Meteorology and Natural Purification Processes

Elemental Properties of the Atmosphere

• The source of all meteorological

phenomena is a basic, but variable,
ordering of the elemental properties of that
atmosphere – heat, pressure, wind and
moisture.
• All weather (pressure systems, wind
speed and direction, humidity,
temperature, and precipitation) ultimately
results from variable relationships of heat,
pressure, wind and moisture.
 Scales of Motion
• The interaction of these four elements may
be observed on several different levels or
scales.
• These scales of motion are related to
mass movements of air which may be
global, continental, regional or local in
scope.
• According to their geographic range of
influence, the scales of motion may be
designated as macroscale, mesoscale or
microscale
 Scales of Motion (Macroscale)
• Atmospheric motion involves the planetary
patterns of circulation, the grand sweep of air
currents over hemisphere.
• The sun’s rays heat the earth near the equator
to a greater extent than at the poles.
• This would set up two
theoretical cells involving only
longitudinal motion.
• These occur on scales of
thousands of km and are
exemplified by the semi-
permanent high- and low-
pressure areas over oceans
and continents.
 Scales of Motion (Macroscale)
• The effect of the earth’s rotation on wind
velocity and direction is called the Coriolis
force and this force has major significance
in the formation of weather.
• Air movement on the global scale is not
simply in longitudinal direction.
• The general global circulation pattern is
composed of three cells of air movement
in each hemisphere.
 Scales of Motion (Mesoscale)
• Secondary, or mesoscale, circulation
patterns develop over regional geographic
units, primarily because of the influence of
regional or local topography.
• Air movement on this scale is affected by
the transfiguration of the earth’s surface –
location of mountain ranges, of oceanic
bodies, of forestation, and of urban
development.
• This phenomenon occurs on scales of
hundreds of kilometers.
 Scales of Motion (Microscale)
• This phenomena occurs over areas of less
than 10 km and can be exemplified by the
meandering and dispersion of smoke
plumes from industrial stacks.
• This occurs within the friction layer, the
layer of atmosphere at ground level where
effects of frictional stress and thermal
changes can cause winds to deviate
markedly from a standard pattern.
• Just like the mesoscale, the air movement
of this scale levels is of vital concern in the
control of air pollution.
 Heat

• The heat energy in the atmosphere comes

from the sun as short-wave radiation
(about 0.5 µm), mostly in the form of visible
light.
• The earth emits much longer waves (ave.
of 10 µm) than it receives, mostly in the
form of nonvisible heat radiation.
 Heat
• Some of the solar rays never reach
the earth at all but are reflected back
to space by individual particles in the
air and by clouds.

• Solar rays may also be reflected back

to space by the ground itself, with
surface characteristics being a major
factor in the rate of reflection.

• Some of the sun’s rays are scattered

by intervening air molecules. It is this
scattering of rays of different wave
lengths that gives a clear sky its deep
blue color.

