalent term to NDI.
3. Inconclusive - This is the examiner's required
diagnostic opinion when an examinee's polygraph record
shows responses that are insufficient to determine
truthfulness or deception. In the recent year, polygraphist
no longer use this test result and if the subject is
inconclusive, their diagnosis is reduced to No Opinion.
4. No Opinion (NO) - An evaluation that indicates the
examiner cannot render a conclusive opinion of DI or NDI
based upon the physiological data on a given set of
charts. Based on earlier references, this result is the
diagnostic opinion of the examiner when the subject has
been uncooperative during the test and the data has been
corrupted.
Accuracy of Polygraph Test Result:
If the properly trained examiner utilizes the established
testing procedures, the accuracy of the decisions made by
polygraph examiners is very high. Generally, the accuracy
level as based on several experiments is on the range of
85%-95%.
Errors in Polygraph Test Result:
1. False Positive – occurs when a truthful subject is
reported as deceptive.
2. False Negative – occurs when a deceptive subject is
reported as truthful.
Causes of Errors:
1. misinterpretation of the data on the charts
2. lack of training and experience of the polygraph
examiner
3. counter-measures from the examinee
4. equipment malfunction
5. failure to properly prepare the examinee for the
examination
6. poorly worded test questions
7. improper assessment of the examinee's emotional and
physical condition ·
8. improper use of testing techniques
9. lack of quality control review
Examination Room – A controlled environment where
polygraph examination is conducted.
An Ideal Examination Room:
1. spacious for two persons
2. well lighted
3. room temperature should be more or less 25°C
4. at least 90% sound proof
5. no decorations
6. painted with white color
7. with one-way mirror
8. with concealed microphone
9. with adjacent observation room
TERMINOLOGIES:
a) Deception - the act of making someone believe
something that is not true. It is an act of deceiving or
misleading usually accompanied by lying.
b) Dicrotic Notch - graphic representation within the
cardio tracing on a polygraph chart caused by a
backward surge of blood against the semi-lunar valve
in the left ventricle of the heart.
c) Distortion - change in polygraph tracings caused by
artifact stimulus.
d) Lie - is an intentionally false statement to a person or
group made by another person or group who knows it
is not wholly the truth.
e) Specific Response - A deviation from an examinee’s
normal state of homeostasis as evidenced by the
tracings on a polygraph chart.
f) Sphygmomanometer - or blood pressure meter
(also referred to as a sphygmomanometer) is a
device used to measure blood pressure, composed of
an inflatable cuff to restrict blood flow, and a mercury
or mechanical manometer to measure the pressure.
g) Fear – is the emotional response to specific danger
that appears to beyond a person defensive power.
h) Response – is any activity or inhibition of the
previous activity of an organism resulting from
stimulation. Reaction – It is an action in mental
attitude evokes by external influence.
i) Detection – Is an act of discovery of existence,
presence of fat or something hidden or obscure.
j) Lying – the uttering or conveying of falsehood or
creating a false or misleading information with the
intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion
of other.
Specific Objectives of Polygraph Examination
1. To ascertain if person is telling the truth
2. To verify and compare conflicting statement
3. To obtain additional facts of an offense, location of the
stolen goods and whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. To identify other persons involved in the case
5. Gain valuable information from unwilling subject
6. Most important is the elimination of innocent suspect.
Principal Use of Polygraph Examination
1. It is an investigative aid for the investigator to:
 a. confirm the statement of the victims
b. ascertain the credibility of witnesses
c. assess truthfulness of suspects
2. It speeds the process of investigation
3. It eliminates innocent subjects
4. The investigator can concentrate/focus to one subject to
determine truth or deception
Uses of Polygraph
1. Criminal Investigation - It is a valuable tool for criminal
investigation. It provides fast means of eliminating
innocent suspects, gives clue about the identity of criminal
suspects, verifies statements of those who are involved
and save a lot of time and effort during the process of
investigation (Geronimo 2007)
2. Pre-Employment Test (Screening) - It is the fastest
and most accurate means of verifying statement of a job
applicant from derogatory remarks by a previous employer
who bears personal grudge against him.
3. Periodic Personnel Check (Integrity) - It is the best
way of the company to determine dishonest employees
who are responsible for company losses and to determine
the honesty of the employees assigned to sensitive
position.
4. Claim Verification Test
(Insurances/Compensations/Benefits) - For the
insurance company, for them to know if there’s a fraud or
manipulation
5. Loyalty test (Intelligence and Honesty Check) - This
is mostly conducted in organization like PNP, Phil. Air
Force, Phil. Army, Phil. Navy and the likes
6. Promotion - There are instances wherein the company
has difficulty in deciding between two or more candidates
to be promoted, polygraph test helps to determine who is
the most qualified as well as employees future intent
against the company (Geronimo 2007)
Principal Use of Polygraph Examination
a. It is an aid to the investigator
b. It speeds up the process of investigation
c. It eliminates innocence suspect
d. The investigator could focus or concentrate to the
subject to determine the truth or deception
Significance of Lie Detection in Criminal Investigation
In criminal investigation, the truth must be
established to ensure proper prosecution of offenders.
Criminal investigators must exert all effort to determine
lying not only on the part of the suspect but as well as to
everyone involved in the criminal act – witnesses, victims,
etc.
Kinds of Lies
Lie refers to either untruthful or falsehood statements; any
act that deceives or creates false impressions. It is also
synonymous to deceit, deception or fabrication.
Lying is an uttering or conveying falsehood, creating a
false or misleading impression with the intention of
affecting wrongfully the acts through the opinion or
affection of another.
Lying can be devastating, it does not only hurt the one
who is being lied to, but it also hurts the one who tells it.
Lying is the common denominator in many of our lives and
recognizing some of the different types might help us in
dealing with the liars in our lives.
Kinds of Lies
1. White Lie/ Benign Lie – it is used to avoid the harmful
and realistic implications of the truth. It will cause no
discord if not discovered and offers some benefit to the liar
and the hearer. It is basically used to lubricate
interpersonal relationships.
2. Black Lie – telling an untruth and attributing it to a false
source. A lie who accompanies pretensions and
hypocrisies, intriguing to cause dishonor or discredit one’s
good image
3. Red Lie – a lie common to communist countries, it is
used to destroy common ideologies by means of
propaganda. This involves political interests and motives
because this is a party of communist propaganda strategy.
4. Aggressive lies – are self-serving and may potentially
damage others, and therefore, most people would see
them as clearly immoral.
5. Bold-faced Lie– lie that is told when it is obvious to all
concerned that it is a lie.
6. Perjury – making verifiably false statements on a
material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law
or in any various statements in writing. Perjury is a crime
because the witness has sworn to tell the truth, and for the
credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on
as being truthful.
