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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

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Chapter 1 - PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
Index:
• Introduction
• Indian Geographical Extent and Frontiers
• Rock System of India (Archaean, Purana, Dra-
vidian & Aryan)
• Mountain Systems
• Indian Peninsular Plateau (Deccan Plateau)
• Plains
• Coastal Plains and Islands
• Deserts
Introduction:
India, often referred to as a subcontinent, is
known for its rich and diverse physical geog-
raphy. Encompassing an area of over 3.28
million square kilometers, it stretches from
the snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas in the
north to the sun-drenched coastal villages of the
south, and from the arid deserts of the west to
the humid deltas of the east. Its physical fea- Figure 1.1 : India: Extent and Standard Meridian
tures include a vast peninsular plateau, fertile • The Arabian Sea borders India on the west,
plains, extensive coastlines, and a network of while the Lakshadweep Sea lies to the south-
rivers. This physical diversity has a profound west.
influence on the country’s climate, agriculture, • The Bay of Bengal is situated on the eastern
biodiversity, culture, and economic develop- side, and the Indian Ocean proper lies to the
ment, making India a fascinating subject of south. Separating India from the island nation
geographical study. of Sri Lanka are the Palk Strait and the Gulf of
Indian Geographical Extent and Fron- Mannar.
• The Maldives, another archipelago, is posi-
tiers: tioned 125 kilometers south of India’s Lak-
• India, the seventh-largest country in the world, shadweep Islands. Additionally, the Andaman
is geographically located in South Asia. It is and Nicobar Islands, located 1,200 kilometers
situated north of the equator, with coordinates southeast of the mainland, share maritime bor-
ranging from 8°4’ north to 37°6’ north lati- ders with Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.
tude and 68°7’ east to 97°25’ east longitude.
Rock System of India
• India stretches approximately 3,214 kilometers
The rock system refers to the classification and
from its northernmost point to the southernmost
categorization of rocks based on their forma-
tip and spans about 2,933 kilometers from the
tion and age. In India, the geological history is
easternmost to the westernmost point.
divided into different rock systems, each rep-
• To the south, India is bounded by the Indian
resenting a specific period of time and charac-
Ocean. Its extensive coastline of 7,516.6 kilo-
terized by distinctive rock types. These rock
meters is formed by various bodies of water.
systems provide valuable insights into the geo-
logical evolution of the Indian subcontinent.

1
 The major rock systems in India are the Ar-
chaean, Purana, Dravidian, and Aryan.
1. Archaean Rock System
The Archaean rock system in India is the old-
est and most ancient rock system, dating back
to more than 3.8 billion years. It is primarily
composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Here is a detailed description of the Archaean
rock system and its geographical distribution in
India:
• Rock Types: The Archaean rock system con-
sists of a variety of rock types, including gran-
ite, gneiss, schist, and quartzite. These rocks
were formed through intense volcanic activity
and subsequent metamorphism.
• Geographical Distribution: The Archaean
rock system is divided into two major subdivi-
sions: the Dharwar and the Singhbhum.
o Dharwar Subdivision: This subdivision is
widespread in the southern and central parts of
India. It encompasses regions in the states of
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and
Maharashtra. The Dharwar rocks are known for
their rich mineral deposits, including gold, iron
ore, and manganese. The region is character-
ized by extensive granite-gneiss complexes and
greenstone belts.
o Singhbhum Subdivision: This subdivision
is primarily found in the eastern part of In-
dia, covering parts of Jharkhand and Odisha.
The Singhbhum rocks are characterized by
iron ore deposits and consist of rocks such as
schist, gneiss, and granite. This region has wit-
nessed intense tectonic activities over millions
of years, leading to the formation of valuable
mineral resources such as copper and uranium.
2. Purana rock system
The Purana rock system in India represents a
significant period in geological history, span-
ning from about 2.5 billion to 1.6 billion years
ago. It is characterized by sedimentary rocks
that were deposited in both marine and conti-
nental environments. The Purana rock system
is further divided into three major subdivisions:
2
Figure 1.2 : Rock System of India
the Cuddapah, Vindhyan, and Gondwana. Here
is a detailed description of the Purana rock sys-
tem and its geographical distribution in India:
• Rock Types: The Purana rock system is pri-
marily composed of sedimentary rocks. These
include shale, sandstone, limestone, conglom-
erate, and dolomite. The sedimentary nature
of these rocks suggests the presence of ancient
seas, rivers, lakes, and terrestrial environments
during the Purana period.
Geographical Distribution:
o Cuddapah Subdivision: The Cuddapah subdi-
vision is predominantly found in the southern
part of India, particularly in the state of Andhra
Pradesh. It is also referred to as the Cuddapah
Basin.
o Vindhyan Subdivision: The Vindhyan subdi-
vision is distributed in central India, covering
parts of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar
Pradesh.
o Gondwana Subdivision: The Gondwana sub-
division is extensive and covers a significant
part of India. It includes regions in central, east-
ern, and northeastern India, spanning across
states such as Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, and
parts of Assam.
• Mineral Resources: The Purana rock system
is associated with significant mineral resources.
The Cuddapah rocks contain limestone, which is
extensively utilized in the cement industry. The
Vindhyan rocks host various mineral deposits,
including iron ore, copper, and limestone. The
Gondwana rocks are famous for their extensive
 coal deposits, which have played a vital role in
India’s energy sector.
3. Dravidian Rock System
The Dravidian Rock System also referred to
as the Paleozoic rock formation, represents
a significant period in the geological history
of India. It corresponds to the Paleozoic era,
which occurred approximately 600-300 mil-
lion years ago. Here are further details about
the Dravidian Rock System:
• Geographical Distribution: The Dravidian
rocks are primarily found in the extra-Penin-
sular regions of India, including parts of the
Himalayas and the Gangetic plain. However,
these rocks are relatively scarce in the Peninsu-
lar shield, with only small occurrences reported
in Umaria, Rewa.
• Major Regions: The major regions in India
where Dravidian rocks are observed include Pir
Panjal, Handwara, Lidder Valley, and Anantnag
in Kashmir. In addition, the Spiti, Kangra, and
Shimla regions of Himachal Pradesh, as well
as the Garhwal and Kumaon regions of Uttara-
khand, also showcase Dravidian rock forma-
tions.
• Rock Types: The Dravidian rocks encompass
a variety of rock types, including shales, sand-
stones, clays, quartzites, slates, salts, talc, dolo-
mite, and marble. These rocks reflect a range of
sedimentary, metamorphic, and chemical pro-
cesses that occurred during the Paleozoic era.
• Fossils and Marine Conditions: The Dravid-
ian rocks provide ample evidence of the be-
ginning of life on Earth’s surface. They exhibit
abundant fossil remains, indicating the presence
of marine conditions during the Paleozoic era.
These fossils are significant in understanding
the evolution of life forms during this period.
4. Aryan Rock System
The Aryan Rock System in India encompass-
es various geological formations, including
the Gondwana System, the Jurassic System,
the Deccan Trap, and rocks from the Tertiary
and Quaternary Systems. Here is a detailed ex-
planation of each component, including their
3
geographical distribution, major regions, rock
types, fossils and marine conditions, coal for-
mation, and geological ages:
Gondwana System:
• Geographical Distribution: The Gondwana
System is widespread across different regions
of India, particularly in Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, and other parts of central and eastern
India.
• Major Regions: The Gondwana System de-
rives its name from the Gonds, the first inhab-
itants of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. The
deposits of the Gondwana System were formed
in synclinal troughs on the surface of an ancient
plateau.
• Rock Types: The Gondwana System consists
of sedimentary deposits laid down in these
troughs. The rock types include sandstones,
conglomerates, shales, and coal seams.
• Fossils and Marine Conditions: The Gondwa-
na System is known for the abundance of plant
fossils, including spores, pollen, and plant frag-
ments.
• Coal Formation: The Gondwana rocks con-
tain nearly 98% of India’s coal reserves. The
coal deposits formed from the accumulation
and compaction of plant material in the ancient
swamps and forests of the Gondwana period.
Jurassic System:
• Geographical Distribution: The Jurassic Sys-
tem is primarily observed in Rajasthan and
Kuchchh, along with a transgression on the
eastern coast of the Indian Peninsula between
Guntur and Rajahmundry.
• Major Regions: In Rajasthan and Kuchchh, the
Jurassic System is characterized by the deposi-
tion of a thick succession of shallow water de-
posits.
• Rock Types: The rocks of the Jurassic System
in Kuchchh include coral limestone, sandstone,
conglomerates, and shales. These rock types
provide evidence of ancient marine conditions
and coral reef ecosystems.
Deccan Trap:
• Geographical Distribution: The Deccan Trap
covers a vast area of Peninsular India, including
Kuchchh, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa
plateau, and northern Karnataka.
• Major Regions: The Deccan Trap is a result of
extensive volcanic eruptions that occurred be-
tween the end of the Cretaceous period and the
beginning of the Eocene.
• Rock Types: The volcanic activity led to the
release of basaltic lava through fissures, which
spread over an area of approximately 1 million
square kilometers. The basaltic lava flows have
distinctive flat tops and steep sides, resembling
steps or traps.
• Coal Formation: The Deccan Trap does not
contain significant coal deposits. However, the
weathering and erosion processes acting on
these rocks have contributed to the formation
of black cotton soil known as “regur.”
• Geological Ages: The Deccan Trap formed
during the late Cretaceous to early Eocene peri-
od, with the volcanic activity spanning several
million years.
Tertiary System:
• Geological Ages: The Tertiary System spans
from the Eocene to the Pliocene epochs, cov-
ering a period of approximately 60 to 7 million
years ago.
• Geological Evolution: The Tertiary System
played a significant role in the geological evo-
lution of India, particularly in the formation of
the Himalayan mountain range.
• Major Events: During the Tertiary period, the
Great Himalayas formed during the Oligocene
epoch, followed by the formation of the Less-
er Himalayas during the Miocene epoch. The
Pliocene and Upper Pliocene epochs witnessed
the formation of the Shiwalik ranges.
• Rock Types: The Tertiary rocks in Gujarat,
Rajasthan, and Assam contain mineral oil de-
posits, indicating the presence of sedimentary
rock formations associated with the Eocene and
Oligocene periods.
4
Quaternary System:
• Geological Ages: The Quaternary System en-
compasses the Pleistocene and Holocene ep-
ochs, representing the most recent period in
geological time.
• Geological Features: The Quaternary rocks
are found in the Ganges and Indus River plains.
They include old alluvial soils known as “Ban-
gar,” which were formed during the Upper and
Middle Pleistocene. The ongoing deposition of
alluvial soils in the current Holocene epoch is
referred to as “Khadar.”
• Kashmir Valley: The Pleistocene epoch played
a significant role in the formation of the Kash-
mir Valley. A lake once occupied the valley, and
the constant deposition of sediments created the
current form, known as “kareva.”
• Thar Desert: Pleistocene-era deposits can be
found in the Thar Desert, where sedimentary
sediments accumulated when the region was
covered by an ocean, known as the “Rann of
Kachchh.”
