SCIENCE

(LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT) ●Food Chain vs Food Web

POINTERS Food Chain:
BIODIVERSITY a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and
-refers to the variety and abundance of energy pass as one organism eats another. Typically, a food
Life-forms chain starts with a primary producer and ends with a top
● Genetic Diversity predator.
genetic composition Food Web:
● Ecosystem Diversity It consists of multiple food chains that are interconnected
Where organisms live and the within an ecosystem.
interconnections between them
1st Trophic level:
● Species Diversity
Organisms: These are usually green plants, algae,
different kinds of organisms
and some types of bacteria
Low Biodiversity- Healthy
Classification: Autotrophs(producer)
High Biodiversity- UnHealthy
Role: Primary producers
SPECIES RICHNESS
-number of species 2nd Trophic level:
SPECIES DOMINANCE Organisms: animals that feed on primary
-The name of dominant species producers
SPECIES EVENNESS Classification: Herbivores/Omnivores
-How many individual organisms Role: Primary consumers
ECOSYSTEM 3rd Trophic level
●Linnaean System of Classification Organisms: These are predators that feed on
(Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century) primary consumers.
-system used by biologists to categorize and Classification: Omnivores
organize all living organisms based on their shared Role: Secondary consumers

characteristics and evolutionary relationships. 4th Trophic level:

1. Domain Organisms: These are predators that feed on
At the highest level of classification secondary consumers.
2. Kingdom Classification: Carnivores
3. Phylum Role: Tertiary consumers
4. Class 5th Trophic level
5. Order Organisms: These are predators that feed on
6. Family Tertiary consumers.
7. Genus Classification: Carnivores
8. Species Role: Apex Predator
CYCLES
●Carbon Cycle
● movement of carbon through the Earth's atmosphere,
biosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere
● Photosynthesis: CO2 gets absorbed from the
atmosphere during photosynthesis.
● Consumption: Animals consume other organisms,
transfer carbon compounds through the food chain.
● Respiration: release CO2 into the atmosphere, where
glucose is oxidized to release energy.
● Decomposition: Dead decompose. carbon compounds
are broken down, releasing CO2 or methane.
● Fossilization: organic matter turns into forming fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Burning them,
releases CO2 into the atmosphere.
● Exchange with Oceans: CO2 dissolves in ocean,
release back into the atmosphere through diffusion.
●Nitrogen Cycle
● the movement of nitrogen through the atmosphere,
soil, water, and living organisms. Nitrogen is an
essential component of amino acids, proteins, and
nucleic acids, critical for the growth and survival of
all organisms.
● Nitrogen Fixation: Atmospheric nitrogen converts
to ammonia or nitrate by bacteria in the soil
● Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrite
● Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrate and incorporate
nitrogen into organic compounds such as amino acids
and proteins.
● Consumption: Animals obtain nitrogen by eating
others
● Ammonification: Decomposers break down organic
matter, release ammonium into soil.
● Denitrification: convert nitrate in the soil into
nitrogen gas, releasing in the atmosphere.
●Water Cycle
● hydrological cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water between the atmosphere, land, and
oceans.
● Evaporation: water to evaporate and enter the
atmosphere in the form of water vapor.
● Condensation: Water vapor in the atmosphere cools
and condenses forming clouds.
● Precipitation: When cloud droplets fall to the
Earth's surface as precipitation in the form of rain,
snow, sleet, or hail.
● Surface Runoff: water flows over the land surface
into bodies of water..
● Groundwater Discharge: Groundwater may
discharge into surface water bodies
TAXONOMY
-the classification, identification, and naming of
organisms based on their shared characteristics and
evolutionary relationships. To organize the diversity of
life into a hierarchical system
Nomenclature: Taxonomy assigns unique
scientific names to organisms using binomial
nomenclature, where each species is given a
two-part name consisting of its genus and species.
HOW TO WRITE:
HANDWRITTEN
1st letter of genus is capital while the species is
lowercase(underlined)
EX: Genus species
TYPED
1st letter of genus is capital while the species is
lowercase(italicized)
EX: Genus species
 MITOSIS vs MEIOSIS
PUNNETT SQUARE Chromosomes
is a square diagram that is used to PREDICT THE ✓ THREADLIKE structures
GENOTYPES of particular cross or breeding experiment. ✓ made of PROTEIN and SINGLE MOLECULE of DNA
Allows us to determine the POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF ✓ carry the genomic information
GENES in a cross. ✓ Resides in NUCLEUS
HOMOZYGOUS(PURE) ✓ upper arms shorter
● two alleles are THE SAME MITOSIS(1 cell to 2 cells)
● Can be DOMINANT ( TT, RR) or RECESSIVE (tt, rr) ● growth and repair
HETEROZYGOUS(HYBRID) ● somatic cells
● combination of DOMINANT and Recessive; the ● NO reduction in the number of chromosomes
same type of gene ● INTERPHASE(resting stage)
●Monohybrid -longer than M phase
Genetic cross involving a SINGLE PAIR of genes -chromosome replicates
(one trait); parents differ by a single trait. (TT x tt) ● G1
●Dihybrid ● formation until cell begins to replicate its DNA
Genetic cross involving a TWO PAIR of genes; ● Cell grows initially
parents differ by a two trait. (TT PP x tt pp) ● protein and ribonucleic acid synthesis
*USE FOIL ● SYNTHESIS