7. Malicious lie – a pure dishonesty to obstruct justice. It
is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended
purely to mislead or obstruct justice by a guilty accused
person.
8. Altruistic lies – are those lies that are told to benefit
someone else, to reduce suffering, or to help increase
self-esteem. Used to comfort, protect and support the
deceived.
9. Pathological Lies– are those that are told even when
there is little or no apparent gain to the person who is
lying. In fact, the lying often occurs even when the results
would be better if the truth were told. A lie made by
persons who cannot distinguish right and wrong
Furthermore, the lie is not determined solely by situational
factors and appears to be compulsive or fantastic.
10. Emergency Lies Defensive Lies– used when the
truth may not be told because of the harm that would
come of it.
11. Humorous Lies – (Jocose Lie) those aimed at
amusing the listener, and any intent to deceive is transient
and teasing. Characteristically, they involve some degree
of preposterous exaggeration.
12. Bluffing – is an act of deception that is not usually
seen as immoral because it takes place in the context of a
game where this kind of deception is consented to in
advance by the players. This kind of deception is accepted
as a tactic and even expected.
13. Exaggeration – is when the most fundamental aspect
of a statement is true but the degree of its truthfulness is
incorrect. Maximization of felt emotions reflects a dramatic
attempt to influence another person.
14. Minimization – The result of an individual's attempt to
dampen the external appearance of a more deeply
experienced emotion is minimization of emotional
expression.
15. Neutralization – An effort to mask emotional
response by adapting a "poker face”. Psychoanalysts and
other professionals may display relatively little response in
their efforts to appear nonjudgmental of the patient's or
client's statements.
16. Substitution – it’s a common mechanism of hiding
one's true feelings. One of the most common techniques
employed for this purpose is to substitute "pleasure" for a
negative emotion. Smiling is one of the easiest nonverbal
communications to produce and may be used to mask
feelings of arrogance, anxiety, or boredom.
17. Promotion Lie – a kind of lie used in advertisement
(or marketing strategies) that is used to influence the
consumers to buy products.
Which of the different types of lies usually committed
by a person? Why?
Answer: White Lie, because it is common type of lie that
lubricate interpersonal relationships.
What are the effects of lying?
Answer: The consequences of lying are not as simple as
they might seem. People often think that lies breed
contempt and guilt, but they do much more. They foster
relationships, build trust, destroy social networks, create
social networks, make people more creative, and
influence how often other people lie.
Different types of Liars
Liar is a person who tells lies.
1. Sociopathic Liars - are those who lie continuously to
get their own way, without care or concern for others.
They are goal oriented
2. Compulsive Liars - are someone who continually lies
as their habit. They feel discomfort of being truthful
because lying makes them feel right.
3. Occasional Liars - are those who seldom tell lies. They
are quick to ask forgiveness from the individual that they
lied to
4. Panic Liars - are those who lie in order to avoid the
consequences of confession. They are afraid of
embarrassment and they believe that confession will just
make the matter worse.
5. Occupational Liars - are considered to be practical
liars for they lie when it has a higher “pay off” than telling
the truth
6. Tournament Liars - are those who love to lie and are
excited by the challenge of not being detected. For them
an interview is a contest that they want to win; they realize
that they will probably be convicted but will not give
anyone the satisfaction of hearing them confess.
7. Psychopathic Liars - are the most difficult type; these
persons have no conscience and show no regret for
dishonesty and manifestation of guilt.
8. Ethnological Liars - are those who are taught not to be
a squealer
9. Pathological Liars - are persons who cannot
distinguish right from wrong due to their sick mind.
10. Black liars - are persons who always pretend what he
is and what he thinks of himself
11. White Liars - are those who don’t usually think of
themselves as true “liars”. They justify their lies as
harmless and beneficial.
EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal practiced in Rajhmal, North
Bengal, the accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron
nine times (9) unless burned sooner. If burned, he is put to
death as he is guilty. Not only just licking the iron but also
he is made to carry the metal into his hands.
2. Ordeal by the Balance practiced in Vishnu, India
where the scale of balance is used where the accused is
placed in the other end while a counter balance was
made. If he were lighter before then he will be acquitted.
3. Ordeal by Rice Chewing practiced by Indians. It is
formed with a kind of rice called “sathee” prepared with
various incantations. The person on trial eats the rice then
spits upon an eyeful leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or
the corner of the mouth swell or he trembles, he is
declared then a liar.
4. Ordeal of the Red Water practiced in Eastern Africa
were the accused is made to swallow a small amount of
rice after fasting for twelve hours and then immersed in
dark colored water, if the accused ejects all the rice, he is
adjudged innocent.
5. Trial by Combat a fight between the accuser and the
accused, whoever lost the battle will be adjudged guilty. It
became the legal ordeal in England during the time of
“King Henry III”
6. Trial by Torture the accused was put into a severe
physical test. If the accused can endure such torture, he
will be considered innocent.
7. Trial by Ordeal (by means of pain)- is a judicial
practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is
determined by subjecting them to a painful task. If either
the task is completed without injury, or the injuries
sustained are healed quickly, the accused is considered
innocent.
8. Drinking Ordeal practiced in Nigeria and India where
the accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest –if
innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
9. Trial of the Eucharist practiced in European countries
where this trial is reserved for clergy and administered
with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty it was
believed that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and
prevent the accused from swallowing the food given to
him.
10. Ordeal of the Heat and Fire the accused has to walk
barefooted over burning coals, if unharmed the accused is
innocent.
11. Ordeal of the Boiling Oil or Water practiced in Asian
practiced in Asian countries where the accused was
forced to dip his hands into the boiling water or oil and ask
to pick up stone in it. If he remains unhurt then he is
innocent.
12. Ordeal of the Red Hot Needle a hot needle is pierced
in the lower lip of the accused; I f blood flows from the
wound the accused is guilty
13. Ordeal of the Tiger practiced in Thailand where the
accuser and the accused were placed together in the
same and a tiger is set loose upon them. If both were
spared, further elimination followed
14. Test of the Cross Ordeal practiced in Europe where
the accuser and the accused were made a stand with
arms crossed on their breast. The one who endured the
longest was deemed to have told the truth, the other is
liar.
15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal the accused is asked to touch
the tail of the sacred ass in a room without the presence of
anyone; he is made to believe that the sacred ass will
utter a sound if touched by guilty hands. After the accused
have returned from the room, his hands will be checked if
dusted with black powder which was secretly smeared on
the tail of the ass which is not sacred at all, if so the
accused is innocent. The basis of this procedure is that
they believe that a truthful person will touch the tail of the
ass even if no one is looking to prove his innocence.
