1-D Infinite Potential Well

OR
1-D Infinite Box
Infinite Square Well Potential

𝑉 𝑥 = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 =∞

for 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
• Classically, a particle in such a
potential well travels with uniform
velocity from one wall to the
other, and at the walls it would be
perfectly reflected. Thus, it moves
back and forth in the region inside
the well (or box).
𝑉 𝑥 = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 =∞
for 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
• 1-D motion of a particle in an
infinite well with rigid walls
• Particle is completely free except
at the two boundaries: 𝑥 = 0 and
𝑥 = 𝑎.
• Particle is in a bound state.
Schrӧdinger equation & Solution
𝑉 𝑥 = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 =∞
for 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎

• Outside the well: 𝑉 𝑥 = ∞

Ψ 𝑥 =0
• Inside the well: 𝑉 𝑥 = 0 Time-
independent SE:
ℏ2 𝜕2 Ψ
− =𝐸Ψ 𝑥
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2 Ψ
Or, + 𝑘2Ψ 𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
2𝑚𝐸
where 𝑘 =
ℏ2
 Schrӧdinger equation & Solution…

• Inside the well: 𝑉 𝑥 =0 Time-

𝜕2 Ψ
independent SE: + 𝑘2Ψ 𝑥 =
𝜕𝑥 2
2𝑚𝐸
0 where 𝑘 =
ℏ2

Equation for Classical

Simple Harmonic Oscillator
• General solution:
𝑉 𝑥 = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 Ψ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥
= ∞ for 𝑥 ≤ 0 & 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
(arbitrary constants)
Boundary Conditions
• General solution:
Ψ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥
(arbitrary constants)
𝑑Ψ
• Boundary conditions: Both Ψ(𝑥) and are
𝑑𝑥
continuous everywhere except for 𝑉 = ∞
(where only the first applies): (i) at 𝑥 =
0, Ψ 𝑥 = 0 (ii) at 𝑥 =
𝑎, Ψ 𝑥 = 0.
• BC (i)  𝐵 = 0. Thus, Ψ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 BC (ii)
𝑛𝜋
𝑉 𝑥 = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎  0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎  𝑘 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑎
𝑛𝜋𝑥 • Note: We cannot take 𝑛 = 0  𝐸 = 0
Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin
𝑎 → trivial solution.
Energy Eigenvalues → Zero Point Energy
• Energy Eigenvalues:
2𝑚𝐸 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝑘=  𝐸𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
ℏ2 2𝑚𝑎2
→ discreteness in Energy structure
(arises due to the imposed BCs)
→ Energy values are quantized!
• Energy levels are not equispaced.
• 𝑛: quantum number of Energy level 𝐸𝑛
𝜋 2 ℏ2
• Lowest energy: 𝐸1 = → Ground state
2𝑚𝑎2
 Discussions
1) It is interesting to note that the order of magnitude of the Ground
𝜋 2 ℏ2 ℎ2
state energy: 𝐸1 = = is in agreement with the Uncertainty
2𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2
ℏ ℏ
relation. Since, Δ𝑥 ~ 𝑎 ⇒ Δ𝑝 ~ (∵ Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥ ). This implies a
2𝑎 2
𝑝2 ℏ2
minimum K.E. of = → of the same order as 𝐸1 .
2𝑚 8𝑚𝑎2
2) Energy spectrum is discrete and non-degenerate. The spacing
𝜋 2 ℏ2
between successive levels is Δ𝐸 = 2𝑛 + 1 . As the dimensions
2𝑚𝑎2
of the box (potential well) increases, the levels come closer together.
In the limit: 𝑎 → ∞, Δ𝐸 → 0 and the levels form a continuum
spectrum corresponding to a free particle.
Energy Eigenfunctions

• Solution: In
regions 𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎: Ψ(𝑥) = 0 In
𝑛𝜋𝑥
region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎: Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin
𝑎
• Normalization of Ψ(𝑥):
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = sin
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
Energy Eigenfunctions…
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
• Properties:Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = sin
𝑎 𝑎

