Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11, pp.

1446–1465

Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical

properties of solids and topical problems of cryogenic
materials science: studies in NSC KIPT NAS of Ukraine
related to V. I. Startsev’s scientific activity
(Review Article)

V. I. Sokolenko
National Science Center “Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology”, Kharkiv 61108, Ukraine

E-mail: vsokol@kipt.kharkov.ua

Received June 12, 2023, published online September 26, 2023

The review presents the most significant scientific results obtained at the NSC KIPT NAS of Ukraine during
low-temperature studies of the physical and mechanical properties of a wide range of metals and alloys over
the period from the second half of the 30s of the 20th century to recent years. During this period, a school
in the field of physics of strength and plasticity was formed at the Institute, at the origins of which were I. V. Ob-
reimov, R. I. Garber, V. I. Startsev, V. I. Khotkevich, B. G. Lazarev, and I. A. Gindin. As a result of the studies
of these famous scientists, their students and followers, fundamental concepts in the field of low-temperature
physics of strength and plasticity of solids and cryogenic materials science have been developed. The relevance
of the results obtained is also confirmed by the development of modern cryogenic and aerospace engineering,
nuclear and hydrogen energy, electronics, etc.

Keywords: low temperatures, solids, deformation, structural state, ultrasound, magnetic fields, irradiation, physi-
cal and mechanical properties.

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1447
1. The beginning and development of low-temperature research in the field of physics of strength
and ductility at UIPT–KIPT..................................................................................................................... 1448
2. Studies of the physics of strength and plasticity of solids at low and moderately low temperatures ......... 1449
2.1. Cold brittleness and low-temperature mechanical properties of bcc metals in various structural
states ................................................................................................................................................ 1449
2.2. Deformation-induced polymorphism of metals and alloys ............................................................... 1450
2.3. Fatigue of fcc and hcp metals and alloys .......................................................................................... 1451
3. Physical effects of the interaction of dislocations with lattice, electronic, and magnetic subsystems
in crystals ................................................................................................................................................. 1452
3.1. Creep of fcc, bcc, and hcp metals in the normal state at low temperatures ...................................... 1452
3.2. Softening of metals during the transition to the superconducting state ............................................ 1453
3.3. Magnetoplastic effect ....................................................................................................................... 1454
3.4. On the general mechanism of metal softening under the influence of magnetic and electric fields 1455
3.5. Changes in the mechanical properties of ferro- and antiferromagnets under preliminary exposure
to magnetic fields............................................................................................................................. 1456
4. Increasing the strength of metals and alloys and modifying the structural state by ultrasonic influences
and irradiation .......................................................................................................................................... 1457
4.1. Creation of highly distorted structures and nanostructures in fcc, bcc, and hcp metals and alloys by
low-temperature deformation methods and study of physical and mechanical characteristics ........ 1457
4.2. Changes in the structural state and physical and mechanical properties of nanocrystalline metals
and heterophase materials as a result of ultrasonic exposure and irradiation ................................... 1460
References ..................................................................................................................................................... 1462