OTHER COUNTRIES PRACTICING ORDEAL
Burma - The Ordeal of Divination is being practiced in this
country, whereby it involves 2 parties being furnished with
candles of equal size and lighted simultaneously the
owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged
to have won his cause.
Madagascar - Legal authorities practiced trail by ordeal.
The supposed criminal was made to drink a decoction, a
poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a small dose is fatal. By
managing the size of the dose, those who administer it
can decide the result.
Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented with
shellfish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then
poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish
moved first was adjudged the winner.
Greece - A suspended axe was spun at the center of a
group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was
in the line with the blade as supposed to be guilty out by
the Divine Providence.
Nigeria - The priest greased a cock’s feather and pierced
the tongue of the accused. If the feather passed through
the tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If
not, the accused is guilty. Another method practiced into
the same country is the pouring of corrosive liquid into the
eyes of the accused who was supposed to be unharmed if
innocent. Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of the
accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence is
also practiced.
Scientific Methods of detecting Deception
● INTOXICATION - is a physiological state induced by
the consumption of alcohol.
 - The method use intoxicating beverages to 3. Disgust
bring out the mental state of stupefaction or excitement, 4. Fear
speech and emotion are less strained due to the lowering 5. Happiness
of inhibitions and so the subject may reveal the truth. 6. Sadness
7. Surprise
● HYPNOSIS - is a special psychological state with
certain physiological attributes, resembling sleep only ● POLYGRAPHY- It is based upon a theory that once a
superficially and marked by a functioning of the lie has been made or that an emotion evoking stimulus
individual at a level of awareness other than the has been given, conscious mental effort of a normally
ordinary conscious state. conditioned person causes physical and physiological
- Contemporary research suggests that changes in the body which are capable of being
hypnotic subjects are fully awake and are focusing recorded, diagnosed and interpreted.
attention, with a corresponding decrease in their peripheral - The polygraph machine records
awareness; subjects also show an increased response to graphically the physiological responses of the subject
suggestions. (respiration, sweating, blood pressure and pulse rate)

Regular Police Methods of detecting Deception

● WORD-ASSOCIATION TEST - A psychological Test
1) Information Gathering – it can be done through record
intended to reveal associative connections between
check, surveillance, background investigation and
stimulus words and free verbal responses.
intelligence check.
- Systematic study of associative thoughts
2) Investigation – it can be done through interview and
can reveal information about an individual’s personality,
interrogation; and through admission and confession.
character and areas of emotional disturbances. It is based
on a theory that one word or idea is reflective of another
What is Information?
word or idea and the expression of their association forms
Is a knowledge of facts gathered or acquired from
a meaningful picture.
persons or documents relevant concerning the
commission of a crime or criminal activities. It is a data
● TRUTH-SERUM TEST - is a psychoactive medication gathered by the investigator from other person including
used to obtain information from subjects who are the victim himself and from public records, private records
unable or unwilling to provide it otherwise. and Modus Operandi
- Commonly used Truth-serum drugs: What is Investigation?
a) Sodium Thiopental/ Sodium Pentothal, marketed The act or process of examining a crime, problem,
as Pentothal. statement, etc. carefully, especially to discover the truth.
b) Amobarbital, commonly called as Sodium Amytal
c) Scopolamine Interview VS Interrogation
Interview Interrogation
● PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATOR - Detects 1. Nature is voluntary 1. Process is compulsory
"guilt-revealing," laryngeal micro-tremors which exist 2. Witness may or may 2. Suspect should answer
in the voice and are associated with stress and lying not answer questions the questions
3. Mode: merely asking of 3. Technique: Questions
● COMPUTER VOICE STRESS ANALYZER - It is questions should be propounded to
based on hypothesis that there are infrasonic 4. Answers or statements the suspect
components of human voice not audible to observers may be or not necessary 4. Answers are very
caused by a physiological phenomenon present in to the case important either as
muscles called "microtremor". 5. Subjects are often admission or confession
victims or witnesses 5. Subjects are always
● NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING - This the suspect
method has made the claim that by watching a
person’s eye movements, an interviewer can Admission VS Confession
determine if a person is remembering a past event Admission Confession
(true recall, as in a valid alibi) or constructing an -It is the self-incriminatory -It is a declaration of facts
event (as in a false event that never occurred, i.e., a statement of facts by the directly acknowledging
false alibi). accused that does not the truth of the guilty as
directly acknowledge the charged, or of the
● BRAIN-WAVE FINGERPRINTING - Uses brain- offense committed, with commission of the
reading techniques to determine whether specific which he is charged 1. criminal act itself.
information is stored in a subject’s brain; it does this by There is a statement of a 1. There is a declaration
measuring electrical brainwave responses to words, person. of the person.
phrases, or pictures that are presented on a computer 2. The person only 2. The statement of the
screen. acknowledged facts accused is the
- Farwell and colleagues report over 99% circumstances of the acknowledgement of his
accuracy in laboratory research and real-life field crime guilt from the commission
applications 3. There is no of the crime.
● MICRO-EXPRESSION - Micro-expressions are acceptance of guilt 3. Guilt is admitted.
unconscious expressions that surface as the limbic
part of our brain sort, gather and assess information. 3) Instrumentation - scientific examination of real
- 1/25 to 1/15 of a second evidence, application of instruments and methods of the
- Can provide cues or leakage that reveals physical sciences in detecting crime. Example: through
the true feeling of the subject and can be used to detect the different forensic sciences (such as Forensic
possible deceit or concealed emotion. Medicine, Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology, Forensic
- Seven universal emotions: Ballistics, etc.)
1. Anger
2. contempt
What is Instrumentation? It is "the art and science of
measurement and control". It is all about measuring,
analyzing, recording and controlling the kinds of
instruments which are capable of it.
Phases of Polygraph Examination
Polygraph examination is the use of any instrument to
graphically record simultaneously the physiological
changes in human respiration, cardiovascular activity, and
any other physiological changes that can be recorded for
the purpose of verifying truth or deception and includes
the reading and interpretation of the polygraph records
and results.
a. Preliminary preparations
This stage is the initial interview with the investigator
handling the case or person requesting it. The group
involved in this stage are the victim or the complainant,
suspects and witnesses. This stage includes obtaining
and evaluation of facts, determining areas the subjects
needs to be asked and the investigator must furnish the
examiner the following:
1. Sworn statement of the suspect/
witnesses/victim/complainant
2. Incident report, spot report, B.I. of the suspect,
witnesses, victims and complainants
3. Rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and other
facts such as specific article and exact amount of money
stolen
4. Peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set
5. Exact time the offense was committed
6. Known facts about the suspect’s action or movement
7. Facts indicating any connection between the suspects,
victim and witnesses
8. Exact type of weapon, tool or firearms used
9. Result of laboratory test
10. Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the
victim, suspects and the investigator
b. The Pre-test Interview (Pre-test Phase)
This is the stage of interview of the subject. The
primary purpose is to prepare or condition the subject for
the test. The following should be taken in considerations:
1. the appraisal of subject’s constitutional right
2. obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by
signing a statement of consent
3. taking of personal data of the subject
4. determining his/her suitability as a subject
5. evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject
6. informing the subject of his involvement of the case
The following right of the subject must be informed clearly
to him/her.
