4 PUNDAMENTAL FORCES Fundamental interaction, inphysics, any ofthe four basic forces — gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and ‘Weak that govern haw abfets or particles interact and how certain particles decay. ‘The gravitational force, described systematically by Isaac Newton in the 17 century, acts between all ‘bets having mass; i causes apple to fll from trees and determines the orbits ofthe planets around the Sun ‘The electromagnetic force, given scientific defition by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19% century, is responsible forthe repulsion of ike and the attraction of unke eectic charges. ‘Tho strong force acts between quarks, the constituents ofall subatomic particles, including protons and neutrons, “The weak force manifests ita in certain forms of radioactive decay and in the nuclear reactions the fuel the ‘Sun and other stare BAS IC TERMS ‘Matter — anything that occupies space and has mass. Element — a species of tom having the same number of protons ints atomic nucle ‘Compound ~ chemical combination of elements, ‘Molecule ~ chemical combination of two or more atoms, smallest particle that has all he characteristic ‘of a compound. ‘Atom ~ the smallest particle ofan element. O7:21 1 1:17:42 ATOM ‘Atypical atom consists of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. ‘The number of protons inthe nucleus represents the atomic number. Isotopes are cilerent types of atoms (nucides) of the same chemical element having different ruber on S —BOHR MODEL Electrons reside in group of orbits called shel (also called energy levels) “The outermost shell is called the valence shell, and the electrons resiging in the outermost shell is called valence electrons. N het N=2n2* Mahelt where: veel K shel N = no.of electrons reel charges n=n'energy level roca IONIZATION roresoinekdcremscietintmiarte — fA |\) JON AH, kt ‘Atoms that loses electrons are called ENERGY BAND \Valence band - the region where the valence shell and valence electrons are occupying, ‘Conduction band - the region where fee electrons are said to be present Forbidden band ~ the region in an atom where no electrons exist, Energy gap - the energy diference between the valence band and conduction band usually expressed in electron-vot (eV. ST 3ELECTRICAL CLAS S IFICATION ‘Conductors ~ materials with less than four (4) valence electrons. Allows electrical current to flow easily because of more fre electrons. Insulators ~ materials wth more than four (4) valence electrons. Insulators will not alow the flow of Current because there are less or no tree electrons. ‘Semiconductors ~ materials with exactly four (4) valence electrons, nave electrical characteristics, between conductor and insulator. ELECTROS TATICS Electrostatics deals with forces between charges. Static means the charges are not moving, or at least are not moving very fast. ‘Coulomb's Law ~ The magnitude of the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is directly proportional to the value of each charge and varies inversely as the square of the distance between them. ia a 5 |e aca?) Neve ones r2 ‘Charge (Q) ‘Coulombs ‘statCoulomb, esu Dounce) om a rox" comansyy SORT, ket ELECTRIC FIELD The electric field is a vector quantity that exists at every point in space. The electric fleld at a location indicates the force that would act on a unit positive test charge i placed at that location.GAUS S’S LAW ‘Gauss's Law states that the fotal electric ux out of 2 closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity The electric flux in an area is defined as the electric field muttipied by the area of the surface projected Ina plane and perpendicular to the fel ° EA ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS Electrical potential — the ability of a charged body to do work on charged particles. Electromotive force ~ the electric force that moves the charged particles such as electrons expressed invotts. © Volts ~ the unit of potential difference. A potential of 1 V has a capacity to do 1 J of work in moving 1 C of charge. Electric current ~ any directional movement of electric charges. ‘Amperes—a current of 1 A is equal to 1 C of charge flowing a given point in 1 s. Resistance - property of a material to oppose or limit the flow of current or charge. FACTORS AFFECTING RES IS TANCE Length of wre Cross-sectional Area “ype of Material ot R=p5 Temperature AR = a,R,4T aRMAGNETISM ‘Magnetism is the property of a device or material to attract bodies of iron and other magnetic materials. (or magnets, Weber ‘of Magnetism ~ assumes that all magnetic substance are composed of tiny molecular ‘magnets. Magna N s " s mam inepaeres ~ a theory based on electron spin theory. If an atom has an equal ‘number of electrons spinning in opposite directions, the magnetic fleld surrounding the electron cancel ‘one another, and the atom is unmagnetized. Magnetic ek - espace surouncng magnet here magnates act MAGNETISM ~ lines that are used to represent the force existing in the area surrounding a magnet ‘ 9 ‘ te 4 They : Ina single bar magnet, they a WY They all oe —™ ‘They never cross one another. > ‘Their density decreases (spread out) when they move from an area of higher permeability to an area of Jower permeability ‘Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles. ‘They are considered to have direction as ifflowing, though no actual movement occurs.MAGNETIC FLUX (@y) The total number of magnetic lines of force leaving or entering the pole of a magnet. ‘Maxwell - the CGS unit of magnetic flux. One Maxwell is equal to one magnetic field line. Weber - the SI (MKS) unit of magnetic flux. One Weber equals 110° lines or Maxwell MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B) ‘The number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a section perpendicular to the direction of the flux. _ 9m Ae Gauss — the CGS unit of magnetic flux density. it has @ unit of one line or Maxwell per square centimeter. B ‘Tesla the SI (MKS) unit of magnetic flux density. It has a unit of one Weber per square meter. PERMEABILITY The ability to accept, allow or setup a magnetic field 1 we ° MAGNETIZATION CURVE ‘The B-H curve depicts the ability of a material to accept, allow or setup magnetic field as itis subjected toa magnetizing force,MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS The delayed reaction of the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material, with the change of the magnetizing force. ° sean O- aoe saa B ecthne HYSTERESIS LOOP MAGNETIC MATERIALS Ferromagnetic materials ~ materials with relative permeabllty very much greater than 1. (ex: Iron, Balt, Nickel) ‘materials ~ materials with relative permeability slightly greater than 1. (ex: Aluminum, Tungsten) Diamagnetic materials - materials with rolative permeability slightly less than 1. (ex: Copper, Silver, Water) (Curie Temperature — the temperature in which ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic.MAGNETIC CIRCUITS A closed path to which a magnetic field, represented as line of magnetic flux, is confined, ° MAGNETIC CIRC! Electromotive force or Voltage (V) Magnetomotive force (mmf) Current (I) Magnetic Flux () Resistance (R) Reluctance (R) MAGNETIC CIRCUITS Magnetomotive force (mmi) the magnetic force that tends to setup magnetic thx. mmf = IN Ampere-turns ~ the SI unit of magnetomative force. Gilberts ~ the CGS unit of magnetomotive force. (1 A-t = 1.26 Gb) Magnetic field intensity — the mmf per unit length at any given point in a magnetic circuit Ampere-tum per meter ~ the SI unit of magnetic field intensity. Oarsted - the CGS unit of magnetic field intensity. One Oersted equals One Gilbert per centimeter. FARADAY’S LAW lectromotve force Is induced whenever conductor cuts magnetic tux Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnatic Induction ~ the magnitude of the induced elactromative force is proportional tothe relate rate of change of fax. Fania Lavol rion do -= vena LENZ’ LAW In electromagnetic induction, the current setup by the induced voltage tends to create flux whose direction opposes any change in the existing flux.