1. Non-degenerate states/eigenfunctions
2. Alternately even & odd w.r.t. center of potential
well: Ψ1 is even, Ψ2 is odd, Ψ3 is odd.
3. Ψ𝑛 will have (𝑛 + 1) nodes.
4. Eigenfunctions are mutually orthogonal
and normalized, forming Orthonormal
+∞ ∗
𝑎 states: ‫׬‬−∞ Ψ𝑚 Ψ𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛿𝑚𝑛
5. They are complete: Ω 𝑥 = σ𝑗 𝑐𝑗 Ψ𝑗
 Discussions
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
1) Stationary states: Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = sin . (Time-independent SE)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑖
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 − 𝐸𝑛 𝑡
Complete solution (SS): Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = sin 𝑒 ℏ (Time-depen. SE)
𝑎 𝑎
Most general solution:
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑖 𝑛2 𝜋2 ℏ2
− 2 𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑐𝑛 Ψ𝑛 𝑥, 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑐𝑛 sin 𝑒 ℏ 2𝑚𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
𝑛 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑Ψ𝑛 𝑥 𝑛𝜋
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
2) Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = sin and = cos .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
𝑑Ψ𝑛 𝑥
Note: Ψ𝑛 𝑥 is continuous everywhere but is discontinuous at
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑎, because 𝑉(𝑥) becomes infinite there.
Momentum Eigenvalues
• Momentum Eigenvalues:
𝑝𝑛 2 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2 𝑛𝜋ℏ
= 𝐸𝑛 = . Thus, 𝑝𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
2𝑚 2𝑚𝑎2 𝑎

→ discreteness in momentum structure

→ Momentum values are quantized! (again, due to the imposed BCs)
• Difference between Momenta of consecutive energy levels is
𝜋ℏ
constant and equal to .
𝑎
Position Probability
• Probability of finding the particle over a small distance 𝑑𝑥 at position
𝑥 is 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
2 2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
• Probability density: 𝑃 𝑥 = Ψ𝑛 𝑥 = sin , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑎 𝑎
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 (2𝑠+1)𝜋
• 𝑃 𝑥 is maximum when sin = 1 = sin , s = 0,1,2,3 …
𝑎 2
𝑎 𝑎 3𝑎 5𝑎
 𝑥 = 2𝑠 + 1 = , , ,….
2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛
 Most-probable positions of the particle.
𝑎
• For 𝑛 = 1, most-probable position is at: 𝑥 = ;
2
𝑎 3𝑎
For 𝑛 = 2, it is at: 𝑥 = , ;
4 4
𝑎 3𝑎 5𝑎
For 𝑛 = 3, it is at: 𝑥 = , ,
6 6 6
Probability…
Ψ𝑛 𝑥 Ψ𝑛 𝑥 2

𝑎 𝑎
Probability…
The QM result is quite different from
the Classical one:
In CM → particle in such a potential box
would travel with uniform velocity from one
wall to the other, and at the walls it would
be perfectly reflected. Thus, the probability
of finding the particle within the a small
distance 𝑑𝑥 anywhere in the box is the
same and equal to 𝑑𝑥/𝑎. The probability
density is 1/𝑎 (represented by the straight
line at height 1/𝑎 in the figure).

𝑎
Classical Probability
density = 1/𝑎
Free Particle Solution
(wave packet)
 Schrӧdinger equation & Solution
𝑝2
• Potential energy 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0 or constant 𝑉0 , Total Energy: 𝐸 =
2𝑚
ℏ2 𝜕 2 Ψ
• Time-independent Schrӧdinger equation: − =𝐸Ψ Solution
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑖𝑘𝑥 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 2𝑚𝐸
→ Ψ 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 , 𝑘=
ℏ2
ℏ2 𝜕 2 Ψ 𝜕Ψ
• Time-dependent Schrӧdinger equation: − = 𝑖ℏ Total
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡
𝑖
−ℏ𝐸𝑡
solution → Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑒
ℏ𝑘 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥+2𝑚 𝑡
• Wave function: Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
 Free particle Solution
ℏ𝑘 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥+2𝑚 𝑡
• Wave function: Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
= 𝛹+ 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝛹− 𝑥, 𝑡
→ Represents a wave of fixed profile, travelling in ±𝑥-direction
→ linear combination of two plane waves 𝛹+ 𝑥, 𝑡 and 𝛹− 𝑥, 𝑡 .
ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥− 𝑡
• 𝛹+ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑚 → wave travelling to the right, 𝛹− 𝑥, 𝑡 =
ℏ𝑘
−𝑖𝑘 𝑥+ 𝑡
𝐵𝑒 2𝑚 → wave travelling to the left.
• Associated with a free particle travelling to the right and left with well-
ℏ2 𝑘 2
defined momenta and energy: 𝑝± = ±ℏ𝑘, 𝐸± =
2𝑚
• No Boundary conditions  no restrictions on the values of 𝑘 or 𝐸.
 Physical subtleties!!
The Free particle problem is easy to solve yet it presents a number of physical
subtleties….
1. Discrepancy between Speed of the wave & speed of the particle
ℏ𝑘 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥+2𝑚 𝑡
Wave function: Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
= 𝛹+ 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝛹− 𝑥, 𝑡
→ Represents a wave of fixed profile, travelling in
ℏ𝑘
±𝑥-direction at speed: 𝑣quantum = .
2𝑚
𝑝 ℏ𝑘
Classical speed of free particle: 𝑣classical = = .
𝑚 𝑚
Thus, 𝑣classical = 2 𝑣quantum
 Particle travels twice as fast as the wave that represents it?!
 Physical subtleties!!...
2. Probability densities are constant: They neither depend on 𝑥 nor 𝑡. Wave
ℏ𝑘 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥+2𝑚 𝑡
function: 𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
Probability densities: 𝑃+ = 𝛹+ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 = 𝐴 2