1. The right to remain silent
2. Anything he/she say may be used in favor or
against him/her
3. The right to have a lawyer of his/her choice
4. Right to refuse
“when the blood pressure rise up to 150 over 100 do
not conduct examination”
c. The Examination Proper (In-test Phase)
After the pre-test interview, the examiners should
proceed to the placement or attachment of polygraph
sensors. The first to be attached is the pneumograph
followed by the cardiograph and the galvanograph
sensors. Review all the questions with the subject before
the actual examination is made. The examiner should
discourage any comments or statements by the subject.
Test instruments must be given to the subject upon
completion of the necessary preliminary preparations.
The examiner will analyze, interpret and evaluate
the examinee's physiological data collected during the
polygraph examination, after which the examiner will form
one of the following professional opinions:
◆ NDI - No Deception indicated - The subject is telling
the truth
◆ DI - Deception Indicated - The subject is not telling
the truth
◆ INC - Inconclusive - The evaluation of the
physiological data is inconclusive
d. The Post-test Interview (Post-test Phase)
This stage includes all consideration that bears on
the examination. This is done just after the instrument is
turned off. If the polygraph test results indicate deception,
the examiner will then proceed to conduct a short
interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain
confession. However, if the polygraph indicates that the
subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the
subject cordially and thank him/her for his/her cooperation.
The purposes of further questioning after the test are:
1. to clarify the findings
2. to learn if there are any other reasons for the subject’s
responding to a relevant question, other than the
knowledge of the crime; and
3. to obtain additional information and an admission for
law enforcement purposes, if the results suggested
deception.
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Polygraph Results
In the past 75 years, studies have been
conducted on the accuracy of polygraph testing. Since
many different conditions and factors are involved in the
research, and since a polygraph examination is a very
complex process, it is difficult to draw from the data a
precise figure for the accuracy of polygraph testing in all
settings. Nevertheless, the preponderance of available
information indicates that when a properly trained
examiner utilizes as established testing procedure, the
accuracy of the decisions made by the polygraph
examiners is generally on the range of 85-95% for specific
issue investigations.
Generally, the following are the factors affecting the
polygraph examination accuracy:
1. The Instrument
2. The condition of the subject
3. The condition of the examination room
4. The qualification and skills of the examiner
Specifically, the 15% errors of lie detection test come from
the following circumstances:
1. Nervousness or extreme emotional tension
experienced by a subject who is telling the truth regarding
the offense in question but who is nevertheless affected
by:
a. apprehension induced by the mere fact that suspicion
or accusation has been directed against him.
b. apprehension over the possibility of an inaccurate lie
detector test result
c. over-anxiety to cooperate in order to assure an
accurate test results
d. apprehension concerning possible physical hurt from
the instrument
e. anger resentment over having to take a lie detector
test
f. over-anxiety regarding serious personal problems
unrelated to the offense under investigation g.
previous extensive interrogation, especially when
accompanied by physical abuse
g. a guilt complex or fear of detection regarding some
other offense which he had committed
2. Physiological abnormalities such as
a. excessively high or excessive low blood
pressure
b. diseases of the heart
c. respiratory disorder
3. Mental abnormalities such as:
a. feeblemindedness as in idiots, imbeciles, and
morons
b. psychosis as in manic depressive, paranoids,
schizophrenic, paretic, etc.
c. psychoneurosis and psychopathy, as among
the so called “peculiar” or emotionally unstable
persons
4. Unresponsiveness in a lying or guilty subject
because of:
a. no fear of detection
b. apparent inability to consciously control
response by means of certain mental sets of
attitudes
c. a condition of “sub-shock” or “adrenal
exhaustion” at the time of test
d. rationalization of the crime in advance of the
test to such an extent that lying about the
offense arouses little or no emotional disturbance
e. extensive interrogation prior to the test
5. Attempt to “beat the machine” by controlled
breathing or by muscular flexing
6.
6. Unobserved application of muscular pressure
which produces ambiguities and misleading
indications in the blood pressure tracing
Limitations of the Polygraph Technique
1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a
substitute for investigation
2. It is not a lie detector but only a scientific diagnostic
instrument
3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that
which the subject knowns to be true
4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent
5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been
established to permit the examiner to prepare a complete
set of suitable questions
6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent
of the subject
7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in
any report that a person will be considered guilty because
he refused to take the test
8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been
explained with the subject
9. No attempt to use polygraph for mental or physical
evaluation of any person
10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject
Barriers to the Polygraph Examination
1. Pathological liar (a person who cannot distinguish right
from wrong)
2. Mental cases
3. Persons under the influence of intoxicating liquor
4. Narcotic related cases
5. Various heart and other organic troubles
MODERN COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH
INSTRUMENT
The instrument used in polygraph examinations is
often called polygraph. It was defined as an instrument or
device capable of producing recordings of physiological
phenomena that may be used as the basis for the
application of reliable technique for diagnosing truth or
deception. The instrument itself does not detect lies or
deception; it only records the physiological changes that
occur when the subject tells a lie or deception. It is the
examiner who identifies deception through the use or aid
of the polygraph instrument.
a. Pneumograph Component records changes occurring
in the respiratory or breathing system. The sensors are
the following:
1) Pneumograph tube is a corrugated and
stretchable rubberized tube or apparatus that is to
be attached to the subject’s chest or stomach (or
both). The inhalation will cause the tube to stretch
and subsequently create an upward tracing or
movement of the pneumo-pen unto the polygraph
chart. Exhalations are the download tracing.
2) Beaded chain is a freewheeling string of stainless
beads with a hook which fastens the
pneumographic tube unto subject’s chest or
stomach
b. Cardiograph Component records the changes
occurring in the human circulatory system, such as the
blood pressure and pulse rates. It involves the following
sensors:
1) Arm cuff shall be attached to the subjects’ arm
2) Hand pump bulb causes the arm cuff to inflate in
order to produce blood pressure and pulse rates
3) Aneroid blood pressure meter gauge measures
and monitors BP reading while the polygraph
testing is ongoing.
c. Galvanograph Component is sometimes called the
Galavanic-Skin-Reflex (GSR) component which records
the changes occurring in the Nervous-Excretory systems.
It has been studied that brain’s activities and electrical
charges have been recorded the epidermal skin reflexes
passed through the different nerves of the human body.