© V. I. Sokolenko, 2023
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
Introduction
The development of world-class fundamental physical
research in Ukraine is related to the organization in Kharkiv
in 1928 of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology
(UIPT) [1], later renamed to the Institute of Physics and Tech-
nology of the Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian SSR and
Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology (KIPT). Cur-
rently, the institute is called the National Scientific Center
“Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology” of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NSC KIPT NAS
of Ukraine).
The research carried out in the 30–40s of the last century
at UIPT in a number of topical areas of physical science,
including the physics of strength and plasticity, was due to
the demand for fundamental and applied scientific results
for developing technology, related branches of science,
higher education, etc. At the origins of this direction are
pioneering studies of elementary processes of plastic defor-
mation and destruction of crystalline materials, carried out
in the laboratory of crystal physics established by I. V.
Obreimov in 1931. The study of slip bands in crystals
obtained by optical and X-ray methods was started by
I. V. Obreimov, N. A. Brilliantov, R. I. Garber, and V. I.
Startsev [2–4]. To measure the residual stresses in trans-
parent crystals, I. V. Obreimov, and L. V. Shubnikov [5]
were the first to use the method of birefringence. It was
found that stresses in crystals appear at very low strains
and indicate the formation and development of slip bands.
The results of study of the fine structure of slip bands and
the effect of reverse slip [6] subsequently found an expla-
nation in the dislocation theory of slip.
The neighborhood of the laboratory of crystals and the
cryogenic laboratory, in which, under the leadership of
L. V. Shubnikov liquid hydrogen (1931) and helium (1932)
were obtained promoted the development of a culture of
working with cryogenic refrigerants, the creation of me-
chanical testing methods and the beginning of systematic
studies of the problem of materials behavior under loading
at low temperatures. It should be noted that until the 1930s,
studies of low-temperature strength and plasticity in different
laboratories were mainly limited to liquid nitrogen tempe-
rature (77 K) to determine the macroscopic characteristics
of materials used in low-temperature mechanical engineer-
ing, and the issues of the physical nature of processes at
low-temperature plastic deformation were not touched upon.
A large amount of experimental data and theoretical con-
cepts has been accumulated in research laboratories of the
world after more than 90 years of investigation in the field
of low-temperature physics of strength and plasticity of
solids, the relevance of which is currently confirmed both
by the need for the development of fundamental research
and by the tasks of cryogenic and aerospace engineering,
nuclear and hydrogen energy, electronics etc. A signifycant
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
part of the results obtained is related to the achievements
of “Kharkiv Science”, primarily representatives of the sci-
entific schools of the UIPT–KIPT–NSC KIPT NAS of Uk-
raine and B. Verkin Institute for Low Temperature Physics
and Engineering of the NAS of Ukraine (ILTPE NAS of
Ukraine).
Scientific research initiated by V. I. Startsev in the period
of his formation as a highly qualified young physicist at
UIPT–KIPT was being continued in subsequent years at
ILTPE by the team of researchers created and headed by
him. The study of the relationship between the mechanical
properties of solids and their electronic and magnetic struc-
ture, regularities and physical mechanisms of plastic de-
formation and fracture under conditions of moderate and
deep cooling, topical problems of cryogenic physical ma-
terials science continued for several decades in parallel by
teams of experimenters and theorists of these two large sci-
entific Institutes of the NAS of Ukraine. The research was
carried out in an atmosphere of mutual interest, exchange
of information and methodological experience, construc-
tive and ethically balanced competition, which contributed
to the enrichment of the scientific achievements of each of
the parties and the progress of the field of science they
developed as a whole.
The list of major publications of a review type and mo-
nographs on the subject of low-temperature physics of
strength and plasticity is relatively short. In the monograph
by V. I. Startsev, V. Ya. Illichev, and V. V. Pustovalov [7]
theoretical ideas and experimental data on the strength and
ductility of metals and alloys at low temperatures for the
period up to middle 70s, which have not lost their signifi-
cance, have been generalized. At the same time, consider-
able attention was paid to the results of studies carried out
at ILTPE.
A brief review by V. I. Khotkevich and I. A. Gindin [8]
traces the path of development of studies of low-tempe-
rature strength and ductility at the UIPT–KIPT until the
second half of the 1970s. The review by R. I. Garber, I. M.
Neklyudov, and Ya. D. Starodubov [9] presents a brief ana-
lysis of the results of research on the physics of strength and
ductility at the NSC KIPT for the period up to the 90s.
The monograph by V. V. Pustovalov and V. S. Fomenko [10]
published in 2012 is devoted to the analysis of experimental
data and theoretical results related to such phenomena of
low-temperature deformation as the anomaly of the yield
strength, jump-like deformation and the influence super-
conducting transition on the mechanical properties of crys-
tals, studied in detail in ILTPE.
The purpose of this review was to highlight the most
significant results of studies of the physical and mecha-
nical properties of a wide range of metals and alloys at low
and moderately low temperatures and some issues of cryo-
genic materials science, both historically and in relation to
recent studies.
1447
 V. I. Sokolenko
1. The beginning and development of low-temperature
research in the field of physics of strength and ductility
at UIPT–KIPT
In the second half of the 30s and in the 40s of the last
century, V. I. Kostenets, under the leadership of B. G. La-
zarev [11–13], carried out the first in the former USSR studies
of the mechanical properties of a number of pure metals,
steels and alloys by static and impact tests at 20–300 K.
Note that before the work of V. I. Kostenets there were
few publications in which the results of studies of mechani-
cal properties at low temperatures were presented. In [14],
it was reported that the plasticity of Cd and Zn single crys-
tals was retained up to T = 1.2 K, and a conclusion was
made about the existence of an athermal component in the
plasticity phenomenon. At the temperature of liquid hydro-
gen under conditions of uniaxial loading, the mechanical
characteristics of polycrystalline Cu and Ni, as well as a num-
ber of alloys and steels, were studied [15]. The results of