Mountain Systems
The Himalayan Mountain System
• The Himalayan Mountain System is one of the
most magnificent and iconic mountain ranges
in the world. Spanning across several countries,
including India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet (China),
and Pakistan, the Himalayas have a fascinating
geological history that dates back millions of
years. Here, we delve into the formation of the
Himalayas, exploring the processes that led to
the creation of this majestic mountain range.
Plate Tectonics and Continental Collision:
• The formation of the Himalayas can be attribut-
ed to the collision of the Indian subcontinent
with the Eurasian plate. Around 50 to 55 million
years ago, the Indian subcontinent, which was
once a separate landmass, began its northward
journey, driven by the forces of plate tectonics.
As it moved, the Indian plate encountered re-
sistance from the Eurasian plate, resulting in a
gradual convergence.
Subduction and the Tethys Sea:
• As the Indian plate continued its northward
movement, it started to subduct beneath the
Eurasian plate. Subduction refers to the process
in which one tectonic plate sinks beneath an-
other. In the case of the Himalayas, the Indi-
an plate subducted beneath the Eurasian plate.
This subduction led to the closure of the Tethys
Sea, a vast oceanic basin that once separated the
Indian and Eurasian plates.
Compression and Uplift:
• The ongoing collision between the Indian and
Eurasian plates gave rise to immense compres-
sional forces. These forces caused the rocks at
the leading edge of the Indian plate to crum-
ple, fold, and thrust upwards. The sediments
and marine deposits that had accumulated in
the Tethys Sea were uplifted and transformed
into the towering mountain peaks we now know
as the Himalayas. This process of compression
and uplift is still ongoing today, resulting in the
gradual growth of the Himalayan range.
Thrust Faulting:
• Thrust faulting is a prominent feature of the Hi-
malayas. As the Indian plate continued to push
against the Eurasian plate, large thrust faults
developed along the leading edge of the Indian
plate.
• These faults allowed the Indian rocks to over-
ride the Eurasian rocks, creating the distinct
layering and structures observed in the Hima-
layan range.
• The Main Central Thrust (MCT) and the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT) are two of the major
thrust faults that characterize the Himalayas.
Glacial Processes:
• Glaciers have played a significant role in shap-
ing the Himalayas. Over millions of years, the
Himalayan region has experienced multiple gla-
cial periods, during which immense ice masses
advanced and retreated.
• Glacial erosion has carved deep valleys, created
U-shaped valleys and cirques, and sculpted jag-
ged peaks and knife-edge ridges.
5
• Glacial meltwater has also contributed to the
formation of rivers and the deposition of glacial
sediments, forming vast alluvial plains at the
foothills of the Himalayas.
Ongoing Tectonic Activity:
• The Himalayas are still an active tectonic re-
gion, experiencing ongoing uplift and seismic
activity. The collision between the Indian and
Eurasian plates continues to generate earth-
quakes, including some of the most powerful
and devastating earthquakes in history. The
2015 Nepal earthquake, with a magnitude of
7.8, serves as a reminder of the dynamic nature
of the Himalayas.
Himalayan Ranges:
The Himalayan Mountain System compris-
es several distinct ranges, each with its own
unique characteristics and geographical signif-
icance. Among these ranges, three prominent
ones are the Greater Himalayas, the Middle
Himalayas, and the Shiwalik Range. Let’s
explore each of these ranges in detail:
Greater Himalayas (Himadri):
Also known as the Himadri, the Greater Hima-
layas are the highest and most continuous range
within the Himalayan Mountain System. They
stretch across a vast area, running parallel to the
northern border of the Indian subcontinent. Key
features of the Greater Himalayas include:
• Geographical Distribution: The Greater Hi-
malayas are primarily located in the northern-
most part of the Indian subcontinent, extending
through Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet (China), and the
Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
• Peaks and Glaciers: This range is home to
some of the world’s highest peaks, including
Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Annapur-
na. Glaciers, such as Gangotri, Khumbu, and
Zemu, are found within the Greater Himalayas.
• Rock Types: The Greater Himalayas are pre-
dominantly composed of metamorphic rocks,
including gneiss, schist, and marble. These
rocks have undergone intense heat and pressure
during the mountain-building process.
 Figure 1.3 : Himalayan Mountain: Cross-section view
• Geological Structure: The Greater Himalayas Shiwalik Range (Outer Himalayas):
are characterized by thrust faulting, where In- The Shiwalik Range, also known as the Out-
dian rocks have been thrust over the Eurasian er Himalayas or the Lesser Himalayas, is the
rocks. This geological structure has led to the southernmost range of the Himalayas. It acts as
development of major thrust faults, such as a transition zone between the mountains and the
• the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT).
Middle Himalayas (Himachal):
The Middle Himalayas, also known as the Hi-
machal, lie south of the Greater Himalayas and
north of the Shiwalik Range. This region is
known for its scenic landscapes, diverse flora
and fauna, and cultural significance. Key fea-
tures of the Middle Himalayas include:
• Geographical Distribution: The Middle Hi-
malayas extend across several Indian states,
including Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and
parts of Jammu and Kashmir and Nepal.
Figure 1.4 : Western Himalayas
• Peaks and Valleys: The Middle Himalayas are
characterized by numerous valleys, such as the plains, exhibiting different geological and eco-
Kullu Valley, Kangra Valley, and Garhwal Val- logical features. Key features of the Shiwalik
ley. Several peaks, including Nanda Devi and Range include:
Trishul, are located in this range. • Geographical Distribution: The Shiwalik
• Rock Types: The Middle Himalayas consist Range spans across India, Nepal, and Bhutan.
of a mix of sedimentary, metamorphic, and ig- In India, it stretches from Jammu and Kashmir
neous rocks. Sedimentary rocks, such as lime- in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east.
stone, sandstone, and shale, are commonly • Foothills and Valleys: The Shiwalik Range
found in this region. is characterized by gentle slopes and foothills,
• Forests and Biodiversity: The Middle Himala- forming the gateway to the Himalayas. It is
yas are rich in biodiversity, with diverse forests interspersed with several valleys, such as the
comprising oak, rhododendron, pine, and deo- Doon Valley and the Sikkim Valley.
dar. This region is also home to several wildlife • Rock Types: The Shiwalik Range primarily
species, including the elusive snow leopard and consists of sedimentary rocks, including sand-
the colorful Himalayan monal. stones, conglomerates, and shale. These rocks

6
 were deposited during the geological history of
the region.
• Alluvial Plains: The southern slopes of the Shi-
walik Range give rise to the vast Indo-Gangetic
Plains. The range acts as a source for the sedi-
ments that have been deposited over millions of
years, forming fertile alluvial plains.
Longitudinal Division of Himalayas
A. Punjab Himalayas:
• The Punjab Himalayas are located in the west
ernmost part of the Himalayan range, extending
from the Indus River in the west to the Beas
River in the east.
• This region is characterized by prominent peaks
such as Nanga Parbat, Rakaposhi, and Hara-
mosh. Glaciers like Biafo, Hispar, and Siachen
contribute to the major rivers, including the In-
dus, Jhelum, Chenab, and Ravi.
• The Punjab Himalayas consist primarily of sed-
imentary rocks, including limestone, sandstone,
and shale, which were formed through the accu-
mulation of marine and fluvial sediments over
millions of years.
B. Kumaon Himalayas:
• The Kumaon Himalayas are situated in the cen-
tral part of the Himalayan range, covering the
Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, India.
• This region is home to notable peaks such as
Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Panchchuli. Glaciers
like Pindari, Milam, and Kafni are found in
this region, along with lakes such as Nainital,
Bhimtal, and Sattal.
• The Kumaon Himalayas comprise a mix of sed-
imentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. The
region showcases folded structures, fault lines,
and thrusts due to tectonic activities.
C. Nepal Himalayas:
• The Nepal Himalayas span across Nepal, run-
ning parallel to the southern border of the coun-
try.
• This region is renowned for its towering Figure
peaks, including Mount Everest, Kanchenjun-
ga, Makalu, and Annapurna. Glaciers such as
Khumbu, Langtang, and Rolwaling are found
7
here, and the valleys of Kathmandu, Pokhara,
and Mustang are prominent features.
• The Nepal Himalayas showcase a wide variety
of rock formations, including sedimentary, met-
amorphic, and igneous rocks.
• The presence of the Main Central Thrust (MCT)
and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) indicates
the tectonic activity in the region.
D. Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas:
• The Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas are situat-
ed in the eastern part of the Himalayan range,
covering Darjeeling and Sikkim regions of
India. Prominent peaks in this region include
Kanchenjunga, Kabru, and Pandim.
• Glaciers like Zemu, Rathong, and Talung are
found here, and the valleys of Darjeeling and
Gangtok are popular tourist destinations.
• The Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas comprise a
mix of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous
rocks. The region is known for its complex geo-
logical structures, including the Main Central
Thrust (MCT) and the Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT).
Figure 1.5 : Eastern Himalayas
E. Arunachal Himalayas:
• The Arunachal Himalayas are located in the
northeastern part of the Himalayan range, cov-
ering the Arunachal Pradesh state of India.
• This region is home to peaks like Kangto, Nye-
 gi Kangsang, and Gorichen. Glaciers such as
Siachen, Zemu, and Kupup are found here, and
the Brahmaputra River originates in this region.
• The Arunachal Himalayas consist of sedimenta-
ry, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. The region
also showcases significant faulting and folding
due to tectonic activity.
F. Assam Himalayas:
• The Assam Himalayas are situated in the east-
ernmost part of the Himalayan range, extending
from Arunachal Pradesh to the east of Bhutan.
• Prominent peaks in this region include Namcha
Barwa, Kangto, and Simvo. Glaciers like Kang-
to and Kangla Tarum are found here, and the
region is traversed by several rivers, including
the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
• The Assam Himalayas comprise a combina-
tion of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous
rocks. The region exhibits significant folding
and faulting, with the presence of the Eastern
Syntaxis Zone.
Important Hill Ranges of India
1. Eastern Ghats:
The Eastern Ghats are a mountain range located
along the eastern coast of India, spanning across
the states of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tam-
il Nadu. They extend from West Bengal in the
north to Tamil Nadu in the south, covering a
distance of approximately 1,750 kilometers.
Here are some detailed points about the Eastern
Ghats:
Geological Formation:
• The Eastern Ghats were formed due to tecton-
ic activity and the collision of the Indian Plate
with the Eurasian Plate. The range consists of a
series of hills, plateaus, and valleys, with an av-
erage elevation of 600 to 900 meters. The East-
ern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats and
are characterized by their comparatively lower
elevation and lesser continuous nature.
Major Peaks and Ranges:
• Jindhagada Peak: Situated in the Koraput dis-
trict of Odisha, Jindhagada Peak is the highest
peak in the Eastern Ghat with an elevation of
8
1690m.
• Mahendragiri: Located in the Gajapati district
of Odisha, Mahendragiri is the second highest
peak in the Eastern Ghats, reaching an eleva-
tion of 1,501 meters.
• Papi Hills: Papi Hills, also known as Papi Kon-
dalu, is a scenic hill range in Andhra Pradesh,
formed by the Godavari River. It is a popular
tourist destination.
• Shevaroy Hills: Located in Tamil Nadu, the
Shevaroy Hills are known for their pleasant cli-
mate and beautiful landscapes. Yercaud, a pop-
ular hill station, is situated in this range.