The sensor is the:
1) Finger electrodes - are the special types of sensitive
metal plate to be attached to the subject’s end joints of
both index and ring fingers for the recording of the
electrical charges (ohms) from the brain through the skin.
d. Kymograph Component is a motor chart drive
mechanism that moves strip chart paper at a specific rate.
It has a synchronized motor that drives the charts at the
rate of six (6) to twelve (12) inches per minute and its
speed constant is vital because the vertical lines, which
are spaced either at one-half of an inch interval,
represents five or ten seconds interval on the chart. This
provides the examiner with a means of determining pulse
rate and the questioning space.
CONTROL OF THE CARDIO-SPHYGMOGRAPH
SECTION:
1. Manual centering knob used to place cardio in its
proper place on the chart.
2. Vent Valve- is used to left atmospheric pressure
into the system and used to release pressure all or parts
of the pressure.
3. Resonance control-is used to decrease the
amplitude of the cardio tracing ard d used to sharpen the
diacrotic notch.
HOW TO OBTAIN BLOOD PRESURE PATTERN OR
TRACING: (CARDIO)
Pen balance is critical. Pen is to be held on paper
by friction of the. Inflate pressure until you reach subject's
mean pressure. The mean pressure is the midway
between the systolic and the diastolic is the lowest
pressure. In order to get the arithmetic mean pressure,
add the diastolic and systolic and the sum divided it by
two. To get the geometric mean pressure, plus diastolic,
watch your sphyg-dial when inflating the pressure, for
maximum deflection.

CONTROLS OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH SECTION:
1. Manual centering knob - used to position base line
of the pneumo tracing on the upper heavy horizontal line.
2. Vent - with the vent down, the system is closed
and unoperative. With the vent up, the system is open and
ready for use.
3. Uses of the vent:
a) To stop the pen between the tests and to
prevent possible tambour assembly.
b) To prevent pen from possible clogging by
moving up or down in one place of the chart
paper.
c) To stop pen during the tube adjustment.
d) To assists in gaining amplitude.
e) To let atmospheric into the system.
HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACINGS OF THE
PNEUMO
First observe subject for point of maximum chest
motion. Placed tube at point where maximum motion is
observed. The tube must be smug. A tube that is too loose
will result in a distorted pattern. A tube is too tight will be
uncomfortable and distort the pattern. With female
subjects the tube is almost, always placed above the
breast. Some females are abdominal breathers and tubes
will have to be lowered.
CAUSES OF REACTION ON EXURSION OF THE PEN:
1. Sudden noise
2. Intermuption
3. Extraneous thoughts
4. Sudden movements
HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACING IN MODEL 63
KEELER MACHINE: (GALVO)
Tum power switch from off and on position. Then
the galvo pen fails to the bottom of the chart, then galvo
section is then ready for operation from 15 to 18 seconds
after you have tumed the switch to an on position.
HEART RATE:
The nomal heart rate in adult males is 70-75 beats
per minute. Rate is slightly higher in female adults.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE CARDIO TRACING
1. The ascending limb - pulse wave causes an
expansion of the arterial wall and an increase surface
pressure against the cuff bladder thus forcing air from the
bladder through the tubing into the tambour. The
increasing air volume in the tambour increases pressure
against the bellows and forces the bellows forward. This
forward movement provides power to move the penfork in
the attached pen in a lateral clockwise or upward direction
pen in a lateral clockwise or upward direction of the chart
surface.
2. Descending limb when a pulsed wave passes
beyond cuff bladder attendant drop in a surface pressure
against bladder reverses this processes permitting the
below to return to or toward its original position. This
return of the bellows to its original position is transmitted
to the penforks and attached pen as a lateral counter
clockwise or downward stoke on chart surface.
3. Dicrotic notch - is cause by the minor secondary
pulse wave passing under and beyond the blood pressure
cuff. In the wake of subsiding primary wave which
momentarily halts or slow down the decrease in the
surface pressure against the bladder in turn causing a
hesitation in the bellow movement back to or towards its
original position.
Since the chart paper continues its movement
past the cardio pen, dishalting or slowing in the bellow
movement shows up in the tracing as an offset or shoulder
in the descending limb. When a pressure matches the
approximate mean pressure of the subject, the diacrotic
notch is to0 high, in the tracing the machine pressure
would be to00 slow. When you cannot obtain the diacrotic
notch adjust your machine pressure so that you have
maximum amplitude. After obtaining proper pattern
amplitude, center the cardio pen on the lower heavy
horizontal line of the chart.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH
TRACING:
1. Ascending limb -with the expansion of the chest
during the inhalating, the air capacity in the pneumograph
tube is increased creating a vacuum within the system,
which reduces the internal surface pressure against the
bellow. Thus moving the bellows backward causing a
lateral clockwise or upward stroke of the pen.
2. Descending limb - cause by the exhalation thus
reversing this process causing an increase in internal
surface pressure against the bellows, thus moving the
bellow to or toward its original position and producing a
lateral counter-clockwise or a downward movement of the
pen.
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE GALVO TRACING:
1. The ascending limb it is caused by the decrease
of the subject's resistance which throws the established
circuit out of balance and modifies the electric current flow
through the magnetic field surrounding the pivot-
movement of the recording pen.
2. Descending limb:
a) Physical cause - is caused by a reverse in the subject
resistance toward the original position thus bringing
the circuit back to or toward balance again
producinga lateral clockwise or downward movement
of the pen.
b) Mechanical cause the fine coil springs attached to the
pivot mountain pen cradle serve as counter balance
for pen movement either above or below the
established base line and assists in returning the pen
cradle to or towards the original position.
COMPUTING RATE:
Graph paper is lined and spaced in seconds. It is
moving under pens at a uniform rate of six inches per
minute. Rate is kept uniform through medium of
synchronized motor. From one heavy vertical line
constitute a five second period. It is also one half inch.
Cont the beats inside any five seconds scale multiply by
twelve. This gave you number of heartbeats at any point in
the test. For greater accuracy you count the beats in two
five seconds area multiply by six.
QUESTION FORMULATION
There are two general types of questions to be
constructed and maybe supplemented by other types of
questions.

1. General Question Test (GCQ) the most commonly
applied.
Example:
1 Is today Tuesday?
2 Do you intend to lie to me on this test?
3 Are you sitting down?
4 Did you rob the quick mart last night?
Did you use a gun to rob the quick mart last
5
night?
6 Do you sometimes watch TV?
7 Is your name Bob?
Did you rob the cashier at the quick mart last
8 partial involvement.
night?
Did you take money from the cash register at
9 open the table drawer of Mr. De la Cruz?
the quick mart last night?