𝑃− = 𝛹− 𝑥, 𝑡 2 = 𝐵 2

This is due to the complete loss of information about the position and time for
ℏ2 𝑘 2
a state with definite values of momentum: 𝑝± = ±ℏ𝑘 and energy: 𝐸± =
2𝑚
→ consequence of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle: when the momentum
and energy of a particle are known exactly, Δ𝑝 = 0 and Δ𝐸 = 0, there must
be total uncertainty about its position and time: Δ𝑥 → ∞ and Δ𝑡 → ∞.
3. Wavefunction is not normalizable!
ℏ𝑘 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥+2𝑚 𝑡
Wave function: 𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
+∞ +∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛹+ ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝛹+ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝐴 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑥 → ∞
+∞ +∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛹− ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝛹− 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝐵 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑥 → ∞
• The solutions 𝛹± 𝑥, 𝑡 are thus unphysical; physical wave functions must
be square-integrable.
 Free Particle Solution?
• A free particle, thus, cannot have sharply defined momenta and energy
(unlike the classical case). Hence, solutions cannot be plane waves:
ℏ𝑘 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥+2𝑚 𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
• Answer is: Wave packet or a superposition of plane waves
+∞
1 ℏ𝑘
𝑖𝑘 𝑥−2𝑚 𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = න 𝜙 𝑘 𝑒 𝑑𝑘
2𝜋
−∞
Where, 𝜙 𝑘 , the amplitude of the wave packet is given by the Fourier
transform of Ψ 𝑥, 0 :
+∞
1
𝜙 𝑘 = න Ψ 𝑥, 0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋
−∞
• The wave packet solution cures all the physical subtleties.
 Group velocity & Phase velocity
• How information about velocity is contained in the free particle wave
function?
• Essential idea: A wave packet is a superposition of plane waves whose
amplitude is modulated by 𝜙 𝑘 . It consists of “ripples” contained within an
“envelope”.
• Speed of individual “ripples” →
phase velocity:
𝜔 ℏ𝑘
𝑣phase = = = 𝑣quantum
𝑘 2𝑚
• Speed of the “envelope” →
group velocity:
𝑑𝜔
𝑣group = = 2 𝑣phase
𝑑𝑘
1-D Finite Potential Well
OR
1-D Finite Box
Finite Square Well Potential
𝑉 𝑥 =0 for −𝑎/2 < 𝑥 < 𝑎/2
= 𝑉0 for 𝑥 > 𝑎/2

• 1-D motion of a particle in an finite well.

• Two physically interesting cases are:
1. 𝐸 > 𝑉0 ⇒ scattering solution
2. 𝐸 < 𝑉0 ⇒ bound state solution
Finite Square Well Potential → Case 1: 𝑬 > 𝑽𝟎
⇒ scattering solutions
𝐸 • Classically, a particle incident from the left,
with constant momentum 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉0 ), will
speed up to 2𝑚𝐸 between −𝑎/2 < 𝑥 <
𝑎/2 , and then slow down to its initial
momentum in the region 𝑥 > 𝑎/2. All the
particles that come from the left will be
transmitted, none will be reflected back. Thus
𝑇 = 1 and 𝑅 = 0.
• Quantum mechanically, we will get a finite
reflection coefficient and 𝑅 ≠ 0. The wave
function will display an oscillating pattern in all
three regions.
Finite Square Well Potential → Case 2: 𝑬 < 𝑽𝟎
⇒ bound state solutions
• Classically, when 𝐸 < 𝑉0 the particle is
completely confined to the region −𝑎/2 <
𝑥 < 𝑎/2 ; it will bounce back and forth
between the walls at 𝑥 = −𝑎/2 and 𝑥 = 𝑎/2
with constant momentum 𝑝 = 2𝑚𝐸.
• Quantum mechanically, the solutions to the
Schrӧdinger equation yield a discrete energy
spectrum and wave functions that decay in the
two regions 𝑥 < −𝑎/2 and 𝑥 > 𝑎/2 , but
oscillate in −𝑎/2 < 𝑥 < 𝑎/2.
Finite Square Well Potential