2. Western Ghats:
The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri
Range, are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and
a prominent mountain range along the western
coast of India. Stretching for about 1,600 kilo-
meters from Gujarat in the north to Tamil Nadu
in the south, the Western Ghats are known for
their remarkable biodiversity and scenic land-
scapes. Here are some detailed points about the
Western Ghats:
Geological Formation:
The Western Ghats were formed as a result of in-
tense volcanic activity and tectonic movements.
The range consists of rugged hills, valleys, and
plateaus, with an average elevation of 900 to
1,200 meters. The Western Ghats are younger
than the Eastern Ghats and are characterized by
their higher elevation and continuous mountain
chain.
Major Peaks and Ranges:
• Anamudi: Located in Kerala, Anamudi is the
highest peak in the Western Ghats, reaching an
elevation of 2,695 meters. It is also the highest
point in South India.
• Doddabetta: Situated near Ooty in Tamil Nadu,
Doddabetta is the highest peak in the Nilgiri
Hills, with an elevation of 2,637 meters.
• Mullayanagiri: Located in Karnataka, Mul-
layanagiri is the highest peak in the Baba Bu-
dangiri range, reaching an elevation of 1,930
meters.
Biodiversity Hotspot:
• The Western Ghats are recognized as one of
the world’s biodiversity hotspots. The region is
home to a vast array of plant and animal species,
many of which are endemic and endangered.
• The Western Ghats host dense evergreen for-
ests, shola grasslands, and numerous national
parks and wildlife sanctuaries, including Silent
Valley National Park, Periyar Tiger Reserve,
and Bandipur National Park. The Ghats sup-
port a diverse range of flora, including unique
species of orchids, medicinal plants, and large
canopy trees.
3. Aravali Range:
The Aravali Range is one of the oldest mountain
systems in India, stretching across the states of
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. It runs
approximately 800 kilometers from southwest
to northeast. Here are some key details about
the Aravali Range:
Geological Formation:
• The Aravali Range was formed during the Pro
Figure 1.6: Mountains Peaks in India
9
• terozoic era, making it one of the ancient fold
mountain systems in the world. It consists of
ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks, with
some sedimentary formations.
Geographical Features:
• The Aravali Range is characterized by its rug-
ged hills, plateaus, and narrow valleys. It is in-
terspersed with numerous rocky outcrops and
has an average elevation of 500 to 700 meters.
Mount Abu, located in Rajasthan, is the high-
est peak in this range, reaching an elevation of
1,722 meters.
Biodiversity:
• The Aravali Range supports a unique ecosystem
and is known for its rich biodiversity. It is home
to various species of flora and fauna, including
several endemic and endangered species. The
forests of the Aravali Range provide habitat to
leopards, hyenas, deer, and a wide variety of
bird species.
Cultural Significance:
• The Aravali Range holds great cultural and
 historical importance. It is dotted with ancient
forts, temples, and archaeological sites, reflect-
ing the rich heritage of the region. Some no-
table examples include the Kumbhalgarh Fort,
Amber Fort, and Dilwara Temples.
4. Vindhya Range
The Vindhya Range is located in central India,
extending across the states of Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. It runs approximate-
ly 1,050 kilometers from west to east. Here are
some key details about the Vindhya Range:
Geological Formation:
• The Vindhya Range is composed of ancient
sedimentary rock formations, including sand-
stones, shales, and limestone. It was formed
during the Proterozoic era and is relatively
younger compared to the Aravali Range.
Geographical Features:
• The Vindhya Range consists of low hills, pla-
teaus, and valleys. It acts as a natural boundary
between the Indo-Gangetic Plains to the north
and the Deccan Plateau to the south. The range
has an average elevation of 300 to 600 meters,
with the highest peak being Amarkantak, reach-
ing an elevation of 1,048 meters.
5. Satpura Range
The Satpura Range is situated in central India,
covering parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharash-
tra, and Chhattisgarh. It extends for approxi-
mately 900 kilometers from west to east. Here
are some key details about the Satpura Range:
Geological Formation:
• The Satpura Range is composed of sandstone,
shale, and limestone formations. It was formed
during the Gondwana period, making it rel-
atively younger compared to the Aravali and
Vindhya ranges.
Geographical Features:
• The Satpura Range is known for its rugged
and forested hills, deep valleys, and meander-
ing rivers. It has an average elevation of 600 to
1,350 meters. The highest peak in this range is
Dhupgarh, located in Madhya Pradesh, with an
elevation of 1,350 meters.
10
Biodiversity:
• The Satpura Range is rich in biodiversity and
is home to several wildlife sanctuaries and na-
tional parks, including the Satpura National
Park and the Pench National Park. The forests
of the Satpura Range provide habitat to tigers,
leopards, Indian bison, and a wide range of bird
species.
Cultural Significance:
• The Satpura Range has cultural and historical
importance. It is associated with the Gond tribe,
known for its unique culture and art forms. The
region is also home to ancient cave paintings
and rock shelters, offering insights into the pre-
historic human civilization.
Major Passes in India
1. Passes in North India:
Rohtang Pass:
• Located in the state of Himachal Pradesh,
Rohtang Pass is one of the most famous passes
in India. It lies at an elevation of 3,978 meters in
the Pir Panjal Range of the Himalayas. Rohtang
Pass connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahaul
and Spiti Valleys and provides access to Leh in
Ladakh.
Zoji La:
• Situated in the Union Territory of Ladakh, Zoji
La is a high mountain pass at an altitude of
3,528 meters.
• It is located on the Srinagar-Leh Highway and
serves as a vital link between the Kashmir Val-
ley and Ladakh. Zoji La is known for its chal-
lenging terrain and harsh weather conditions.
Shipki La:
• Located in Himachal Pradesh, Shipki La is a
high mountain pass at an altitude of 3,530 me-
ters.
• It lies on the India-China border and serves as
a trade route between the two countries. Shipki
La is known for its scenic beauty and is an im-
portant strategic pass for India.
Baralacha La:
• Situated in the state of Himachal Pradesh,
Baralacha La is a high mountain pass at an ele-
 vation of 4,890 meters.
• It is located on the Manali-Leh Highway and
serves as a crucial link between the Lahaul and
Ladakh regions. Baralacha La offers breathtak-
ing views of snow-capped mountains and pris-
tine lakes.
Khardung La:
• Located in Ladakh, Khardung La is one of the
highest motorable passes in the world, situated
at an altitude of 5,359 meters.
• It connects Leh with the Nubra Valley and is a
popular tourist attraction. Khardung La offers
panoramic views of the surrounding mountains
and is a favorite among adventure enthusiasts.
Niti Pass:
• Niti Pass is located in the state of Uttarakhand,
near the border with Tibet. Situated at an alti-
tude of 5,600 meters, it is one of the highest
passes in the region.
• Niti Pass connects the Niti Valley with the Tibet
Autonomous Region and is known for its chal-
lenging terrain and stunning vistas.
Figure 1.7: Major Mountain Passes of India
11
Lipulekh Pass:
• Lipulekh Pass is located in Uttarakhand, near
the border with Tibet and Nepal.
• It lies at an elevation of 5,334 meters and serves
as an important trade route between India, Chi-
na, and Nepal. Lipulekh Pass is also significant
for its religious importance as it is part of the
Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.
Chang La:
• Chang La is a high mountain pass situated in
Ladakh at an altitude of 5,360 meters. It is one
of the highest motorable passes in the world.
• Chang La connects Leh with the Pangong Lake
and is known for its stunning views and extreme
weather conditions.
Jalori Pass:
• Located in the state of Himachal Pradesh, Jalori
Pass is a scenic mountain pass at an elevation of
3,120 meters.
• It connects the Kullu Valley with the Shimla
district. Jalori Pass offers breathtaking views of
the surrounding Himalayan ranges and is a
popular destination for trekking and nature lovers.
2. Passes in North East India
Nathu La Pass:
• Located on the border between the Indian state
of Sikkim and China’s Tibet Autonomous Re-
gion, Nathu La Pass is one of the highest mo-
torable passes in the world.
• It has historical significance and is a popular
tourist attraction. Nathu La Pass offers breath-
taking views of the surrounding Himalayan
peaks.
Bomdila Pass:
• Situated in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, Bom-
dila Pass is an important gateway to Tawang, a
region known for its Buddhist monasteries and
stunning landscapes.
• The pass offers panoramic views of the Hima-
layas and is a significant route for travel and
trade.
Jelep La Pass:
• Located in the East Sikkim district of Sikkim,
Jelep La Pass connects India and Tibet.
• It is an ancient trade route and played a crucial
role in the historic Silk Road. The pass offers
stunning views of snow-capped mountains and
is a popular tourist destination.
Se La Pass:
• Situated in Tawang district of Arunachal
Pradesh, Se La Pass is one of the highest mo-
torable passes in India, reaching an altitude of
4,170 meters.
• It offers breathtaking views of the surrounding
valleys, lakes, and snow-covered peaks.
Lunglei Pass:
• Located in Mizoram, Lunglei Pass is a major
route that connects Lunglei town with other
parts of the state. The pass offers scenic views
of the lush green hills and is an important trans-
portation link in the region.
Bum La Pass:
• Situated at an altitude of 5,000 meters in Tawang
district of Arunachal Pradesh, Bum La Pass is
known for its challenging terrain and extreme
weather conditions. It is a popular destination
for adventure enthusiasts and offers stunning
12
views of the surrounding snow-clad mountains.
Jowai Pass:
• Located in Meghalaya, Jowai Pass is a moun-
tain pass that connects the Jaintia Hills with the
Khasi Hills.
• It offers scenic views of the surrounding hills,
valleys, and waterfalls. Jowai Pass is known for
its natural beauty and is a popular destination
for nature lovers and adventure seekers.
Dzuko Valley Pass:
• Situated in Nagaland, the Dzuko Valley Pass is
a picturesque mountain pass that connects the
districts of Senapati in Manipur and Kohima in
Nagaland.
• It is surrounded by breathtaking landscapes, in-
cluding rolling hills, colorful flowers, and pris-
tine streams. The Dzuko Valley Pass is a para-
dise for trekkers and nature enthusiasts.
3. Passes in Peninsular India
Palakkad Gap:
• Located in Kerala, the Palakkad Gap is a
low-lying pass that serves as a natural gate-
way between the Western Ghats and the coastal
plains of Kerala.
• It connects the Palakkad district in Kerala with
Coimbatore district in Tamil Nadu. The Palak-
kad Gap is a crucial transportation route and is
known for its scenic beauty.
Thamarassery Churam:
• Also known as the Wayanad Pass, Thama-
rassery Churam is a mountain pass located in
the Wayanad district of Kerala.
• It connects Kozhikode with Wayanad and offers
panoramic views of the surrounding hills and
valleys. The Thamarassery Churam is known
for its steep hairpin bends and is a popular tour-
ist attraction.
Bhor Ghat:
• Situated in Maharashtra, Bhor Ghat is a moun-
tain pass in the Western Ghats that connects
Mumbai with Pune.
• It is an important transportation route and is
traversed by the Mumbai-Pune Expressway
and the Central Railway line. Bhor Ghat offers
 scenic vistas of the Western Ghats and is known
for its lush greenery.
Palani Ghat:
• Located in Tamil Nadu, Palani Ghat is a moun-
tain pass that connects the town of Palani with
the plains below.