testing the impact strength of a number of steels at hydro-
gen temperature are presented in [16].
A tensile testing machine with a force of up to 1.5 t.
was designed in the laboratory of crystal physics of the
UIPT to carry out mechanical tests in a liquid nitrogen me-
dium. Tensile strength σB and elongation to failure δ of a wide
range of samples (Al, Ag, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mo, Sn, Mg, Na) were
measured with an accuracy of 3–5% and 2–3%, respecti-
vely [12]. It was shown in [11–13] that the studied poly-
crystalline metals with the fcc lattice (Al, Ag, Cu, Ni, Pb)
at 77 K and 20 K retain or even increase their high plasticity,
while Mo (bcc lattice) and Sn (bct lattice) are brittle. The re-
sults obtained were related to the hypothesis that the me-
chanical properties and cold brittleness of metals and alloys
at low temperatures depend on the type of lattice (the twin
forging hypothesis) (see, for example, [8]). At the same time,
a more than threefold increase in δ was shown for sodium
(bcc lattice) with a decrease in the test temperature from
77 to 20 K. This effect stimulated further detailed studies
at the KIPT of the low-temperature mechanical properties
of alkali metals and found an explanation in the occurrence
of deformation polymorphic transformations in these me-
tals, which will be discussed in more detail below.
In the 1950s, V. I. Khotkevich, using a low-temperature
press placed in a liquid helium medium, first studied the
mechanical characteristics of metals and alloys under com-
pression at helium temperatures, as well as the effect of
plastic deformation on the electrical conductivity and criti-
cal parameters of superconductors [17, 18]. Table 1 pre-
sents the values of the conditional elastic limit σ0 measured
Table 1. Elastic limit σ0 at T = 4.2 K for some metals [19]
Metal Tl In Hg Cu Mg Al
σ0, MPa 3 4 4 66 69 85
1448 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
at T = 4.2 K, corresponding to the onset of plastic defor-
mation for a number of metals with different types of crys-
tal lattice [19]. The author determined σ0 by the magnitude
of the load on the sample, from which additional resistance
appeared due to the onset of plastic deformation.
To study impact strength at T = 20 K, V. I. Khotkevich
developed an original method for quickly transferring a
sample from a vessel with liquid hydrogen with automati-
cally correct installation on the impact tester supports [19].
The works briefly described above marked the begin-
ning of a large cycle of research that led to the creation of
new ideas and directions in the field of low-temperature
physics of the strength and plasticity of metals and alloys,
as well as in the field of fundamental and applied super-
conductivity.
Systematic and large-scale studies of the physics of
strength and plasticity of solids at low temperatures (1.4–77 K)
were started by the KIPT in the second half of the 50s under
the leadership of I. A. Gindin and B. G. Lazarev. Some-
what later, ILTPE staff led by V. I. Startsev joined in such
studies. On the one hand, those were stimulated by the rapid
development of the branches of new technology, namely
cryogenic and aerospace; on the other hand, it was of fun-
damental interest to elucidate the physical processes of
plastic deformation and the mechanical behavior of solids
near absolute zero temperature, when thermal activation
processes are minimized.
For aerospace enterprises headed by S. P. Korolev and
A. A. Lyulka, KIPT carried out a large amount of studies
of mechanical properties and the nature of destruction in
the temperature range 4.2–300 K of a wide class of steels
and special alloys of iron, niobium, molybdenum, aluminum,
copper, and titanium bases in various states. Boundary tem-
peratures were established within which it is possible to use
the materials under study, and recommendations were given
for their use in various components of aviation and space
technology.
As a result of several studies achieved at the KIPT using
various investigation methods, it was shown that low-tem-
perature deformation of metals and alloys that remain duc-
tile at these temperatures is characterized by a high degree
of lattice distortion and imperfection, deformation uni-
formity, and a more uniform distribution of dislocations
over the volume even at low degrees of deformation. With
a temperature decrease, a number of effects are observed:
mechanical twinning has an increased role, the work of new
slip planes manifests itself, athermal plasticity of crystals oc-
curs at helium temperatures, the temperature of the begin-
ning of the recovery process during annealing of the de-
Sn Ag Au Pt Ni Mo Ta Fe
118 290 364 550 590 680 800 840
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
formed metal decreases, etc. This gave grounds to assume
the existence, and then for the first time to experimentally
discover the phenomenon of low-temperature recrystalliza-
tion in relatively refractory metals (Cu, Ni, Fe) after de-
formation at 4.2–77 K (R. I. Garber, I. A. Gindin, V. S.
Kogan, B. G. Lazarev, Ya. D. Starodubov, and M. B. Laza-
reva) [20–22], which opened up new possibilities for creat-
ing a special structural state of the metal. Thus, with the
help of severe low-temperature deformation by rolling or
extrusion of copper and subsequent long-term annealing
at room temperature, as a result of the joint occurrence of
polygonization and recrystallization processes, an ultrafine-
grained structure (0.5–2 µm) was obtained, which provided
increased mechanical properties that are resistant to high-
temperature heating [23].
For the first time in the former USSR, for the developed
technical superconductors of various designs based on the
Nb3Sn compound and the Nb-Ti alloy, the current-carrying
ability at 4.2 K in strong magnetic fields at tensile stresses
was studied [24, 25]. The observed effect of a reversible
decrease of the critical current Jc under load, which increases
with an increase in the number of Nb-Ti filaments in the
conductor and the magnetic field strength, is due to elastic
martensitic transformation, which reduces the volume con-
tent of the initial superconducting β phase. It is shown that
for composites with a low volume content of the Nb3Sn
phase, made by the “bronze” technology, a local maximum Jс
appears at increase of tensile stress. This maximum is due to
the compensation of thermal compressive stresses, which re-
duce the superconducting characteristics of Nb3Sn, and is
absent at increased volume content of Nb3Sn and the addi-
tion of a stabilizing element into the structure. The obtained
data were used in calculations and assembly of supercon-
ducting magnetic systems.
2. Studies of the physics of strength and plasticity
of solids at low and moderately low temperatures
2.1. Cold brittleness and low-temperature mechanical
properties of bcc metals in various structural states
In the second half of the 1950s, studies of the physical
nature of the cold brittleness of crystalline solids began to
develop intensively at KIPT. By this time, there were a num-
ber of hypotheses about the causes of the cold brittleness of