𝐸 Case 2: 𝑬 < 𝑽𝟎
⇒ bound state solution
Since 𝑉 −𝑥 = 𝑉 𝑥 ,
the solutions are
either symmetric or
anti-symmetric in 𝑥.
Schrӧdinger equation

𝑉 𝑥 =0 for −𝑎/2 < 𝑥 < 𝑎/2

= 𝑉0 for 𝑥 > 𝑎/2
Time-independent SE
𝐸 • Region II:
𝜕2 Ψ
𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝑘 2 Ψ 𝑥 = 0 for 𝑥 < 𝑎/2
𝜕2 Ψ
• Regions I & III: − 𝛾 2 Ψ 𝑥 = 0 for 𝑥 > 𝑎/2
𝜕𝑥 2
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚(𝑉0 −𝐸)
• Here, 𝑘 = , 𝛾=
ℏ2 ℏ2
Case 1: 𝑬 > 𝑽𝟎 →Ψ 𝑥 ?

• The wave function will

display an oscillating
pattern in all three regions.
• However, the wave
functions would not have
vanished at large distance
from the origin.
• Such solutions are of great
importance in connection with
scattering of a particle by a force
field where energy is specified.
 Schrӧdinger equation & Solutions
• Regions I & III:
𝜕2 Ψ 2𝑚(𝑉0 −𝐸)
− 𝛾 2Ψ 𝑥 = 0 , 𝛾 =
𝐸 𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

• General solution:
Region I: ΨI 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝐹𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
I II II
Region III:ΨIII 𝑥 = 𝐺𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
I
• Ψ(𝑥) cannot grow exponentially (or,
increase indefinitely) for large values
of 𝑥 . Thus we put 𝐹 = 0 in Region I
and 𝐺 = 0 in Region II.
• Region I → ΨI 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝛾𝑥
𝑉 𝑥 = 0 for −𝑎/2 < 𝑥 < 𝑎/2
Region III → ΨIII 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
= 𝑉0 for 𝑥 > 𝑎/2
 Schrӧdinger equation & Solutions

• Region II:
𝐸 •
𝜕2 Ψ
+ 𝑘2Ψ 𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
I II II • with 𝑘 =
2𝑚𝐸
ℏ2
I General solution:
ΨII 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥
= Ψ𝑎 𝑥 + Ψ𝑠 (𝑥)

𝑉 𝑥 =0 for −𝑎/2 < 𝑥 < 𝑎/2

= 𝑉0 for 𝑥 > 𝑎/2
Infinite Finite 2
(𝐸 < 𝑉0 ) Ψ𝑛 𝑥 Ψ𝑛 𝑥
Ψ
𝑉0
Ψ

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Ψ 2
Ψ
Next step → Continuity at the boundary
𝑑Ψ 𝑥
• The next step is to impose boundary conditions: Ψ 𝑥 and are
𝑑𝑥
continuous across the boundaries at 𝑥 = 𝑎/2 and 𝑥 = −𝑎/2. But we
can save a little time by noting that this potential is “symmetric” or
“even”: 𝑉 −𝑥 = 𝑉 𝑥 . So, we can assume
with no loss of generality that the solutions are either even (symmetric)
or odd (anti-symmetric) in 𝑥.
• The advantage of this is that we need to only impose the boundary
conditions on one side (say at 𝑥 = 𝑎/2); the other side is then
automatically taken care of, since Ψ −𝑥 = ±Ψ 𝑥 .
 Even & Odd solutions
Symmetric Solution Anti-symmetric Solution
 𝒅𝚿 𝒙
Symmetric solution: Continuity of 𝚿 𝒙 and
𝒅𝒙
At 𝑥 = 𝑎/2:
• Ψ 𝑥 is continuous 
𝛾𝑎
𝑘𝑎 −2
𝐵 cos = 𝐷𝑒
I II III 2
𝑑Ψ 𝑥
• is continuous 
𝑑𝑥 𝛾𝑎
𝑘𝑎 −2
−𝑘𝐵 sin = −𝛾𝐷𝑒
2
𝑘𝑎 𝛾 𝑉0 −𝐸
• Thus, tan = =
2 𝑘 𝐸
Transcendental equation
• Roots of this eq. → discrete values of 𝐸.
(using numerical or graphical methods)
Symmetric solution: Energy Eigenvalues
At 𝑥 = 𝑎/2: Transcendental
equation
𝑘𝑎 𝛾 𝑉0 −𝐸
• tan = =
2 𝑘 𝐸