• It is a popular pilgrimage route to the famous
Palani Murugan Temple. Palani Ghat is known
for its steep slopes, dense forests, and panoram-
ic views of the surrounding landscapes.
Figure 1.8: Major Mountain Passes of Western
Ghats
Thamarai Chundru:
• Situated in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu,
Thamarai Chundru is a mountain pass that con-
nects Coonoor with Ooty.
• It offers mesmerizing views of the tea planta-
tions, valleys, and mountains of the Nilgiri re-
gion. Thamarai Chundru is often referred to as
the “Lotus Valley” due to the abundance of lo-
tus flowers in the surrounding lakes.
Munnar Gap:
• Located in Kerala’s Idukki district, the Munnar
Gap is a pass that connects the towns of Munnar
and Marayur.
• It is nestled amidst the picturesque tea planta-
tions and offers panoramic views of the Western
Ghats. The Munnar Gap is known for its scenic
beauty and cool climate.
Amboli Ghat:
• Situated in Maharashtra, Amboli Ghat is a
mountain pass in the Western Ghats that con-
13
nects the Konkan region with the Deccan Pla-
teau.
• It is known for its lush green forests, waterfalls,
and misty landscapes. Amboli Ghat is a popular
tourist destination and offers stunning views of
the surrounding valleys.
Major Glaciers in India
Jammu and Kashmir:
• Siachen Glacier: Located in the eastern Kara-
koram Range, Siachen Glacier is the largest
glacier in India. It is known for its strategic im-
portance and is often referred to as the world’s
highest battlefield.
• Kolahoi Glacier: Situated in the Pir Panjal
Range, Kolahoi Glacier is a popular tourist at-
traction in Jammu and Kashmir. It is the source
of the Lidder River and offers breathtaking
views of snow-capped peaks.
Himachal Pradesh:
• Bara Shigri Glacier: Situated in the La-
haul-Spiti district, Bara Shigri Glacier is one
of the longest glaciers in the Himalayas. It is
a popular destination for mountaineering and
trekking.
• Beas Kund Glacier: Located in the Solang
Valley near Manali, Beas Kund Glacier is the
source of the Beas River. It is known for its sce-
nic beauty and is a popular trekking destination.
Uttarakhand:
• Gangotri Glacier: Situated in the Garhwal Hi-
malayas, Gangotri Glacier is the origin of the
Ganges River. It is one of the most sacred and
important glaciers in India.
• Pindari Glacier: Located in the Kumaon re-
gion, Pindari Glacier is a famous trekking des-
tination. It offers stunning views of snow-clad
peaks and is surrounded by scenic beauty.
Sikkim:
• Zemu Glacier: Situated in the eastern part of
Sikkim, Zemu Glacier is one of the largest gla-
ciers in the region. It is the source of the Tees-
ta River and offers mesmerizing views of the
Kangchenjunga range.

Figure 1.9: Important Glacier of India
Arunachal Pradesh:
• Milam Glacier: Located in the eastern Kara-
koram Range, Milam Glacier is one of the ma-
jor glaciers in Arunachal Pradesh. It is known
for its pristine beauty and is a popular trekking
destination.
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand:
• Gangotri Group of Glaciers: This group in-
cludes several glaciers, such as Chaturangi Gla-
cier, Kirti Glacier, and Thelu Glacier. They are
located in the Gangotri region and are known
for their scenic beauty.
• Bhagirathi Group of Glaciers: Situated in the
Bhagirathi Valley, this group includes glaciers
like Gaumukh Glacier and Khatling Glacier.
They are important sources of water for the Bh-
agirathi River.
These are some of the major glaciers in India
categorized by state. Each glacier offers unique
landscapes, natural beauty, and plays a vital
role in maintaining the water resources of the
country.
Indian Peninsular Plateau (Deccan Pla-
teau)
A plateau is a flat or gently sloping elevated
landform characterized by its relatively flat top
surface and steep or even vertical sides. It is of-
ten surrounded by higher terrain such as moun-
tains or hills. Plateaus are formed by various
geological processes such as volcanic activity,
uplift, or erosion. They are important features
of Earth’s surface and can be found in different
parts of the world, including India.
14
Geographical extent and formation of
the Deccan Plateau:
• The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau located in
southern India, covering a significant portion of
the Indian subcontinent. It extends over an area
of approximately 1.9 million square kilometers,
making it one of the largest plateaus in India.
• The plateau is bordered by the Western Ghats
to the west, the Eastern Ghats to the east, the
Satpura Range to the north, and the Nilgiri Hills
to the south.
• The formation of the Deccan Plateau is closely
associated with volcanic activity. It is primarily
composed of solidified lava flows and volcanic
deposits that were formed by intense volcanic
eruptions millions of years ago.
• The plateau’s volcanic activity was a result of
the movement of the Indian tectonic plate over
the Reunion hotspot, leading to the eruption of
massive amounts of basaltic lava.
Major features and significance of the
Deccan Plateau:
a) Physical Features:
• Elevated Terrain: The Deccan Plateau has an
average elevation of around 600 to 900 me-
ters above sea level, with some areas reach-
ing heights of over 1,000 meters. The plateau
slopes gently towards the east and west, with
steep cliffs and escarpments along its edges.
• Plateau Interior: The interior of the Deccan
Plateau is characterized by rolling plains, dis-
sected plateaus, and numerous hills and ridges.
It is dotted with several river valleys and basins.
• Plateau Rivers: The major rivers that originate
from the Deccan Plateau include the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri. These rivers
have played a crucial role in shaping the land-
scape and supporting agriculture in the region.
b) Biodiversity and Natural Resources:
Chota Nagpur Plateau:
• The Chota Nagpur Plateau, located in the east-
ern part of the country, spans across the states
of Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.
• It’s one of the country’s most mineral-rich ar-
 eas, yielding coal, iron, mica, bauxite, and oth-
er resources. The average elevation varies from
600 to 1100 meters. The region is known for
its forest cover and is home to several wildlife
reserves.
Malwa Plateau:
• This plateau is primarily located in Madhya
Pradesh, with portions extending into Rajasthan
and Gujarat.
• The plateau is divided into several smaller pla-
teaus and hill ranges. The soil is rich in black
cotton, which supports the local agricultural
industry, which primarily includes the growing
of wheat, cotton, and soybeans. The average el- Figure 1.10 : Important Plateaus of India
evation of the Malwa Plateau ranges from 300 Meghalaya Plateau:
to 500 meters. • Also known as the Shillong Plateau, this pla-
Mewar Plateau: teau in northeastern India is an extension of the
• Also part of Rajasthan, this plateau lies to the
Indian Peninsula in the northeast direction. It
southeast of the Aravalli Range. covers the Indian state of Meghalaya and part
of Assam. It is rich in mineral resources like
• It’s relatively less developed and has a dry and
coal, oil, limestone, uranium, and sillimanite.
rocky landscape. However, the region supports
The plateau has a high altitude, with the aver-
the cultivation of a variety of crops, including
age elevation ranging from 500 to 2,000 meters,
wheat, maize, barley, and pulses.
and is famous for receiving the highest rainfall
Karnataka Plateau: in the world.
• Part of the larger Deccan Plateau, the Karnataka
Bundelkhand Plateau:
Plateau, covering the Indian state of Karnata-
• The Bundelkhand Plateau is located in the cen-
ka, is situated between the Western and Eastern
tral part of India and spans across the states of
Ghats.
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The av-
• The region features black, red, and laterite soils,
erage elevation of the plateau is about 300 to
making it suitable for a range of crops including 600 meters. The region is known for its granite
millets, oilseeds, and cotton. rocks and is less fertile compared to the other
Telangana Plateau: plateaus.
• This is another part of the Deccan plateau and is Baghelkhand Plateau:
located in the state of Telangana. • Baghelkhand Plateau, covering parts of Chhat-
• It is a mineral-rich area and the Godavari and tisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, is a rugged terrain
Krishna rivers flow through this plateau. This characterized by rocky outcrops and undulating
region is significant for agriculture and pro- hills. The soil is red and yellow, relatively less
duction of crops like cotton, sugarcane, and fertile, but supports a variety of hardy crops.
tobacco. Marwar Plateau:
• This is a sandy and rocky plateau region located
in the western and northwestern part of Rajas-
than. Its arid and semi-arid climate is ideal for
drought-resistant crops and for the rearing of
livestock.

15
Ladakh Plateau:
• Also known as the Trans-Himalayan Plateau, it
is located in the Indian union territory of Lada-
kh. The average height of this plateau is around
3,000 to 4,500 meters above sea level. It’s a
cold desert that supports minimal vegetation
and has limited agricultural activities.
Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin Plateau:
• This plateau is situated in the eastern part of In-
dia and extends into Myanmar. It’s an elevated
region covered in dense forests, and is a part of
the greater Purvanchal range which was formed
due to the movements in the Indian tectonic
plates.
Plains
The plains of India are vast stretches of
low-lying, flat land that cover a significant
portion of the country’s geographic area.
These plains are formed by the deposition
of sediments brought down by rivers over
millions of years. The plains are known
for their fertile soils, diverse agricultural
practices, and dense human settlements.
The major plains in India include the In-
dus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain, coastal
plains, and desert plains.
Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain, also
known as the Indo-Gangetic Plain, is one of
the largest and most fertile plains in the world.
It stretches across northern India and parts of
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal. This vast
plain is formed by the deposition of alluvial
sediments carried by the Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra rivers, making it an agricultur-
ally rich region. This plain extends from the
Indus River in the northwest to the Brahmapu-
tra River in the northeast, covering an area of
about 1.1 million square kilometers.
Formation:
• The formation of the Indus-Ganga-Brahmapu-
tra Plain can be attributed to the long-term geo-
logical processes of sedimentation. The plain is
formed by the deposition of fine-grained sed-
iments, including silt, clay, and sand, brought
16
down by the three major river systems: the In-
dus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.
• The rivers originate from the high Himalayas
and carry large amounts of sediment as they
flow downstream. The deposition of these sed-
iments occurs when the rivers enter the plains,
where the velocity of the water decreases, lead-
ing to the settling of sediment particles. Over
thousands of years, this continuous process of
deposition has resulted in the formation of the
vast alluvial plain.
Divisions:
• The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain can be
broadly divided into two major divisions: the
Punjab Plain and the Gangetic Plain. Let’s ex-
plore each division in detail:
Punjab Plain:
• The Punjab Plain is located in the northwest re-
gion of the plain and is primarily formed by the
Indus River.
• This division encompasses parts of Pakistan
and the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana.
The Punjab Plain is characterized by its fertile
soils and extensive irrigation networks.
• It is often referred to as the “Granary of India”
due to its high agricultural productivity.
• The region is known for the cultivation of crops
such as wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, and
fruits. Major cities like Amritsar, Ludhiana, and
Chandigarh are situated in this division.
Gangetic Plain:
• The Gangetic Plain is the largest and most sig-
nificant division of the Indus-Ganga-Brahma-
putra Plain. It stretches from the foothills of
the Himalayas in the north to the Ganga Delta
in the east. The Gangetic Plain can be further
divided into the Upper Gangetic Plain and the
Lower Gangetic Plain.
a) Upper Gangetic Plain:
• The Upper Gangetic Plain covers the states of
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
• It is formed by the Ganga and its tributaries,
including the Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, and
Kosi rivers.