10 Do you like beer?
11 Have you lied to me today?
12 Do you live in the United States?
2. Peak of tension Test (PTT) which is usually used as
supplementary test
Example:
a. Do you know whether the stolen watch from Rommel is
a Rolex? (This is an introductory phrase plus padding
question)
b. Is it an Omega? (Padding)
c. Is it a Seiko? (Padding)
d. Is it a Timex? (Relevant question)
e. Is it Alba Quartz? (Padding)
f. Is it a Citizen? (Padding)
Rules in Formulating Questions
This area of instruction covers one of the most vital
phases of the detection, selection of the correct issue and
formulation of questions, which reflect both the needs of
the examiners and the concepts of the examinee.
1. Questions must be simple and direct
2. Must not involve legal terminology such as rape,
murder, assault, and etc.
3. Must be answerable by “Yes” or “No”
4. Must be short as possible
5. The meaning must be cleared and unmistakable,
phrased in a language that can be easily understood.
6. Must not be in a form of an accusation
7. Questions must never contain inferences which
presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject
8. All questions must refer to one offense only
9. All questions must refer to only one element of an
offense
10. Must not contain inferences to one’s religion, race or
belief
TYPES OF TEST QUESTIONS
There are two general types of questions to be
constructed and may be supplemented by other types of
questions
1. General Question Test (GCQ) the most commonly
applied.
2. Peak of tension Test (PTT) which is usually used as
supplementary test
There are also five sets of tests that may be applied
during the polygraph examination process:
Test I – General Question Test. The purpose is to get
the standard tracing of the subject and to establish a true
telling pattern for the initial part of the record. It consists of
a series of RELEVANT and IRRELEVANT questions
asked in a planned order. Questions are so arranged as to
make a comparison of the responses to relevant questions
with a subject’s norm made during the answering of
irrelevant questions.
a. Relevant Question. It is a question that has
relevance or connection to the issue under investigation.
a1. Strong Relevant or Primary Relevant
Question. It has an intense relationship to the crime or
problem being considered. This is intended to produce
strong emotional response in guilty subjects. Example: Did
you steal Nick’s Ipod?
a2. Weak Relevant or Secondary Relevant
Question. This question is concerned with elements of
the crime and details mostly on guilty knowledge and
Example: Between 10-12 a.m., 10 February 2011, did you
1. Sacrifice Relevant or (DYAT) Question (Do you
intend to answer truthfully). It is designed to absorb
the response generally generated by the introduction
of the first relevant question in the series. The
response of the subject will give the examiner a clue
as to the subject’s attitude of willingness in taking the
test.
Example: Regarding the stolen wristwatch of Mary, do you
intend to answer truthfully all questions about it?
2. Knowledge Question. This type of question is
designed to prove whether the subject possesses
information leading to the identification of the offender
or location of evidence. Then the phrase “for sure”
should be included to eliminate doubts in case the
subject knew the offender or the location of evidence
but is only hesitant to answer “yes”.
Example: Do you know for sure who stole the Ipod of
Nick?
3. Evidence Connecting Question. This links the
subject to the evidence found in crime scene
Example: Were the footprints found outside the house of
Nick yours?
b. Control Questions are used for the purpose of
comparison.
1) Primary Control Questions recalls the offense done
from the time childhood up to three to five years
before the occurrence of the present offense being
investigated
Example: Before reaching the age of 28, have you ever
stolen anything?
2) Secondary Control Questions are more specific in
nature and based upon another sort of wrongdoing
which will enhance the subject’s opportunity or
responsiveness. The scope is up to the present
period of examination.
Example: Have you ever stolen anything from this locality?
c. Irrelevant (Neutral) Questions type of questions which
have no importance to the case under investigation.
Example: Did you eat today?
1. Check Questions are the last questions asked in the
lie test. It is a direct question that relates to the fact
that the subject has told the truth to all questions
asked in the lie test.
2.
3. Fishing Expedition Test Question - use to vagrants
or loiters for routine interrogation. No idea about what
offense has been committed.
Example:
a) Have you ever been arrested before?
b) Are you wanted anywhere now by the
police?
 c) Have you stolen anything since you have
been in tour?
d. Symptomatic Questions these questions are intended
to identify or assess the occurrence of outside issues that
might restrain a subject's response to the relevant
questions. These are outside factors in a case, which is
concerned, but not the issue under investigation.
A question type developed by Cleve Backster
which is used to identify whether or not an examinee is
fearful the examiner will ask an unreviewed question
embracing an outside issue that is bothering the
examinee. This mistrust of the examiner will supposedly
dampen the examinee’s responses to other test questions.
Symptomatic questions are widely used, though the trend
in the research is that there is no meaningful effect.
Example: Are you now convinced that I will not ask you
any questions aside from the questions that we
have reviewed?
Are you afraid that I will ask you about
something which I told you I would not?
e. Sky Questions – These are three groups of questions
placed as one by Backster and they are intended to verify
the previous charts and detect indirect participation or
guilty knowledge. The “S” stands for Suspect; the “K”
stands for Know; and “Y” stands for You.
Example: Do you SUSPECT anyone in particular in
stealing Mary’s wristwatch?
Do you KNOW who stole the wristwatch of
Mary?
Did YOU steal Mary’s wristwatch?
Test II – Number Test (Psychological Test). The
purpose is to check the possible deliberate distortion when
the chosen number is asked and to obtain a chart wherein
the subject is not under stress.
Test III – Spot Responder Test. The purpose is to
determine the responsiveness of the subjects to crucial
questions on spot responses.
Test IV – Mix Question Test. The purpose is to compare
the degree of reaction between control and relevant
question
Test V – Silence Answer Test (SAT). It is a confirmatory
test
SUPPLEMENTARY TEST QUESTIONS
1. Peak of Tension Test (PTT) the subject may be
given this test if he is not yet informed of the details of the
offense for which he is being interrogated by the
investigation or by other persons or from other sources
like the print media. The questions formulated are similar
in nature and construction, not only one of which is true
and the perpetrator who would naturally be in possession
of such unpublicized knowledge will usually exhibit a rise
in the tracing up to that particular question.
2. Guilt Complex Test (GCT) This test is applied when
the response to relevant and control questions are similar
in degree and in consistency and in a way that the
examiner cannot determine whether the subject is telling
the truth or not. If the subject does not respond to the
added relevant questions, it indicates that the subject was
being deceptive as to the primary issue under
investigation. No conclusion can be drawn if the response
to the added guilt complex is similar to the real issue
questions.
Example: Did you steal that Ferrari toy collection? In this
case the stealing of toy collection was not actually
committed because the alleged crime investigated was the
loss of family?
3. Symptomatic Question is to detect and evaluate the
presence of outside issues which may suppress response
to relevant questions.