metals, among which the most widespread were lattice, im-
purity, and twin hypotheses. The authors of the latter be-
lieved that twinning precedes brittle fracture and is its cause.
However, this conclusion was not convincing. In the expe-
riments of I. A. Gindin and Ya. D. Starodubov [26–29]
with pure (99.99%) iron, the origin and development of twin
layers and microcracks, mechanical and thermal hardening
of twins were studied in detail. It was shown that twin layers
appear long before rupture and develop under subsequent
loading to significant thicknesses (15–20 µm) without the
formation of microcracks (Fig. 1). For the first time, the tem-
perature thresholds of cold brittleness Тbrt and twinning Тtw
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
(Тbrt < 4.2 K, Ttw > 77 K) were separated, and it was shown
that the initiation of microcracks is not always related to
the appearance of twins [24]. Thus, it was found that me-
chanical twinning is not responsible for cold brittleness,
and the metal’s tendency to brittle fracture is determined by
the type of crystal lattice and impurities. Moreover, twinn-
ing, as the predominant type of low-temperature defor-
mation, not only does not lead to brittle fracture of tech-
nical purity metals, but under certain conditions promotes
their plasticization [29–33].
I. A. Gindin and L. A. Chirkina established the plasti-
cizing effect of relaxed twin layers. They showed that if
thin twins are introduced into silicon iron (e.g., by an impact
at 77–150 K), then stopping their development at an early
stage, and creating conditions for stress relaxation from the
tops and incoherent boundaries of the interlayers (e.g., by an-
nealing or ultrasonic action at temperatures of 300–400 K)
causes sharp decrease of the cold brittleness temperature and
the deformation proceeds, as in pure iron [28], mainly due
to the appearance and development of new systems of twin
layers [34]. At the same time, the temperature region of se-
condary twinning expands towards higher temperatures
and the plasticity margin above the ductile-brittle transition
temperature increases.
For the first time, I. A. Gindin, L. A. Chirkina, and V. S.
Okovit carried out systematic studies of the mechanical pro-
perties of bcc metals reinforced with relaxed twins, depend-
ing on the size of their grid (type of the Hall–Petch de-
pendence) and found that the level of stress concentration
at the twin boundary is lower than that at the grain boundary.
It is shown that twin interlayers not only play the role of
mechanical stoppers during the movement of dislocations
under load, but also create around themselves a zone with a
special defect structure, which, as a result of dislocation
reactions, increases the number of dislocation sources in
the matrix, eliminates overstresses in the vicinity of twin
formations, and, as a consequence, plasticization of the ma-
terial [35].
When studying the effect of the degree of purification
on the structure and mechanical properties of niobium in
the temperature range of 4.2–300 K, it was established that
there is “threshold” purity, above which the mechanical
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Development of twin interlayers in Fe (99.99%) under
continuous tension (Т = 77 K): σ = 220 MPa (a), σ = 420 MPa
(× 100) (b).
1449
 V. I. Sokolenko
properties do not depend on the content of interstitial im-
purities (O, H, N). At the same time, with degree of purifi-
cation increase, the uniformity of the distribution of defor-
mation in the bulk of the metal increased, and the relative
elongation at 4.2 K reached 18% [36].
Intergranular slip [26] and slip along twin boundaries [27],
reverse twinning when a load of the opposite sign is applied
[27], thermal strengthening of twin interlayers after heating
to 300 K (Fig. 2) [28], the phenomenon of the development
of mechanical twins under conditions of high-temperature
creep [30] were first discovered during low-temperature de-
formation of high purity bcc metals. As a result of this cycle
of research, ideas about the role of mechanical twinning in
the overall plastic deformation and fracture of bcc metals
and alloys have changed. It is shown that twinning can be
effectively controlled by using it as a kind of preliminary
mechanical-thermal treatment in order to change a number
of physical-mechanical properties.
An example of the purposeful use of twin structures to
improve the properties of a material is the results of [37],
where the regularities of the processes of plastic defor-
mation and fracture in the temperature range 4.2–500 K
of chromium single crystals are studied. It was shown for
the first time that the carrying out of relaxation processes
at the boundaries of twins previously introduced at low
1
(b)
2 at low temperatures with a large change in volume (26%)
3 tion the presence of polymorphism in lithium, which occurs
(a)
Fig. 2. Thermal hardening of twin boundaries in Fe (99.99%)
during additional tensile deformation at 4.2 K after intermediate
unloading and annealing at 300 K, 150 h (points A and B): mi-
crostructure after annealing (a), 10 without annealing (b), (× 90).
The deformation in both cases is 0.6%. Inset: machine tensile
curves.
1450 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
(a)
(b)
50 µm
Fig. 3. Microstructure of a Cr single crystal of orientation [110]:
compression by 5% at 210 K (a), the same place after compres-
sion by 7% at 500 K (b).
temperatures with subsequent low slip deformation (Fig. 3)
prevents the occurrence of cracks and significantly increases
the plasticity margin of chromium single crystals in the tem-
perature range of the ductile-brittle transition.
2.2. Deformation-induced polymorphism
of metals and alloys
It is known that a number of metals exhibit temperature
polymorphism occurring at sufficiently high temperatures,
which is associated with the rearrangement of the crystal
lattice into a new, thermodynamically more favorable modi-
fication. At low temperatures, metals can also have stable
structures that differ from those observed under normal con-
ditions. However, in this case, due to the low diffusion mo-
bility of atoms, the transformation does not occur, and the
metal can be in a supercooled state for an arbitrarily long
time, retaining its original structure. An example of the
above can be the tin plague — a phenomenon that occurs
and only if a gray tin germ (diamond-type lattice) is intro-
duced into white tin (bct lattice) or if the latter is created
plastic deformation at low temperatures.
For a long time, such a phase transformation was the
only one. Then C. S. Barrett in 1947 [38] and subsequently
V. I. Khotkevich in 1952 [19] established by X-ray diffrac-
during plastic deformation under conditions of strong super-
cooling. In a series of works [39–42], the phenomenon of
low-temperature polymorphism of metals caused by both
simple cooling and plastic deformation was studied. It was
found that the phenomenon of low-temperature polymor-
phism is characteristic of a large group of metals (Li, Na,
Cs, Bi, Be, Hg) and is associated with the removal of phase
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems

So, on titanium nickelide, it manifests itself in the form of

anomalies in the temperature dependencies of the ultimate
strength and electrical resistance in the temperature range
of 10–20 K (Fig. 5) [43].

2.3. Fatigue of fcc and hcp metals and alloys

For the first time, the fatigue properties of a number of
fcc and hcp metals and alloys, as well as the processes of
formation and development of a dislocation structure and
the initiation of cracks under alternating loading in the
temperature range of 4.2–300 K, were studied [44–49]
(I. A. Gindin, I. M. Neklyudov, Ya. D. Starodubov, V. I.
Fig. 4. Microstructure of Li cooled to 20 K. Photograph taken at
Sokolenko, M. P. Starolat, and V. N. Netesov).
78 K (× 100). Needles of hexagonal modification appear at 74 K.
Non-trivial changes in the fatigue characteristics of metals
at cryogenic temperatures have been found. It is shown that
supercooling due to the energy of plastic deformation [39] as the temperature decreases from 300 to 4.2 K, the resistance
(I. A. Gindin, B. G. Lazarev, Ya. D. Starodubov, and V. I. to fatigue failure increases significantly. At the same time,
Khotkevich). It is shown that the temperature of polymor- for nickel and zirconium at 20–4.2 K, a break in the fatigue
phic transformation in alkali metals decreases with an increase curves is observed (Figs. 6 and 7) and the nature of the
in the atomic weight of the element and with a Debye tem- dislocation structure formed during deformation changes,
perature decrease. The authors named this phenomenon “de-
formation polymorphism”.
It has been shown [40, 41] that anomalies in the me-
chanical properties of lithium and sodium in the tempera-
ture range of 1.5–300 K are associated with the removal of
supercooling, the occurrence of a polymorphic transition,
and the presence of two or three modifications in the metal,
passing one into another, as with a decrease in temperature,
and during plastic deformation. Figure 4 illustrates the mi-
crostructure of lithium cooled to 20 K. The observed minima
of relative elongation correspond to the temperatures of the
onset of the bcc→fcc polymorphic deformation transforma-
tion (≈ 140 K for Li and ≈ 75 K for Na). The martensitic
transition from bcc to hcp modification causes a sharp in-
crease in strength characteristics.
Low-temperature polymorphism is also characteristic of
a new class of materials, namely pseudo-amorphous. Fig. 6. Weller curves for Ni [44].

Fig. 5. Temperature dependencies of the tensile strength for the Ti-Ni

samples: initial (1), strained by rolling by 50% (2) and 90% (3). Fig. 7. Weller curves for Zr at T, K: 293 (1), 77 (2), and 4.2 (3) [47].

Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11 1451
 V. I. Sokolenko

140 µm 0.7 µm
(a) (с)

140 µm 0.7 µm
(b) (d)

Fig. 8. Surface structure and distribution of dislocations in Ni:

low-amplitude fatigue (a), (b); low-cycle fatigue (c), (d).
i.e., instead of clusters of dislocation dipoles and stable slip
bands, a cellular structure appears (Fig. 8).
In a certain range of stress amplitudes, a previously un-
described decrease in durability was found for Zr, with a tem-
perature decrease from 300 to 77 K (Fig. 7) and it was shown
that this phenomenon is related to the predominance of
twinning at the initial stages of plastic deformation at 77 K
and the effective accumulation of fatigue damage near boun-
daries of twins in accommodation zones, as compared with
predominant slip at 300 K [45]. A weaker effect is charac-
teristic of the Zr1Nb alloy, which is due to a decrease in
the twinning intensity.
It has been established that preliminary mechanical-ther-
mal treatment and program hardening significantly increase
the fatigue strength [48, 49].
3. Physical effects of the interaction of dislocations
with lattice, electronic, and magnetic subsystems
in crystals
3.1. Creep of fcc, bcc, and hcp metals in the normal state
at low temperatures
A review by I. A. Gindin and Ya. D. Starodubov of
studies of the creep of crystalline bodies at low tempera-
tures for the period up to the beginning of the 1970s is pre-
sented in the monograph [48]. In subsequent years, the KIPT
carried out fundamental studies of low-temperature creep
of a number of fcc, hcp, and bcc metals and alloys in various
structural states (V. K. Aksenov, Ya. D. Starodubov, E. V.
Karaseva et al.) [51–58].
Figure 9 illustrates the temperature behavior of the pre-
logarithmic factor α as a function of the creep strain ε for
single crystal Ni in the range of 1.5–50 K on the test time t
in the form ε = ε0 + α ln (1 + γt), where ε0 is the value ini-
tial strain jump, γ is a constant [51]. The authors attribute
the established patterns of Ni creep deformation near zero
temperature to the combined action of mechanisms for
overcoming potential barriers due to quantum-mechanical
dislocation tunneling and the energy of zero-point vibra-
Fig. 9. Temperature dependencies of α at σ = 130 MPa for Ni
crystal with the tension axis along [213]: experimental data (1),
calculations in the framework of the theory of zero vibrations of
dislocation (2).
tions of dislocation. Within the framework of the theory
of zero vibrations [59], the estimate for temperature of the
change in creep deformation mechanisms is close to the ex-
perimental value (≈ 20 K).
The plastic flow of coarse-grained (100 µm) Zr during
creep in the temperature range from room to liquid helium
is controlled by the interaction of dislocations with impurities,
forest dislocations, and Peierls–Nabarro barriers, and the role
of the lattice friction mechanism increases with decreasing
temperature [52]. It has been established that under condi-
tions of a low level of thermal activation (T < 0.1Tmelt), Zr is
characterized by a deviation from the classical laws of
plastic flow. The oscillations of the yield strength observed
in the temperature range of 1.5–140 K at a strain rate of
10–3 s–1 (Fig. 10) are related to a change in the type of bar-
riers and mechanisms that control plastic flow in this tem-
perature range, as well as a change in the conditions for
dislocation generation.
The strain hardening of Zr at a temperature of 4.2 K is
due to the slip of individual dislocations and can only in-
crease due to their redistribution, including the formation
Fig. 10. Temperature dependencies of the yield strength σ02
of Zr: strain rate 10–5 s–1 (1), strain rate 10–3 s–1 (2) [50].