• The Upper Gangetic Plain is characterized by
fertile alluvial soils, abundant water resources,
and a favorable climate for agriculture.
• The region is known for its production of rice,
wheat, sugarcane, pulses, and oilseeds. Major
cities in this division include Kanpur, Lucknow,
Varanasi, and Patna.
b) Lower Gangetic Plain:
• The Lower Gangetic Plain extends from Bihar
to West Bengal and Bangladesh, encompassing
the deltaic region of the Ganga and Brahmapu-
tra rivers.
• It is characterized by its fertile soil, marshy
lands, and extensive delta formations.
• The Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers form the
Sundarbans delta, which is the world’s largest
mangrove forest and a UNESCO World Heri-
tage Site.
• The Lower Gangetic Plain is known for its
cultivation of paddy rice, jute, vegetables, and
fisheries. Major cities in this division include
Kolkata and Patna.
Features:
The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain exhibits
several distinct features that contribute to its
significance:
Fertile Soil:
• The plain is known for its highly fertile allu-
vial soils, which are rich in nutrients and ideal
for agriculture. The constant deposition of sedi-
ments by the rivers has resulted in the formation
of nutrient-rich soil, making it one of the most
agriculturally productive regions in the world.
River Systems:
• The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain is criss-
crossed by a dense network of rivers and their
tributaries.
• The Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers,
along with their numerous tributaries, provide
ample water resources for irrigation, transpor-
tation, and hydroelectric power generation. The
rivers also contribute to the region’s cultural
and religious significance, with numerous pil-
grimage sites located along their banks.
17
Agricultural Productivity:
• The plain’s fertile soil, ample water resources,
and favorable climate make it highly suitable
for agriculture.
• The region supports the cultivation of a wide
variety of crops, including rice, wheat, sugar-
cane, cotton, jute, oilseeds, fruits, and vegeta-
bles. The agricultural productivity of the plain
plays a vital role in India’s food security and
contributes significantly to the country’s econ-
omy.
Biodiversity:
• The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain is home
to a diverse range of flora and fauna. The wet-
lands, marshes, and forests formed by the rivers
provide habitats for numerous plant and animal
species.
• The region is particularly rich in avian biodi-
versity, with several migratory bird species vis-
iting the wetlands during the winter season. The
Sundarbans delta, located in the Lower Ganget-
ic Plain, is renowned for its Royal Bengal tigers
and other wildlife.
Figure 1.11 : The Great Plain of North India
Urban Centers:
• The Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain is dotted
with numerous cities and urban centers.
• Major cities like Delhi, Kolkata, Kanpur, Luc-
know, and Patna are located in this region.
These cities serve as important economic, cul-
tural, and administrative hubs, contributing to
the overall development of the plain.
Economic Significance:
• The plain’s fertile soil, abundant water
 resources, and dense population make it an
attractive location for various economic activ-
ities.
• Agriculture, industry, trade, and services sectors
thrive in the region, contributing significantly
to the country’s GDP. The plain is a major hub
for agricultural production, manufacturing in-
dustries, and trading activities.
The Brahmaputra Plains:
Also known as the Brahmaputra Valley or the As-
sam Valley, form a vast and fertile region in
South Asia. These plains are primarily located
in the northeastern part of India, specifical-
ly in the Indian states of Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh, and a small portion of northern
Bangladesh.
• Location: The Brahmaputra Plains lie between
the Himalayas in the north and the Meghalaya
and Karbi Anglong hills in the south.
• Extent: The plains cover an area of approxi-
mately 78,500 square kilometers.
• Major Rivers: The Brahmaputra River, one of
the longest rivers in the world, flows through
these plains, along with its tributaries such as
the Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, and Kameng riv-
ers.
• Climate: The region experiences a mon-
soon-influenced humid subtropical climate,
characterized by high rainfall and high humidi-
ty throughout the year.
• Biodiversity: The Brahmaputra Plains are
known for their rich biodiversity, with numer-
ous national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The
Kaziranga National Park, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, is particularly famous for its one-
horned rhinoceros population.
Features:
• Alluvial Soil: The plains are composed of fer-
tile alluvial soil deposited by the Brahmaputra
River, making the region highly suitable for ag-
riculture. Rice cultivation is the primary occu-
pation of the inhabitants.
• River Braiding: The Brahmaputra River is no-
torious for its braided channel system, result-
ing in the formation of numerous river chan-
18
nels and sandbars called chars. These chars are
subjected to frequent changes due to the river’s
dynamic nature.
• Floodplains: The Brahmaputra Plains are prone
to annual flooding, primarily caused by heavy
monsoon rains and glacial meltwater from the
Himalayas. While these floods pose challenges,
they also contribute to the fertility of the soil.
• Tea Gardens: The region is famous for its tea
plantations, which are a significant economic
activity. Assam tea, renowned for its strong fla-
vor, is grown extensively in the Brahmaputra
Plains.
• Oil and Natural Gas Reserves: The plains are
rich in oil and natural gas reserves, contributing
significantly to India’s energy resources. The
Digboi oil field, discovered in the early 19th
century, is one of the oldest oil fields in India.
Significance:
• Agriculture and Economy: The fertile alluvial
soil and favorable climate make the Brahmapu-
tra Plains agriculturally productive. Rice, tea,
jute, pulses, and oilseeds are among the major
crops cultivated. Agriculture forms the back-
bone of the regional economy.
• Biodiversity and Conservation: The Brah-
maputra Plains harbor diverse flora and fauna,
including several endangered species. Conser-
vation efforts are focused on protecting wildlife
and their habitats.
• Transportation and Trade: The Brahmaputra
River serves as a major waterway, facilitating
inland water transport and trade. It connects the
northeastern region with the rest of India, en-
hancing economic integration.
• Hydroelectric Power Generation: The Brah-
maputra River and its tributaries have immense
hydroelectric potential. Several dams and hy-
droelectric power projects, such as the Suban-
siri Lower Dam and the Dibang Multipurpose
Project, are being developed in the region for
power generation.
• Cultural Significance: The Brahmaputra
Plains are home to diverse indigenous com-
munities with unique cultural traditions. The
 region’s cultural heritage, including festivals,
music, dance, and handicrafts, adds to its sig-
nificance.
The Brahmaputra Plains, characterized by their
unique geography, fertile soil, and ecological
diversity, play a vital role in the economic,
environmental, and cultural fabric of the
northeastern region of India.
Coastal Plains in India
India is blessed with two major coastal plains,
namely the Eastern Coastal Plain and the West-
ern Coastal Plain. These plains run parallel to
the coastline on either side of the Indian Pen-
insula. Let’s explore the description and forma-
tion of these coastal plains in detail:
Eastern Coastal Plain:
• The Eastern Coastal Plain, also known as the
Coromandel Coast, stretches along the eastern
seaboard of India. It extends from the Gangetic
• Delta in the north to Cape Comorin (Kanyaku-
mari) in the south. This coastal plain is charac
Figure 1.12 : Eastern and Western Coastal Plain
• terized by a relatively broader width compared
to the Western Coastal Plain.
Formation:
• The Eastern Coastal Plain is primarily formed
19
by the deposition of sediments carried by rivers
such as the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and
Kaveri.
• These rivers originate from the Eastern Ghats
and traverse through the plain, carrying vast
amounts of sediment from the mountains to the
coast.
• Over time, the deposition of these sediments
has created a flat and fertile coastal plain. The
presence of deltas, formed at the river mouths,
is a significant feature of the Eastern Coastal
Plain.
Western Coastal Plain:
The Western Coastal Plain, also known as the
Konkan Coast (north of Goa) and the Malabar
Coast (south of Goa), extends along the western
coastline of India. It stretches from the Gujarat
coast in the north to the southern tip of the In-
dian Peninsula.
Formation:
• The Western Coastal Plain is primarily formed
by the weathering and erosion of the Western Ghats,
a mountain range parallel to the coast. The Western
Ghats receive heavy rainfall due to the southwest
monsoon, resulting in the erosion of the mountain
slopes. The eroded sediments are carried by rivers
such as the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi, and Zuari and
deposited along the coastal plain.
Indian Islands
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a group
of islands located in the Bay of Bengal, off the
southeastern coast of India. This archipelago
comprises a total of 572 islands, of which only
a few are inhabited. Let’s explore the geogra-
phy and features of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands in detail:
Geographical Location:
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated
between the latitudes 6° and 14° North and the
longitudes 92° and 94° East.
• They are geographically closer to Myanmar and
Indonesia than to mainland India. The archipel-
ago is divided into two groups: the Andaman
Islands and the Nicobar Islands.
Figure 1.13 : Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman Islands:
• The Andaman Islands are the northernmost
group of islands in the archipelago. They are
separated from Myanmar’s coast by the Anda-
man Sea.
• The major islands in the Andaman group in-
20
clude North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South
Andaman, and Little Andaman.
Nicobar Islands:
• The Nicobar Islands lie to the south of the An-
daman Islands and are separated by the Ten De-
gree Channel.
• They are closer to Sumatra, Indonesia, than to
mainland India. The major islands in the Nico-
bar group include Great Nicobar, Little Nico-
bar, Car Nicobar, and Nancowry.
Physical Features:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands showcase di-
verse physical features that make them unique
and ecologically significant:
1. Coastal Line:
• The islands are characterized by extensive
coastlines with sandy beaches, rocky shores,
and mangrove forests. The beaches, such as
Radhanagar Beach, Corbyn’s Cove Beach, and
Elephant Beach, are known for their pristine
beauty and turquoise waters.
2. Coral Reefs:
• The archipelago is renowned for its vibrant cor-
al reefs, making it a popular destination for div-
ing and snorkeling enthusiasts. The coral reefs
support a rich marine ecosystem with a wide
variety of fish, sea turtles, and other marine
creatures.
Figure 1.14 : Islands
3. Volcanic Origins:
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have volca-
nic origins. Barren Island, located in the Anda-
man group, is the only active volcano in India.
It last erupted in 2017 and offers a unique geo-
logical spectacle.
4. Tropical Rainforests:
• The islands are covered with dense tropical
rainforests that support a rich biodiversity.
These rainforests are home to numerous en-
 demic plant and animal species, including the
rare and endangered Andaman wild pig, Nico-
bar megapode, and Andaman day gecko.
5. Hills and Peaks:
• The islands have hilly terrain, with Saddle Peak
in North Andaman being the highest peak,
standing at an elevation of 732 meters (2,402
feet). The hilly landscapes offer breathtaking
views and opportunities for trekking and nature
exploration.
6. Inland Water Bodies:
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have sever-
al rivers, streams, and freshwater lakes. These
water bodies, along with the mangrove forests,
contribute to the unique ecosystem of the is-
lands and provide habitats for various species
of birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
7. Jarawa and Sentinelese Tribes:
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are known
for their indigenous tribes, including the Jara-
wa and Sentinelese. These tribes have inhabited
the islands for thousands of years and have pre-
served their unique cultures and lifestyles.
Lakshadweep Islands:
The Lakshadweep Islands, also known as the Lac-
cadive Islands, are a group of coral atolls sit-
uated in the Arabian Sea, off the southwestern
coast of India. The archipelago comprises a to-
tal of 36 islands, of which only 10 are inhabited.