Example: Are you completely convinced that I will not ask
any question on this test that has not already been
reviewed?
4. S.K.Y. Questions these are three groups of questions
placed as one by Backster and they are intended to verify
the previous charts and detect indirect participation or
guilty knowledge. The “S” stands for Suspect; the “K”
stands for Know; and “Y” stands for You.
5. Silent Answer Test is conducted in the same manner
as when relevant and control questions are asked but the
subject is instructed to answer the questions silently, to
himself, without making any verbal response causes
distortion in the tracing such as sniff or clearing the throat.
6. Zone Comparison Test contains three Zones (black,
red and green), with comparison of responses between
two of the zones (red and green) for the determination of
truth or deception. The ZCT is designed to pose a threat
to the wellbeing of the examinees, regardless of their
innocence or guilt and compel them to focus their attention
on a specific zone question(s).
Three basic zones:
a) Black zone - (consists of Symptomatic /Outside
Issue Questions) designed to gain the
examinee's confidence regarding avoidance of
unreviewed questions embracing outside issues.
b) Red zone – (consists of Relevant Questions)
dealing with the issue for which the examinee is
being tested.
c) Green zone – (consists of Control Questions)
that are designed to elicit a negative answer
from the examinee to questions that encompass
unknown offenses or misdeeds during a period
earlier than the time the alleged offense was
committed.
Each control question is compared against its neighboring
relevant question for a determination of truth of deception.
Backster Zone Comparison Test (Varieties)
1. Matte Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
2. Backster Tri-Zone Comparison Technique
3. Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) Bi-
Spot Zone Comparison Technique
4. Integrated Zone Comparison Technique
5. Utah Zone Comparison Technique a. Utah Probable Lie
Test (Utah PLT) b. Utah Direct Lie Test (Utah DLT)
CHART MARKINGS
Chart Marking is one of the most important things in the
conduct of polygraph examination because it assists the
examiner in interpreting and evaluating the test result,
without these markings the examiner will find it difficult to
interpret the tracings which will be the basis in drawing out
conclusions and recommendations.
To facilitate evaluation and interpretation of the
test result, chart markings are made using signs and
symbols to enable the examiner determine the following:
1. exact time the test commenced and terminated
2. initial and final blood pressure and galvanograph
readings
3. particular point where each question asked started
and ended.
4. corresponding identification of question, and the type
and time of answer given by the subjects
5. duration and amplitude of reaction patterns
6. any instruction given or repetition of question made
7. any movement, cough tracing by the suspect or
outside distractions that occurred
8. mechanical adjustment or re-adjustment made
9. extraneous factors affecting the test chart such as
paper jams
10. time interval between questions
11. chart number, name of subject, time, date, and place physiological response and usually appears when
taken the subject is being of irrelevant questions.
b) Specific Response refers to any deviation
Signs and Symbols commonly used in Chart Marking from the normal tracing of the subject in the
Signs or Meaning Signs Meaning relevant and control questions.
Symbols or
Symbo 1. Pneumograph Tracing. It is normally found at the top
ls of the chart. It is a record of a subject’s respiratory action
X/60/1.5 A First markings N Noise during the questioning process and is classified as normal
on the chart or abnormal. The pneumograph pattern consists of
XX/60/1.5 Examiner’s S Sighed (Moan) inhalation and exhalation strikes with a normal amplitude
A mark after the of form ½ to ¾ inches. The normal cyclic rate is from 13 to
test 18 breaths per minute and may vary in reasons of
X Start of test PJ Paper Jump exceptional physical build condition or respiratory defect.
XX End of test SN Sniffed The pneumograph changes from individual norm which
60 Mm of mercury BI Breathing may be indicative of deception are:
shown in the Instruction a. change in rhythm or regularity
sphygmomano b. change in amplitude or volume
meter dial c. change in the inhalation or exhalation ratio
A or M Automatic or OS Outside d. notched or serrated inhalation or exhalation strokes
manual galvo stimulus e. change of baseline; loss of base line
amplifier used caused change f. hyperventilation
of tracing g. suppression
// Point where its M Moved or h. respiratory block
question begins movements
+ Yes answer to MI Movement 2. Galvanograph Tracing. It is normally located at the
question Instruction center position. When properly balanced, it takes the form
of slightly wavering line across the middle portion of the
- No answer to L Laughed
chart with a minor response to spoken stimuli. It records
question
changes in subject’s increase or decrease resistance to a
A Adjustment B Use to signify
constant electrical current generated through an amplifier,
belch or burp
recording galvanometer, and rectifier of the polygraph.
T Subject talked C+ Increase in
The galvanic tracings which may indicative of deception
instead of Yes galvo
are:
or No sensitivity
a. vertical rise at point of deception
R Request for C- Decrease in b. double saddle response
repetition of galvo c. long duration and/or degree of response
question sensitivity d. plugging galvo tracing
C Coughed Y Yawned
CT Cleared Throat IS Ink Stopped 3. Cardiosphygmograph/Cardiograph Tracing. It is
normally found at the bottom of the chart showing the
Polygraph Chart Paper or Polygram refers to the three physiological phenomena, a systolic stroke, diastolic
recorded tracings of all emotional patterns permanently on strokes and a dicrotic notch.
the charts or graphs from a series of questions. It is about The cardiograph tracing taking the form of specific
100 feet long, 6-8 inches in width with ½ or .5 inch top and responses indicative of deception are:
bottom margins. Chart papers are imprinted with a. increase or decrease in blood pressure
horizontal lines spaced at ¼ inch intervals or 20 divisions b. increase or decrease in pulse rate
and vertical lines at 1/10 inch intervals with heavy lines at c. increase or decrease in amplitude
½ or .5 inch intervals. Each ½ each division of the vertical d. change in position or disappearance of dicrotic notch
lines represents 5 seconds of time. Pulse rate per minute e. extra systoles (premature contradiction of an auricle or
mat then be computed according to the number of beats ventricle while fundamental rhythm of the heart is
per ½ division by 12. maintained)
General Rules in Chart Interpretation Evaluation of Polygraph Test/Test Data Analysis
1. There must be a specific response Test data analysis is the systematic process by which a
2. To be specific, it must form a deviation from the norm particular set of scoring and decision rules is applied to
3. The specific response must appear in at least two (2) the evaluation of diagnostic features and other
test charts physiological data resulting in one of three outcome
4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneously decisions.
specific in the three (3) tracings of the chart.
In specific issue testing the decision outcomes or
Chart Interpretation diagnostic opinions, as they are sometimes called,
The most important single factor in polygraph testing is are:
chart interpretation. The accuracy of instrumental 1. No Deception Indicated (NDI) - An opinion that
detection of deception is dependent upon the examiner’s indicates that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed
ability to diagnose truth or deception by reading or the physiological responses to the relevant question(s)
interpreting a subject’s charts. The polygraph chart is the were not indicative of deception.
composite record of the pneumograph, cardiograph and No Significant Response (NSR) is an equivalent term to
galvanograph tracing from one series of questions. NDI.