THE MENDELIAN PRINCIPLES OF ● DNA synthesis or replication

● chromosomes are duplicated in preparation for the
INHERITANCE
(Austrian monk Gregor Mendel in the 19th century) next cell division
fundamental laws of heredity. He laid the foundation using pea ● G2
plants ● period of rapid cell growth to prepare for cell division
Law of Segregation: During gamete formation, the alleles for ● PROPHASE
each gene segregate so that each gamete carries only one allele ● chromatin in the nucleus condenses into visible
for each gene. Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each chromosomes
parent, leading to predictable inheritance patterns. ● Centrosomes move to opposite poles
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes ● nuclear envelope breaks down
segregate independently of each other during gamete formation.
● Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes
The inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of
● METAPHASE
another trait, resulting in various combinations of traits in
● chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell
offspring.
(metaphase plate)
Principle of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant, while
others are recessive. Dominant alleles mask the expression of ● spindle fibers align them
recessive alleles when they are present together in an organism. ● ANAPHASE
Only when an organism inherits two copies of the recessive allele ● the sister chromatids of each replicated chromosome
does the recessive trait become apparent. separate and are pulled towards opposite poles
● TELOPHASE ● ANAPHASE
● chromosomes reach the opposite poles ● (Tetrads separate)
● nuclear envelope reform around chromosomes. ● Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres
● return to their normal, diffuse form ● TELOPHASE
● Prep for cytokinesis ● Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes
● CYTOKINESIS (however – still doubled).
● cell divides into two daughter cells. ● Two new nuclei form around each set of chromosomes.
MEIOSIS(1 cell to 4 cells) ● CYTOKINESIS
Sexual reproduction ● two haploid daughter cells formed.
half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell M2
Homologous Chromosomes ● INTERPHASE
✓ Pair of chromosomes that are similar No interphase II ✓ ( no more DNA replication) ✓
✓ Homologous pairs (tetrads)same inherited traits. Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis
✓ Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same ● PROPHASE
position on homologues.
● 4 haploid sex cells to be created.
✓ Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
● The chromosomes condense and the nucleolus breaks in
✓ a. 22 pairs of autosomes
both cells.
✓ b. 01 pair of sex chromosomes
● METAPHASE
M1
● The chromosomes align.
● INTERPHASE
● ensure sister chromatids separate in the next stage.
SAME
● ANAPHASE
● PROPHASE
● Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends.
● Longest and most complex phase
● This ensures the daughter cells remain haploid
● Chromosomes condense
(half the genetic material of the original parent cell.)
● nucleolus and nuclear envelope breaks down.
● TELOPHASE
● Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come together
● 4 new nuclei form
to form a tetrad. (two chromosomes or four chromatids)
● The cytoplasms split and four (haploid) daughter cells
● CROSSING OVER
are formed.
● non-sister chromatids at the chiasmata.
● Cytokinesis occurs (2nd time).
● nonsister chromatids break and reattach to other
● Four haploid daughter cells produced
chromatids.
● Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.
● METAPHASE
● Shortest phase; tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
● INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT occurs
● pairs of homologues line up independently
EXTRA
Global Warming
Greenhouse gases are gases in the Earth's atmosphere
that trap heat, causing the planet to warm up.
CAUSES
DEFORESTATION & FOSSIL FUELS
EFFECTS
HIGHER TEMP
CLIMATE CHANGE
DROUGHTS AND STORMS
HIGHER RATE OF NATURAL SELECTION
Environmental Laws
Republic act no. 9147-Wildlife
Republic act no. 9003-Solid Waste
Republic act no. 8749-Air pollution
VIENNA CONVENTION- activities on ozone layer
MONTREAL PROTOCOL- phasing out the production
and consumption of ozone-depleting substances
KYOTO PROTOCOL-Climate Change