• Some of the sun’s rays are absorbed by ozone, water vapor, CO2, dust, and
clouds of lower atmosphere. The earth’s surface is the prime absorber of solar
energy.
• Thus, the troposphere is heated primarily from the ground, not from the sun.
 Tropospheric Heating
Four important ways in which heat transfer
occurs in the troposphere are through the:
• Greenhouse effect
• Evaporation-condensation cycle
• Conduction
• Convection
 Greenhouse Effect
• Solar energy (light radiation) absorbed by
the earth is converted to heat energy and
emitted into space as long-wave (heat)
radiation.
• Although water vapor and CO2 are
transparent to short-wave radiation, they
are nearly opaque to long-wave radiation.
• Thus, much of the earth’s re-radiation is
retained, raising the temp. in the atm.
• This phenomenon is known as the
greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect phenomenon takes its name from the principle of
greenhouse gas construction, where glass operates in a fashion similar to CO2
and water vapor, allowing solar rays to pass unhindered into the greenhouse, but
blocking reverse radiation.
 Evaporation-Condensation Cycle
• Evaporation of water requires expenditure
of energy, and the needed energy is
absorbed from the atm and stored in water
vapor.
• Upon condensation this heat energy is
released.
• Bec. evaporation usua. takes place on or
near the earth’s surface, while
condensation normally occurs in upper
regions of the troposphere, the evap-
condensation process tends to move heat
from lower to higher regions.
 Conduction
• Transfer of heat from earth to atm is also
accomplished through the process of
conduction, heat transfer by direct physical
contact of air and earth.
• As parcels of air move downward, they
come into contact with the warmer ground
and take heat from the earth into the atm.
 Convection
• Convection, a process initiated by the
rising warm air and the sinking of cold air,
is a major force in transferring heat from
earth to troposphere.
• It is a primary factor in movement of air
masses in macroscale.
 Temperature Measurement
• Max., min. and ave. temps. of the ambient
air are generally recorded at weather
stations, and normal dry temps. for a
specific region can be calculated by
averaging daily temps. over a 10-, 20-, or
30-yr period.
 Lapse Rates
• In the troposphere, the temp. of the ambient air
usua. decreases with an increase in altitude.
• This rate of temp. change is called the lapse rate.
• This rate can be determined for a particular place
at a particular time by sending up a balloon
equipped with a thermometer.
• The balloon moves thru the air and the temp
gradient of ambient air, which the rising balloon
measures, is called the ambient lapse rate, the
environmental lapse rate, or the prevailing lapse
rate.
 Pressure
• In addition to heat, pressure is an impt.
variable in meteorological phenomena.
• Bec. air has weight, the whole atm.
presses down upon the earth beneath it.
• This pressure is commonly measured with
a mercury barometer, an instrument which
measures the weight, over a unit area, of a
column of air extending to the top of the
atm.
 Pressure
• Meterologists usua. express pressure in millibars, and
one std. atm. is 1103 millibars.
• On weather maps, pressure distribution throughout the
atm. is represented by isobars, lines connecting points of
equal atmospheric pressure.
• These lines delineate
high- and low-pressure
cells that influence the
development of major
weather systems.
 Pressure
• Pressure Systems
The location of continents, the differences in surface
roughness and radiation, wind energy and global circulation
patterns all combine to force development of high- and low-
pressure systems or cells. The circulation or movement of
these high- and low-pressure systems is responsible for many
weather changes
o High-pressure systems – are related to clear skies,
light winds, and atmospheric stability; reflect the uniformity
of air masses; dispersion is restricted and pollutants are
likely to build to undesirable levels.
o Low-pressure systems - horizontal air movement is
counterclockwise and vertical movement is upward in the
northern hemisphere; usua. associated with cloudy skies,
gusty winds, atmospheric instability, and the formation of
fronts; dispersion of pollutants is likely and air pollution
problems are minimal.
 Pressure
• Fronts
When air masses having different properties come
together, they do not mix readily. Warmer, less dense air
tends to override the colder, denser air.
The sloping, wedge-shaped zones of transition between
two air masses of different density are called fronts.
o Warm Fronts – occur when warm air advances
while cold air retreats. The warm air rises over the
cold air, and a wide band of precipitation results.
o Cold Fronts – occur when cold air advances on a
cell of warmer air .
When the transition zone between warm and cold air
does not move one way or the other, that zone is
called the stationary front.
 Wind
• Wind is simply air in motion.
• On a macroscale, the movement originates in unequal
distribution of atmospheric temp. and pressure over the
earth’s surface and is significantly influenced by the
earth’s rotation.
• On the meso- and microscale, topographical features
critically influence wind flow. Surface variations have an
obvious effect on the velocity and direction of air
movement.
• Wind channeling in river valleys is a phenomenon
affecting many large urban areas.
 Moisture
• Evaporation to condensation to precipitation is a
constantly repeating cycle in our environment.
• Moisture is first transferred from the earth’s surface into
the atmosphere.
• This water vapor then condenses and form clouds.
• The cycle completes itself as the condensed vapor is
returned to the earth’s surface in some form of
precipitation – rain, hail, snow or sleet.
• Topography plays an impt. role in moisture distribution.
• Mountains tend to force the rise of moisture-laden air,
resulting in heavier precipitation on the windward side of
a range.
 Relative Humidity
• This measures the amount of water vapor
present in the atm.
• The higher the temp of the air, the more
water vapor it can hold before it becomes
saturated.
• It is measured by an instrument called a
psychrometer.