I I III • For 𝑉0 ≫ 𝐸, RHS → ∞, so one obtains

𝑘𝑎 𝜋
I = 2𝑞 + 1 , 𝑞 = 0, 1, 2, …
2 2
2𝑞+1 2 𝜋2 ℏ2
• 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸2𝑞+1 = 2 , 𝑛 = 2𝑞 + 1
2𝑚𝑎
→Same as that for Infinite Potential Well, except, here
we are restricted by odd values: ( 𝑛 = 2𝑞 + 1 ) as
we considered only the symmetric solution.
• For 𝑉0 → ∞, γ → ∞ and the wave function
would vanish, Ψ 𝑥 → 0, in the region 𝑥 >
𝑎/2.
 𝒅𝚿 𝒙
Anti-symmetric solution: Continuity of 𝚿 𝒙 ,
𝒅𝒙
At 𝑥 = 𝑎/2: Energy Eigenvalues
• Transcendental equation:
𝑘𝑎 𝛾 𝑉0 −𝐸
cot = − =−
2 𝑘 𝐸
• For 𝑉0 → ∞,
2𝑠 2 𝜋2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸2𝑠 = 2 , 𝑠 = 1, 2,3, … 
2𝑚𝑎
Energy Eigenvalues 𝑛 = 2𝑠
→Same as that for Infinite Potential Well, except, here we
are restricted by even values: (𝑛 = 2𝑠) as we considered
only the anti-symmetric solution.

• For 𝑉0 → ∞, γ → ∞ and the wave function would vanish, Ψ 𝑥 → 0, in

the region 𝑥 > 𝑎/2.
Comparison: Infinite & Finite Well Potential
Infinite Finite
(𝐸 < 𝑉0 )
𝑉0 • Finite potential well → wave
Ψ Ψ function with an exponentially
decaying penetration into the
“classically” forbidden region: 𝑥 <
− 𝑎/2 and 𝑥 > 𝑎/2.

𝑎 𝑎
Comparison: Infinite & Finite Well Potential
• Confining a particle to a
smaller space requires a
larger confinement
energy. Since the wave
function penetration
effectively "enlarges the
box", the finite
well energy levels are
lower than those for
the infinite well.
Infinite Well Potential → Wave function & Probability
Ψ𝑛 𝑥 Ψ𝑛 𝑥 2

𝑎 𝑎
Finite Well Potential → Wave function & Probability
Ψ𝑛 𝑥 Ψ𝑛 𝑥 2

2
Ψ Ψ
Transcendental Equations
• Cannot be solved directly. Solve numerically or graphically by writing
them in the following forms.
𝑘𝑎 2𝑚𝐸𝑎2 2𝑚𝑉0 𝑎2
• Define: η = = and 𝛼 =
2 4ℏ2 4ℏ2
Symmetric case Anti-symmetric case
𝜂 tan 𝜂 = 𝛼 2 − 𝜂2 −𝜂 cot 𝜂 = 𝛼 2 − 𝜂2
 Transcendental Equations…
𝑘𝑎 2𝑚𝐸𝑎2 2𝑚𝑉0 𝑎2
• η= = & 𝛼=
2 4ℏ2 4ℏ2
• Symmetric: 𝜂 tan 𝜂
“Solid curve”
• Anti-symmetric: −𝜂 cot 𝜂
“Dotted curve”
• “Circular portions”: 𝛼 2 − 𝜂2
• Shown for 𝛼 = 2 and 𝛼 = 5.
• Points of intersection with the “circular
portions” →
Energy Eigenvalues