In every polygraph test chart there are two kinds of 2. Deception Indicated (DI) - An opinion which indicates
responses where deception may be traced: that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed the
physiological responses to relevant question(s) is an
a) Normal response refers to the tracing of indicative of deception.
response on the chart which does not deviate 3. No Opinion (NO) - An evaluation that indicates the
from the norms of the subject’s psycho- examiner cannot render a conclusive opinion of DI or NDI
based upon the physiological data on a given set of
charts. Based on earlier references, this result is the
diagnostic opinion of the examiner when the subject has
been uncooperative during the test and the data has been
corrupted.
Methods of Chart Interpretation:
1. Global Evaluation is an overall inspection of polygraph
charts to form a general impression concerning the
relative strengths of the reaction to various questions
2. Numerical Scoring
a. Three-position numerical evaluation scale - permits a
range of only one of three values that may be assigned to
an analysis spot. The range is: minus one (-1), zero (0),
and plus one (+1)
b. Seven-position numerical evaluation scale - permits a
range of seven values that may be assigned to an
analysis spot. The range is: minus three (-3), minus two (-
2), minus one (-1), zero (0), plus one (+1), plus two (+2),
and plus three (+3).
(Automated Computer Algorithms is used in some
computerized polygraph)
The standard unit of measurement is a Vertical Chart
Division, with a grid setting of one-quarter inch, appearing
either on a computer screen or paper chart.
Terms commonly used in Chart Interpretation:
a) Analysis Spot - an analysis spot refers to the
specific location, or applicable relevant question on a
chart where the spot analysis concept is applied.
b) Artifact -an artifact is the cause for a change in the
examinee’s physiological data that is not attributable
to an applied stimulus or recovery (i.e., movement,
sensor slippage).
c) Diagnostic Features - The physiological phenomena
used in the numerical evaluation of PDD test data.
Examiners use the term feature(s) and
criteria/criterion interchangeably.
d) Homeostasis- Refers to a complex interactive
regulatory system by which the body strives to
maintain a state of internal equilibrium. Being able to
recognize an examinee’s homeostatic signature, for
each of the recording systems being monitored and
recorded, is truly essential to effective test data
analysis. Examiners often use the following terms
interchangeably with homeostasis: physiological
norm, prestimulus baseline, resting state, and tonic
level.
e) Latency-Refers to the period of time between
stimulus onset and response onset. Any physiological
response that begins following stimulus onset is said
to display response latency. Response latency,
depending upon its consistency, may enable an
otherwise untimely response to be evaluated.
Pronounced latency may be seen in all recording
channels or in just one. An effective method for
assessing response latency is to look holistically at all
of the physiological data collected, channel-by-
channel.
f) Question String- Refers to all of the questions posed
to an examinee between test commencement and
test termination.
g) Serial Position-Refers to the specific location of a
question within a question string.
h) Response Onset Window-Refers to the typical time
period, from stimulus onset, where we would predict
a physiological response to occur in order for that
response to be deemed timely.
i) Spot Analysis- Spot analysis is a fundamental
concept for assigning weighted values, by individual
recording channel, based upon comparisons between
a relevant question and the applicable comparison
question(s). The TDA decision rules for a particular
testing format, dictate which relevant and comparison
question(s) to use for analysis.
j) Waveform-The term waveform and tracing are used
interchangeably and refers to the particular visual
representation of the physiological data that is
studied for its diagnostic value.
Numerical Evaluation Scoring System (DoDPI) utilizes
three considerations in evaluating physiological data
obtained through a polygraph.
1. A positive value (i.e., +1) is assigned to an analysis spot
if the physiological response is more significant at the
applicable comparison question than at the relevant
question.
2. A negative value (i.e., -1) is assigned to an analysis
spot if the physiological response is more significant at the
relevant question than at the comparison question(s).
3. Zero scores are assigned when there is either no
response to either the relevant or applicable comparison
question(s) or the difference is indiscernible. Assign a
value of zero with a line through it (Ø) if any recording
channel is unable to be evaluated due to an artifact or
other excessive noise.
COUNTERMEASURES
It is an action taken by the examinee to influence the
physiological responses being measured and thereby
produce a test result that indicates truthfulness.
Purpose of Countermeasures: Countermeasures are
mostly used by guilty examinees in order to increase the
probability of false negative outcome. There are some
innocent examinees however who also use
countermeasures in an effort to increase the probability
that they will pass the PDD examination
Effect of Countermeasure to the result of Polygraph
Examination: Under some circumstances Polygraph
countermeasures have been found to be effective, such
as when the examinee had special training.
Categories of Countermeasures:
1. General State Countermeasures – attempts to defeat
the polygraph examination by reducing the physiological
activity to test items. It diminishes the body’s response to
all polygraph questions. Examples are:
a. Drugs
b. Meditation
c. Hypnosis
d. Fatigue or exhaustion
2. Specific Point Countermeasures – attempts to defeat
the polygraph examination by self-induction of
physiological responses to particular questions.
Examples are: a. Manipulated respiration
b. Self-inflicted pain
c. Covert tensing of muscles (ex. Anal sphincter
contraction)
d. Mental imagery
Examples of Countermeasures:
A. Physical – class of countermeasures in which the
examinee attempts to manipulate the polygraph
recordings through the discreet use of movements. Some
of these movements are also used to induce pain.
a. breathing
b. pressing toe
c. hidden tack
d. biting tongue
e. shifting position
f. anti-perspirant
g. colorless nail polish
B. Cognitive - class of countermeasures in which the
examinee attempts to affect the polygraph recordings
through self-manipulation of attention, memory and
emotion.
a. hypnosis
b. thought control

3. Pharmacological Countermeasures- class of

countermeasures in which the examinee attempts to affect
the polygraph recording through the use of ingested
drugs.
a. sedatives
b. ataractics

Countermeasures Solutions:
1. Anti-Countermeasures
Proactive measures used by examiners to block
or neutralize the countermeasure efforts of examinees.
For example, if the aim were to preclude the examinee
from pressing his toes against the floor during the test, an
anti-countermeasure may include elevating the
examinee’s feet from the floor so that this strategy cannot
be acted upon.
2. Counter-countermeasures
Reactive methods used to detect and neutralize
those efforts an examinee has engaged in while trying to
defeat the PDD examination. For example, if the
examinee tries to dissociate during testing, he could insist
that the examinee respond to the test questions with the
key word and the answer, thus ensuring attention to the
content of each question