1452 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
6 µm 4 µm
Fig. 11. Dislocation structure formed during creep of Zr: clusters
of dislocations (Т = 4.2 K, σ = 200 MPa) (a); formation of cell
boundaries in places with a uniform distribution of dislocations
(T = 77 K, σ = 140 MPa) (b) [52].
of clusters in front of the interfaces [Fig. 11(a)]. At T =
= 77 K, the reason for the increase of long-range stresses
and strain hardening of Zr during creep is mainly an increase
in the dislocation density and the formation of cell boundaries.
The creep of the Zr1Nb alloy at 77 K and higher tem-
peratures was studied in [56]. The character of the depend-
ence of activation characteristics on temperature and stress
indicates that the creep deformation is controlled by sever-
al types of barriers. At T = 77 K, logarithmic creep occurs.
The rate of plastic deformation is mainly determined by the
interaction of dislocations with impurities. Forest disloca-
tions can also be barriers on the path of sliding disloca-
tions. At T = 300 K, creep deformation corresponds to a
power law (ε ~ t1/3) and is controlled mainly by long-range
stresses, the sources of which are grain boundaries.
Calculations of activation parameters showed that the
plastic flow of Nb during creep at 77 K is due to disloca-
tions overcoming Peierls–Nabarro barriers and point defects,
while at 300 K it can be controlled by impurities, point
defects, and dislocations [57, 58]. At low-temperature creep
of Nb, previously subjected to severe plastic deformation
by drawing at 77 K (e ~ 2.5), at strains near the yield point,
the dislocation depletion mechanism works, since the pro-
cesses of generation of linear defects under conditions
of high distortion of the structure are very difficult. There
is a transition from logarithmic to power-law creep, which
is characteristic of much higher temperatures, with a decrease
in the overall level of internal stresses. The change in the law
of plastic flow is associated with the rearrangement of the
structure created by preliminary deformation into a struc-
ture that is more resistant to the changed rate regime and
stress diagram.
A niobium-titanium alloy (NT-50) with defect structures
formed as a result of large combined plastic deformations
by drawing at 300 and 77 K was studied in [53, 55]. It has
been established that the observed features of low-tempe-
rature creep and changes in the electrical resistance of the
alloy are due to the combined action of the processes of
movement of individual dislocations, martensitic transfor-
mations, and the development of collective plasticity modes
in the β matrix. At the same time, the contribution of one
process or another to the observed effects under specific
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
conditions is different. Thus, the action of the power law of
creep (ε ~ t1/3) at a temperature of 77 K is related to the de-
velopment of a martensitic-type phase transformation, which
causes stress relaxation, unblocking of dislocation clusters,
and a decrease in structural defects. At 300 K, the mechanism
of stress relaxation can be structural instability, the emer-
gence and development of collective effects in the disloca-
tion ensemble of the β matrix.
3.2. Softening of metals during the transition
to the superconducting state
In 1963 at KIPT, I. A. Gindin and Ya. D. Starodubov
were the first to draw attention to the anomalous nature
of the temperature dependence of the yield strength of nio-
bium below the superconducting transition temperature [60].
The first results of direct observation of changes in the me-
chanical characteristics of a metal during a superconduct-
ing transition, published in 1968, were obtained at the Insti-
tute of Solid State Physics of the University of Tokyo [61]
and at ILTPE [62]. Later, at KIPT, I. A. Gindin, B. G. Laza-
rev, Ya. D. Starodubov, and V. P. Lebedev on a number of
metals and alloys with different types of crystal lattice stu-
died in detail the phenomenon of metal softening, which
consists in a decrease in the resistance to plastic deforma-
tion and an increase in the creep rate during the transition
from the normal to the superconducting state (N–S tran-
sition) [63–65]. It is shown that, in the general case, soften-
ing increases significantly with an increase in the applied
stress, metal flow rate, and with a creep temperature de-
crease below Tc (Figs. 12 and 13).
The obtained experimental results stimulated the partic-
ipation of theorists. Theoretical works carried out jointly at
KIPT and ILTPE [66–68], as well as abroad [69], are de-
Fig. 12. Dependencies for Pb of creep strain on time (a) and strain
rate on the deformation degree (b) at the transient stage of creep at
the N–S transition (T = 1.8 K, σ = 27 MPa, H = 3500 Oe) for Pb.
The increase in creep at point A is the result of metal softening
at the N–S transition.
1453
 V. I. Sokolenko

Fig. 13. Dependence for In of the magnitude of softening effect

at the N–S transition δε, %: on stress (a) and temperature (b).
Fig. 14. Dependencies of the MPE value ∆σ on the degree of de-
voted to the study of the dislocation’s dynamics in super- formation ε for polycrystalline Ni (1) and Dy (2) at 77 K (alter-
conductors and the features of mechanical properties of nating magnetic field H = 330 Oe, f = 50 Hz) [74].
metals in superconducting state. It was found that the sof-
tening and plasticization of metals in the superconducting
netically ordered metals under conditions of active loading
state is due to the disappearance or weakening of the me-
and creep at 4.2–300 K, and the understanding of the na-
chanism of dislocations damping by conduction electrons
ture of the MPE has been deepened [73–77]. In the same
due to the formation of bound electronic states (Cooper
period of time, MPE studies at ILTPE were carried out by
pairs). The increase in the softening effect as the temperature
D. N. Bolshutkin, V. A. Desnenko, and V. Ya. Ilyichev [78].
decreases below Tc is due to decrease in the concentration
When studying MPE, the influence of plastic deforma-
of normal electrons and an increase in the binding energy
tion parameters, temperature dependence, and the magnitude
of the Cooper pair, which determines the size of the energy
and type of the magnetic field (variable, permanent) were
gap. In the superconducting state, not only the dynamic
considered. Polycrystalline Ni and Dy in the ferromagnetic
dragging of the dislocations changes, but a number of static
state (Fig. 14) are characterized by a monotonic increase in
effects can manifest themselves, leading to a decrease in
∆σ with a tendency to saturation when changing the degree
the height of potential barriers for dislocations, facilitating
of deformation up to 1.5% [74]. On Dy in the antiferromag-
the detachment of dislocations from pinning points, etc.
netic state, the MPE is observed at higher field values and
A great contribution to the theoretical study and understand-
its magnitude is much lower than in the ferromagnetic state.
ing of the phenomenon of metals softening during the transi-
The nature of the change in strain ∆τ for single crystal Ni
tion to the superconducting state was made by V. D. Natsik.
orientation [110] with increasing temperature in the range
3.3. Magnetoplastic effect of 77–300 K (Fig. 15) is similar to the temperature depen-
At study of the deformation of single crystal nickel dence of the saturation magnetic moment, which indicates
a group of Japanese researchers (S. Hayashi et al.) in a significant role of the domain structure in the observed
1968–1972 had discovered an effect called the magneto-
plastic effect (MPE). MPE consists in reducing the flow
stress after turning on the magnetic field during active
tension (∆σ) or an increase in plasticity during creep (∆ε)
[70–72]. As compared to the previously known magneto-
elastic effect, which leads to an increase in stress in the
elastic region and is due to the magnetostrictive effect (re-
lated, in particular, with the negative value of magneto-
striction for nickel), MPE is discovered only in the region
of plastic deformation.
In the 70s at KIPT, I. A. Gindin, I. M. Neklyudov, I. S.
Lavrinenko, Ya. D. Starodubov, V. K. Aksenov, and E. V. Fig. 15. Temperature dependence of the MPE for single crystal Ni
Karaseva comprehensively studied the influence of mag- with [110] orientation in an alternating magnetic field H = 100 Oe,
netic fields on the processes of plastic deformation of mag- f = 50 Hz [71].