Let’s explore the geography and features of the
Lakshadweep Islands:
Geographical Location:
• The Lakshadweep Islands lie between the lati-
tudes 8° and 12° North and the longitudes 71°
and 74° East.
• They are located approximately 400 kilometers
(250 miles) off the Kerala coast.
Physical Features:
The Lakshadweep Islands showcase unique
physical features that distinguish them from
other island groups:
21
Figure 1.15 : Lakshadweep Islands
1. Coral Atolls:
• The islands are formed by coral atolls, which
are circular or oval-shaped coral reefs enclos-
ing a central lagoon. The atolls are composed of
coral debris and the skeletal remains of marine
organisms. The lagoons surrounding the islands
are shallow and crystal clear, offering excellent
opportunities for snorkeling and diving.
2. Barrier Reefs:
• The Lakshadweep Islands are surrounded by
barrier reefs, which act as natural breakwaters
and protect the islands from the force of the
waves. These reefs support a diverse array of
marine life, including colorful coral formations,
fish species, and turtles.
3. Sandy Beaches:
• The islands are known for their pristine sandy
beaches with turquoise blue waters. Popular
beaches include Agatti Island Beach, Bangaram
Island Beach, and Minicoy Island Beach. The
tranquil surroundings and picturesque land-
scapes make the islands an ideal destination for
relaxation and water sports.
4. Lagoons and Backwaters:
• The lagoons and backwaters surrounding the is-
lands are teeming with marine life and offer op-
portunities for boating, kayaking, and fishing.
The calm and serene waters provide a peaceful
 environment for nature enthusiasts.
5. Marine Biodiversity:
• The Lakshadweep Islands are recognized for
their rich marine biodiversity. The coral reefs,
seagrass beds, and mangrove ecosystems sup-
port a wide variety of marine organisms, in-
cluding fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and turtles.
The islands are also home to numerous species
of migratory birds.
6. Coconut Plantations:
• Coconut palms dominate the landscape of the
Lakshadweep Islands. Coconut plantations are
a common sight on the islands, and coconuts
form a significant part of the local economy.
Coconut-based products, such as oil and coir,
are essential sources of income for the island-
ers.
7. Cultural Heritage:
• The Lakshadweep Islands have a distinct cultur-
al heritage influenced by a blend of Arab, Mal-
divian, and South Indian cultures. The islanders
have preserved their traditional lifestyle, crafts,
music, and dance forms, adding to the cultural
richness of the region.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lak-
shadweep Islands are gems of India’s maritime
geography.
• They offer stunning natural landscapes, rich bio-
diversity, and unique cultural experiences. The
islands are not only popular tourist destinations
but also serve as crucial ecological hotspots,
contributing to the conservation of marine eco-
systems and providing livelihood opportunities
for the local communities.
Deserts
Hot Deserts in India:
The main hot desert in India is the Thar Desert,
also known as the Great Indian Desert.
Thar Desert:
• This is the 17th largest desert in the world, cov-
ering an area of approximately 200,000 square
kilometers.
• It spans across the Indian states of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana, and extends into
22
the southeastern portion of Pakistan.
• The desert is characterized by sandy terrain, low
rainfall (less than 150mm per year), extreme
temperature variations, and sparse vegetation.
• The primary vegetation includes thorny bushes,
grasses, and a few tree species adapted to the
arid environment.
• Despite the harsh conditions, a significant pop-
ulation resides in this region, with economy
based on agriculture (where irrigation is avail-
able), animal husbandry, and tourism. Jaisalm-
er, Bikaner, and Jodhpur are among the promi-
nent cities within this region.
Cold Deserts in India:
Ladakh Desert:
• The cold desert of Ladakh is situated in the
Great Himalayas on the eastern side of Jam-
mu and Kashmir, and extends up to the Ladakh
Range.
• It experiences freezing temperatures and very
little annual rainfall (less than 50mm), mainly
due to the rain-shadow effect of the Himalayas.
• The soil is coarse, rocky, and sandy, with sparse
vegetation.
• The primary forms of vegetation are hardy
grasses and shrubs. Certain unique species of
animals like the Snow Leopard and Himalayan
Brown Bear are found here.
• The desert is sparsely populated, with people
primarily engaged in agriculture (where possi-
ble), pastoral activities, and tourism.
Spiti Valley:
• Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh is another
cold desert region in India.
• The landscape is marked by stark mountains,
wide valleys, and scattered patches of greenery.
• The valley is home to a variety of wildlife spe-
cies, including the Snow Leopard, Himalayan
Brown Bear, and Blue Sheep.
• The inhabitants of Spiti Valley, often known as
Spiti people, mostly follow Buddhism and de-
pend on agriculture and animal husbandry for
their livelihood.
 Summary
• Location and Size: India is located in South Asia and is the seventh-largest country in the world by land
area. It spans a vast geographical region, with the Arabian Sea to the west, the Bay of Bengal to the east,
the Himalayas to the north and Indian Ocean in the south..
• Topography: India’s physical geography is diverse, encompassing several distinct regions. The north-
ern part of the country is dominated by the Himalayan mountain range, which includes the highest peak
in the world, Mount Everest. The central region consists of the fertile Gangetic plains, home to major
river systems such as the Ganges and Yamuna. The western and eastern coastal areas feature extensive
plains, while the southern region has the Deccan Plateau and the Western Ghats.
• Rivers and Water Bodies: India is blessed with a network of major rivers, including the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. These rivers play a crucial role in the country’s
agriculture, providing water for irrigation and supporting diverse ecosystems. India also has numerous
lakes, including Wular Lake, Chilika Lake, and the famous Dal Lake in Kashmir.
• Climate: India experiences a diverse range of climates due to its vast size and varying topography. The
country has four primary seasons: winter (December to February), summer (March to May), monsoon
(June to September), and post-monsoon (October and November). The climate ranges from tropical in
the southern region to temperate in the Himalayas and arid in parts of Rajasthan.
• Biodiversity: India is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, with a rich and varied flora and fauna. It
is home to diverse ecosystems, including tropical rainforests, mangroves, alpine meadows, deserts, and
coral reefs. The country has numerous national parks and wildlife sanctuaries that protect endangered
species like the Bengal tiger, Indian rhinoceros, Asian elephant, and various bird species.
• Natural Hazards: India is prone to several natural hazards due to its geographical location. It expe-
riences earthquakes in the Himalayan region, with occasional severe tremors. The coastal areas are
susceptible to cyclones and storm surges, particularly in the Bay of Bengal. The country also faces the
challenges of floods, landslides, droughts, and forest fires in different parts.
• Geographical Significance: India’s geography has played a significant role in shaping its history, cul-
ture, and economy. The fertile plains of the Ganges have supported ancient civilizations, while the
mountainous terrain has influenced trade routes and cultural interactions with neighboring countries.
The coastal regions have been centers of maritime trade and cultural exchange for centuries.
• Natural Resources: India is abundant in various natural resources. It has significant reserves of coal,
iron ore, manganese, bauxite, and other minerals. The country is also a major producer of agricultural
commodities like wheat, rice, cotton, and sugarcane. Additionally, it has substantial reserves of hydro-
electric power, which contributes to its energy needs.
• Urbanization: India has witnessed rapid urbanization in recent decades. Large metropolitan areas like
Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Chennai have grown into megacities with bustling populations. Urban-
ization has brought about challenges such as overcrowding, pollution, and the strain on infrastructure,
while also serving as centers of commerce, education, and innovation.
• Environmental Concerns: India faces several environmental challenges, including deforestation, air
and water pollution, soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity. The government and various organiza-
tions are working towards sustainable development, promoting renewable energy sources, implement-
ing conservation measures, and raising awareness about environmental issues.

23
 Chapter 2 - RIVER SYSTEM IN
INDIA
Index:
• East Flowing Rivers
• West Flowing Rivers
• Perennial and Non-Perennial Rivers
• Indus River System
• Ganga River System
• Yamuna River System
• Brahmaputra River System
• Mahanadi River System
• Godavari River System
• Krishna River System
• Cauvery(Kaveri) River System
East Flowing Rivers in India
East flowing rivers in India are those that predomi-
nantly flow in an eastward direction towards the
Bay of Bengal. Some of the major east-flowing
rivers include the Godavari, Krishna, Mahana-
di, Kaveri and Brahmaputra. These rivers orig-
inate from different regions and play a crucial
role in the drainage systems of the eastern and
northeastern parts of India.
Geographical Features:
• Godavari River: The Godavari River, the
second-longest river in India, originates in the
Western Ghats of Maharashtra. It flows through
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and
Odisha, forming a large delta before joining the
Bay of Bengal.
• Krishna River: The Krishna River originates
in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra and flows
through Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It
forms a significant source of irrigation and hy-
droelectric power generation in the region.
• Mahanadi River: The Mahanadi River origi-
nates in Chhattisgarh and flows through Odis-
ha. It forms a fertile delta and is vital for ag-
riculture, irrigation, and hydroelectric power
generation.
• Brahmaputra River: The Brahmaputra River,
although predominantly flowing eastward in In-
dia, eventually turns south and flows into Ban-
24
gladesh. It originates in Tibet, passes through
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, and is known
for its massive water volume and significance
in the region.
West-Flowing Rivers in India
• West-flowing rivers in India primarily flow
in a westward or southwestward direction to-
wards the Arabian Sea. They originate from the
Western Ghats and drain the western and south-
western regions of India. Some of the major
west-flowing rivers include the Narmada, Tapi,
Sabarmati, and Periyar.
Geographical Features:
• Narmada River: The Narmada River origi-
nates from the Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya
Pradesh. It flows through Madhya Pradesh, Gu-
jarat, and Maharashtra before draining into the
Arabian Sea. The Narmada River has a scenic
and picturesque course, with Marble Rocks
near Jabalpur being a notable attraction.
• Tapi River: The Tapi River rises in the Satpura
Range of Madhya Pradesh and flows through
Maharashtra and Gujarat. It forms an estuary
near the city of Surat and plays a vital role in
the region’s agriculture, irrigation, and indus-
trial activities.
• Sabarmati River: The Sabarmati River orig-
inates in the Aravalli Range of Rajasthan and
flows through Gujarat before emptying into
the Arabian Sea. It passes through the city of
Ahmedabad and is known for the Sabarmati
Riverfront development project.
• Periyar River: The Periyar River is located in
the state of Kerala. It originates in the Western
Ghats and flows through the Periyar National
Park before reaching the Arabian Sea. The river
is significant for its hydroelectric power gener-
ation and irrigation purposes.
Perennial and Non-Perennial Rivers: major tributaries, the Sengge Zangbo and the
Gar Tsangpo. The Sengge Zangbo originates
Perennial Rivers Non-Perennial Rivers
Non-perennial rivers flow from the glaciers of the Kailash Range, while
Perennial rivers only for certain periods of the Gar Tsangpo rises near the Mansarovar
flow throughout the year, typically during the Lake. These two rivers merge near the town of
the year. rainy season. Demchok, forming the Indus River.
They are fed by
These rivers primarily de- Course and tributaries of the Indus
both rainwater River:
pend on rainfall and lack
and melted snow
glacier feed. From its origin, the Indus River flows in a north-
from glaciers.
westerly direction through the high-altitude re-
They have a Their flow can be quite vari-
gions of Ladakh in India and Gilgit-Baltistan
steady discharge able, and they can dry up
in Pakistan. It then enters Pakistan, where it
and their flow completely during dry sea-
traverses the length of the country. Major trib-
rarely stops. sons.
These rivers have Their basins are often nar- utaries of the Indus River include the Jhelum,
a wide, well-de- row and less developed. Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej Rivers.
veloped basin. Jhelum River:
Due to their con- Due to their seasonal na- • The Jhelum River is one of the five rivers of
tinuous flow, they ture, they are less reliable Punjab and is a major tributary of the Indus.
are a reliable as a water source, although • It originates from Verinag in the southwestern
source of water they can still be used for ir- part of Kashmir Valley and flows through the
and are often used rigation and other purposes Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir re-
for irrigation, hy- during the rainy season. gion before entering Pakistan.
droelectric pow- • The Jhelum River is approximately 725 kilome-
er, and drinking tres long and plays a crucial role in supporting
water supply. agriculture and providing water for irrigation in
These rivers sup- Aquatic life in non-perenni-
the region.
port a diverse al rivers is less diverse and
range of aquatic abundant due to their inter-
life. mittent flow.
Examples of pe- Examples of non-perennial
rennial rivers in rivers in India include the
India include the Ghaggar, Luni, and Banas.
Ganges, Brahma-
putra, and Yamu-
na.
Table 2.1 : Perennial and Non-Perennial
Rivers
Indus River System
• The Indus River system is one of the longest
and most important river systems in South Asia.
It plays a significant role in the geographical,
historical, and cultural landscape of the region.
• The Indus River originates in the Tibetan Pla-
teau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar.
• The river is formed by the confluence of two Figure 2.1 : Indus River System

25
Chenab River:
• The Chenab River is another significant tribu-
tary of the Indus, originating from the conflu-
ence of two streams, the Chandra and Bhaga, in
the Lahaul-Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh.
• It flows through Jammu and Kashmir and enters
Pakistan, where it joins the Indus River.
• The Chenab River has a total length of around
960 kilometres and is known for its strong cur-
rents, making it suitable for hydroelectric pow-
er generation.
Ravi River:
• The Ravi River is one of the major rivers of the
Punjab region, originating in the Kullu district
of Himachal Pradesh.
• It flows through the Indian states of Himachal
Pradesh and Punjab before entering Pakistan.
• The Ravi River stretches over a length of ap-
proximately 720 kilometres and is known for
its crystal-clear waters. It serves as a lifeline for
agriculture and supports the irrigation needs of
the surrounding regions.
Beas River:
• The Beas River is a significant tributary of the
Indus, originating near the Rohtang Pass in the
Himalayas.
• It flows through the states of Himachal Pradesh
and Punjab before joining the Sutlej River in
Punjab.
• The Beas River is approximately 470 kilome-
tres long and is known for its scenic beauty. It is
an important source of water for irrigation and
hydropower generation in the region.
Sutlej River:
• The Sutlej River is one of the major tributaries
of the Indus, originating from the Mansarovar
Lake in Tibet.
• It flows through the Indian states of Himachal
Pradesh and Punjab before entering Pakistan.
The Sutlej River has a total length of around
1,450 kilometers and is known for its rapid flow
and potential for hydropower generation.
• It supports irrigation and is an important source
of water for the arid regions of Punjab and Ra-
jasthan.
26
Geographical features along the Indus
River:
• The Indus River cuts through various geograph-
ical features along its course.
• In its upper reaches, it flows through the rugged
and mountainous terrain of the Himalayas and
Karakoram ranges.
• As it moves towards the plains of Pakistan, it
forms deep gorges and canyons, including the
famous Indus Gorge.
• The river then enters the fertile plains of Punjab
and Sindh, where it eventually discharges into
the Arabian Sea.
Historical and cultural importance
of the Indus River:
• The Indus River has played a crucial role
in shaping the history and culture of the
region.
• The ancient Indus Valley Civilization, dat-
ing back to around 2500 BCE, flourished
along the banks of the river.
• The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro,
which were part of this civilization, show-
cased advanced urban planning and so-
phisticated drainage systems.
• The river also served as a trade route, facil-
itating cultural exchanges and commerce
between the civilizations of the Indian sub-
continent and Central Asia.
• It has witnessed the rise and fall of numer-
ous empires, including the Maurya, Gupta,
Mughal, and Sikh empires.
Ganga River System
• The Ganga River system is one of the most im-
portant and sacred river systems in India. It is
revered as the lifeline of the northern plains and
holds immense cultural, religious, and ecologi-
cal significance. The river system is not only a
source of water and livelihood but also a symbol
of purity and spirituality for millions of people.
Origin and source of the Ganga River:
• The Ganga River originates from the Gangotri
Glacier in the state of Uttarakhand, in the west-
 ern Himalayas. The glacier is located at an alti- Plateau in Madhya Pradesh and flows through
tude of about 4,100 meters (13,450 feet) in the the states of Jharkhand and Bihar.
Gangotri National Park. The Gangotri Glacier is
a primary source of the Bhagirathi River, which
is considered the mainstream of the Ganga.
• The Bhagirathi River emerges from the Gan-
gotri Glacier and is joined by several other
streams, including the Kedar Ganga and the
Jat Ganga. It then flows southwest and joins
the Alaknanda River at Devprayag, where the
confluence of these two rivers marks the official
beginning of the Ganga River.
• The Alaknanda River, another major tributary
of the Ganga, originates from the Satopanth
Glacier near Badrinath in Uttarakhand. The Al-
aknanda River is formed by the confluence of
several streams, including the Saraswati River,
the Dhauliganga River, and the Nandakini Riv-
er.
Major tributaries of the Ganga River:
Yamuna River:
• The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the
Ganga and joins it at Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh.
• The Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri
Glacier in the state of Uttarakhand and flows
through the states of Himachal Pradesh, Hary-
ana, and Uttar Pradesh. It passes through major
cities such as Delhi, Agra, and Mathura.
• Major sub-tributaries of the Yamuna River
Figure 2.2 : Flowchart of Ganga River Basin
include:
o Chambal River: Rises in the Vindhya Range
• The Son River meets the Ganga near Patna, Bi-
and flows through Madhya Pradesh and Rajas-
har. It is known for its fertile plains and plays a
than. Sub-tributaries of the Chambal River in-
significant role in irrigation and agriculture.
clude the Banas, Parvati, and Kali Sindh Rivers.
• Major sub-tributaries of the Son River include:
o Sindh River: Originates in the Malwa Plateau
of Madhya Pradesh. Sub-tributaries of the Sindh o North Koel River: Rises in Jharkhand and
River include the Parbati and Betwa Rivers. flows through Bihar.
o Ken River: Rises in the Bundelkhand region of o South Koel River: Also originates in Jharkhand
Madhya Pradesh. and joins the Son River near its confluence with
the Ganga.
o Tons River: Originates from the Lesser Hi-
malayas and joins the Yamuna River in Uttar Gandak River:
Pradesh. • The Gandak River, also known as the Narayani
Son River: River in Nepal, is another important tributary
of the Ganga.
• The Son River is the second-largest tributary of
the Ganga. It originates from the Amarkantak • It originates in the high Himalayas of Nepal and

27
 enters India in the state of Bihar. The Gandak
River passes through the districts of Cham-
paran and Muzaffarpur in Bihar before joining
the Ganga near Hajipur.
• Major sub-tributaries of the Gandak River in-
clude:
o Kali Gandaki River: Originates in Nepal and
flows through the Kali Gandaki Gorge, known
as the world’s deepest gorge.
o Trishuli River: Rises in Nepal and is an im-
portant tributary of the Gandak River.
Kosi River:
• The Kosi River, often referred to as the “Sorrow
of Bihar” due to its history of frequent floods, is
a significant tributary of the Ganga.
• It originates in the Mahabharat Range in Nepal
and enters India in Bihar. The Kosi River merg-
es with the Ganga near Bhagalpur in Bihar.
• Major sub-tributaries of the Kosi River include:
o Tamur River: Originates in Nepal and joins
the Kosi River in Nepal.
o Arun River: Also originates in Nepal and is an
important tributary of the Kosi River.
Ghaghara River:
• The Ghaghara River, also known as the Karna-
li River in Nepal, is a transboundary river that
flows through the states of Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar in India.
• It originates in the glaciers of the Himalayas in
Nepal and forms a part of the India-Nepal bor-
der. The Ghaghara River meets the Ganga near
Chhapra, Bihar.
• Major sub-tributaries of the Ghaghara River in-
clude:
o Sarayu River: Originates in Nepal and joins
the Ghaghara River in Uttar Pradesh.
o Rapti River: Flows through Nepal and Uttar
Pradesh before joining the Ghaghara River.
o Gandak River: The Gandak River, mentioned
earlier, is also a tributary of the Ganga and joins
it near Chhapra.
Damodar River:
• The Damodar River, often called the “Sorrow
of Bengal” due to its destructive floods in the
28
past, is a major tributary of the Ganga.
• It originates from the Chota Nagpur Plateau
in Jharkhand and flows through the states of
Jharkhand and West Bengal.
• The Damodar River joins the Hooghly River, a
distributary of the Ganga, near Kolkata.
• Major sub-tributaries of the Damodar River in-
clude the Barakar and Konar rivers.
Cultural and religious significance
of the Ganga River:
The Ganga River holds immense
cultur-al and religious significance in India.
It is considered a sacred river by Hindus,
who believe that bathing in its waters can
cleanse sins and provide spiritual purifi-
cation. Some key aspects of its cultural
and religious significance include:
• Pilgrimage Sites: The banks of the Ganga
River are dotted with numerous pilgrim-
age sites, including Haridwar, Rishikesh,
Varanasi, Allahabad, and Kolkata.
• Rituals and Offerings: The Ganga Riv-
er is an integral part of Hindu rituals and
ceremonies. People offer prayers, light
diyas (oil lamps), and release flower of-
ferings into the river as acts of devotion.
Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela, a mas-
sive religious gathering, takes place at
four specific locations along the Ganga
River (Haridwar, Prayagraj, Nashik, and
Ujjain) in a cyclical manner.
Environmental issues and conservation
efforts:
The Ganga River faces several environmental
challenges that impact its ecosystem and water
quality. Some of the key issues include:
• Pollution: The Ganga River is highly pollut-
ed due to untreated industrial waste, domestic
sewage, and religious offerings. This pollution
not only affects the water quality but also poses
risks to the health of communities living along
the river.
• Deforestation and Soil Erosion: Deforesta-
tion in the catchment areas of the Ganga River
 contributes to soil erosion, leading to increased
sedimentation in the river. This affects the flow,
water quality, and habitat of aquatic species.
• Flooding and Riverbank Erosion: The Ganga
River is prone to flooding, particularly during
the monsoon season. These floods can cause
widespread damage to infrastructure, agricul-
tural lands, and human settlements. Riverbank
erosion also poses a threat to communities re-
siding along the river.
Yamuna River system
The Yamuna River system encompasses a net-
work of rivers, tributaries, and physical features
that contribute to its flow and overall signifi-
cance. Let’s explore the physical features and
major tributaries of the Yamuna River in detail:
Major Tributaries of the Yamuna River:
• Tons River: The Tons River is the largest tribu-
tary of the Yamuna River. It originates from the
slopes of the Bandarpunch and Kailash moun-
tains in Himachal Pradesh. The Tons River joins
the Yamuna River near Kalsi in Uttarakhand.
• Chambal River: The Chambal River is a sig-
nificant right-bank tributary of the Yamuna
River. It originates in the Vindhya Range of
Madhya Pradesh and flows through Rajasthan
before joining the Yamuna near Etawah in Uttar
Pradesh. The Chambal River itself has sever-
al tributaries, including the Banas, Parvati, and
Kali Sindh rivers.
• Sindh River: The Sindh River is another ma-
jor right-bank tributary of the Yamuna. It rises
in the Malwa Plateau of Madhya Pradesh and
flows through Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh
before joining the Yamuna near Etawah. The
Sindh River has sub-tributaries, including the
Parbati and Betwa rivers.
• Hindon River: The Hindon River is a left-bank
tributary of the Yamuna River. It flows through
the states of Uttar Pradesh and Delhi before
joining the Yamuna near Noida. The Hindon
River plays a crucial role in the water supply
and irrigation needs of the region.
29
Brahmaputra River system
The Brahmaputra River system is one of the major
river systems in Asia, originating in the Himala-
yas and flowing through Tibet, India, and Ban-
gladesh. It is a transboundary river that travers-
es diverse landscapes and supports millions of
people with its water resources. The river holds
immense ecological, cultural, and economic
significance in the regions it passes through.
Origin and source of the Brahmaputra
River:
• The Brahmaputra River originates in south-
western Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo River.
• It originates near Lake Mansarovar, close to the
sources of the Indus and Sutlej rivers. The river
begins its journey as a glacial stream from the
Chemayungdung Glacier in the Kailash Range.
• As the Yarlung Tsangpo River enters the Indian
territory of Arunachal Pradesh, it takes on the
name Brahmaputra. The river makes a dramatic
turn near Namcha Barwa Peak, forming the fa-
mous Great Bend of the Brahmaputra.
• This bend is a spectacular geographical feature
where the river changes its course from a south-
east direction to a southwest direction.
• After the Great Bend, the Brahmaputra flows
through the northeastern Indian states of Assam
and Meghalaya.
• It receives water from various tributaries, in-
cluding the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Manas, and
Dhansiri rivers. These tributaries add to the riv-
er’s volume and contribute to the fertile flood-
plains of Assam.
• Continuing its journey, the Brahmaputra Riv-
er enters Bangladesh, where it is known as the
Jamuna River. In Bangladesh, it receives ad-
ditional tributaries, such as the Teesta, Dharla,
and Ganges rivers.

Figure 2.3 : Brahmaputra River System
Left Tributaries of the Brahmaputra
River:
• Subansiri River: Originating in the Himalayas
of Arunachal Pradesh, the Subansiri River is
one of the largest tributaries of the Brahmapu-
tra. It is fed by various sub-tributaries, includ-
ing the Kameng and Jia Bhareli rivers.
• Manas River: Flowing through the Manas
National Park in Assam, the Manas River is a
major left tributary of the Brahmaputra. It is
joined by sub-tributaries such as the Hakua and
Gaurang rivers.
• Dhansiri River: Rising in the Nagaland hills,
the Dhansiri River joins the Brahmaputra in As-
sam. Its sub-tributaries include the Dikhu and
Doyang rivers.
Right Tributaries of the Brahmaputra
River:
• Teesta River: Originating in the Himalayas of
Sikkim, the Teesta River flows through West
Bengal and Sikkim before entering Bangladesh.
It is a significant right tributary of the Brahma-
putra and is joined by sub-tributaries such as
the Rangeet and Ratnai rivers.
• Dibang River: Rising in the Mishmi Hills of
Arunachal Pradesh, the Dibang River joins the
Brahmaputra near Dibrugarh in Assam. It re-
ceives water from sub-tributaries like the Sisiri
and Iphi rivers.
• Lohit River: Originating in Tibet, the Lohit
River flows through Arunachal Pradesh before
merging with the Brahmaputra. Its sub-tributar-
30
ies include the Noa-Dihing and Dibru rivers.
Mahanadi River System
• The Mahanadi River system is one of the ma-
jor river systems in India, primarily flowing
through the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
• It is a significant river in terms of its length, ba-
sin size, and the socio-economic importance it
holds for the region.
• The Mahanadi River, along with its tributaries,
forms an extensive network that supports agri-
culture, and hydropower generation, and pro-
vides livelihoods for millions of people.
• The Mahanadi River originates from the Dham-
tari district in the state of Chhattisgarh, near the
village of Sihawa.
• The river’s source is formed by the convergence
of two rivers, the Seonath and the Jonk, which
originate from the Maikal Hills of the Satpura
Range.
• The Seonath River flows from the northern
slopes of the Maikal Hills, while the Jonk River
originates from the eastern slopes of the same
hills.
Course and Tributaries of the Mahanadi
River:
• The Mahanadi River has an extensive network
of tributaries and sub-tributaries that contribute
to its flow.
• Some of the major tributaries and their sub-trib-
utaries are:
o Hasdeo River: Originating in the Surguja dis-
trict of Chhattisgarh, the Hasdeo River is the
largest left-bank tributary of the Mahanadi. It
has sub-tributaries like the Gej River, Pairy,
Mand, and Johilla rivers.
o Ib River: The Ib River is another significant
left-bank tributary of the Mahanadi, originat-
ing in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. The
Ib River has sub-tributaries including the Jonk,
Kelo, Tangar, and Son rivers.
o Ong River: The Ong River is a right-bank trib-
utary of the Mahanadi, originating in the Nu-
apada district of Odisha. It has sub-tributaries
like the Tel, Jonk, and Uttei rivers.
o Tel River: Originating in the Sundargarh dis-
trict of Odisha, the Tel River is a significant
right-bank tributary of the Mahanadi. It is fed
by sub-tributaries like the Sankh, Kanhar, and
Sondur rivers.
o Jonk River: The Jonk River is a tributary of
both the Mahanadi and the Seonath rivers. It
has sub-tributaries like the Ghoghara, Chandni,
and Badgara rivers.
These tributaries, along with their sub-tributaries,
contribute to the flow of the Mahanadi River,
enhancing its water volume and providing wa-
ter resources for irrigation, hydropower genera-
tion, and other socio-economic activities in the
region.
Figure 2.4 : Mahanadi River System
Godavari River System
• The Godavari River system is one of the larg-
est river systems in India, flowing through
the states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, and Odisha.
• It is often referred to as the “Ganges of the
South” and holds immense cultural, historical,
and economic significance.
• The Godavari River, along with its tributaries,
forms a vast network that supports agriculture,
provides water resources, and plays a crucial
role in the socio-economic development of the
region.
• The Godavari River originates from the Brah-
magiri Hills in the Western Ghats of Maha-
rashtra.
• The river’s source is located near the village of
Trimbak in the Nashik district. It is believed to
originate from the Brahmagiri Hill as a stream
31
known as the Nasardi River. The Nasardi Riv-
er joins another stream called the Darna River,
and together they form the Godavari River.
Course and Tributaries of the Godavari
River:
• The Godavari River has a long and intricate
course, covering a total distance of approxi-
mately 1,465 kilometers (910 miles) from its
origin to its mouth in the Bay of Bengal. It re-
ceives water from several major tributaries and
their sub-tributaries.
• Some of the significant tributaries and their
sub-tributaries:
o Pravara River: The Pravara River is one of
the major left-bank tributaries of the Goda-
vari. It originates in the Ahmednagar district
of Maharashtra and flows through Nashik
and Ahmednagar before joining the Goda-
vari. The tributaries of the Pravara River in-
clude the Mandohol, Sina, and Dharna rivers
Figure 2.5 : Godavari River System
o Indravati River: The Indravati River is a sig-
nificant left-bank tributary of the Godavari,
originating in the Kalahandi district of Odisha.
It flows through the Bastar region of Chhattis-
garh before joining the Godavari in the state of
Maharashtra.
o Manjira River: The Manjira River is a right-
bank tributary of the Godavari, originating in
the Balaghat Hills of Maharashtra. It flows
through the states of Maharashtra and Telanga-
na before joining the Godavari near Nizamabad.
The Manjira River has sub-tributaries including
the Kadam, Manair, and Singur rivers.
o Pranhita River: The Pranhita River is a crucial
left-bank tributary of the Godavari, formed by
the confluence of the Wardha and Wainganga
rivers. It joins the Godavari River near the town
of Kaleshwaram in Telangana. The Pranhita
River itself has sub-tributaries such as the Pen-
ganga and Sabari rivers.
o Sabari River: The Sabari River is a significant
tributary of the Pranhita River, originating in the
Eastern Ghats of Odisha. It flows through the
states of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Telangana
before joining the Pranhita River.
Krishna River System
• The Krishna River system is one of the ma- Figure 2.6 : Krishna River System
jor river systems in India, flowing through the • Bhima River: The Bhima River is another sig-
states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra nificant left-bank tributary of the Krishna River.
Pradesh. It originates in Maharashtra and flows through
• It is an important river in terms of its length, Karnataka before joining the Krishna River in
drainage basin, and its role in supporting ag- Telangana. The Bhima River has sub-tributaries
riculture, hydropower generation, and liveli- including the Manjira, Dudhganga, and Pavna
hoods in the region. rivers.
• The Krishna River, along with its tributaries, • Ghataprabha River: The Ghataprabha River
forms a significant network that contributes to is a right-bank tributary of the Krishna River.
the socio-economic development of the areas it It originates in the Western Ghats of Karna-
traverses. taka and joins the Krishna River near Almat-
ti in Karnataka. The Ghataprabha River has
• The Krishna River originates from the Ma-
sub-tributaries including the Malaprabha and
habaleshwar region in the Western Ghats of
Markandeya rivers.
Maharashtra.
• Malaprabha River: The Malaprabha River is
• The river’s source is a small spring known as
a right-bank tributary of the Krishna River. It
“Krishna Kund” located at the ancient temple
also originates in the Western Ghats of Karna-
of Mahadev. From this point, the Krishna Riv-
taka and joins the Krishna River near Gokak in
er begins its journey towards the east, flowing
Karnataka. The Malaprabha River has sub-trib-
through various states and landscapes.
utaries including the Dharma, Gokak, and Hire-
Course and Tributaries of the Krishna halla rivers.
River: • Musi River: The Musi River is a right-bank
• Tungabhadra River: The Tungabhadra River tributary of the Krishna River. It originates in
is one of the major left-bank tributaries of the the Anantagiri Hills of Telangana and joins the
Krishna River. It originates in the state of Kar- Krishna River near Vadapally in Telangana.
nataka and is formed by the confluence of the Kaveri River system
Tunga and Bhadra rivers. Sub-tributaries of the
• The Kaveri River system, also known as the
Tungabhadra River include the Hagari, Munne-
Cauvery River system, is one of the major river
ru, and Handri rivers.
systems in South India.
• It is considered a sacred river and holds im-
mense cultural and historical significance.

32