1454 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
phenomenon [69]. Qualitatively similar results were ob-
tained in [73–77, 79] when studying the MPE for different
metals (Ni, Dy) both under conditions of active tension and
under creep.
The results of MPE study in a quenched (disordered)
and ordered Ni3Mn alloy under active tension in the tem-
perature range of 77–300 K are presented in [80]. It has
been established that the MPE value increases with a rise
in the degree of order and a test temperature decrease. The ob-
served effect is related to a change in the process of order-
ing and loading of such characteristics as the anisotropy
constant, magnetostriction, and the magnetization vector.
The change in the dislocation structure of Ni under the
influence of an alternating magnetic field H = 1000 Oe
during creep at 77 K (σ = 120 MPa) was studied in [77–81].
It is shown that the observed evolution of the cellular dis-
location structure has specific features compared to its de-
velopment in the absence of a field. First of all, this is ma-
nifested in the different character of structural changes
within the boundaries of the cells (the density of disloca-
tions decreases, partial decay of the cell walls is observed),
as well as in the appearance of characteristic features of the
effect of cyclically changing stresses (the presence of thre-
sholds and kinks on dislocations, as well as dipoles and
loops in the places of congestion dislocations). The observed
structural changes under the action of an alternating mag-
netic field is related to the unblocking of dislocation clusters
in cell boundaries due to their interaction with moving do-
main walls.
It follows from the obtained experimental data that MPE
is found both in single- and polycrystalline materials only
in the region of plastic deformation in the presence of un-
pinned dislocations. The MPE value when applying a per-
manent magnetic field has a maximum at relatively low
degrees of deformation and field values, which is due to
the superposition of the magnetostrictive effect and an in-
crease in the density of mobile dislocations. The MPE in
alternating magnetic fields tends to saturate with an increase
in the degree of deformation. This is due to the balance
between the softening factor of an increase in the density
of mobile dislocations previously blocked by domain walls
and the strengthening effect of an increase in the number
of forest dislocations acting as barriers. MPE is character-
ized by an increase with lowering temperature.
Theoretical data in V. G. Baryakhtar and E. I. Druinskii
work [82] indicate an insignificant contribution to the soften-
ing of ferromagnets by the mechanism of dislocation inter-
action with spin waves in the helium temperature range and
the need to take it into account in the temperature range of
its maximum appearance (20–100 K). In addition, at high
dislocation rates (103–104 cm/s), “Cherenkov” generation
of spin waves by moving dislocations is possible [83]. How-
ever, due to the low average dislocation rates under creep
conditions, the influence of this mechanism on the dislo-
cation dynamics can be ignored.
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
3.4. On the general mechanism of metal softening
under the influence of magnetic and electric fields
In the sixties of the twentieth century, the phenomenon
of a sharp decrease in the resistance to plastic deformation
of metals was discovered in the case of exposure to high-
density electric current pulses (J = 108–109 A/m2), as well
as charged particles or electromagnetic radiation. This phe-
nomenon is named the “electroplastic effect” (EPE) [84].
EPE is revealed in pulsed decreases in the deforming stress
required to maintain a constant strain rate. Dependencies of
the intensity of the effect on such parameters as the type
and rate of sample deformation, temperature, current density
amplitude, pulse frequency and duration, current direction,
and structural characteristics of crystalline samples were
established [84–87]. Combining the action of an electric
current and irradiation with charged particles leads to an
intensification of the effect [86]. A list and a brief analysis
of various approaches to explaining the electroplastic ef-
fect is presented in [88].
It is known that a non-stationary magnetic field induces
an electric field (rot E = –∂B/∂t) in a conductor, which gives
reason to believe that among the mechanisms of the magne-
toplastic effect (as discussed above), in addition to “purely
magnetic”, there should be “electric” mechanisms, of course,
except for Joule heating.
In recent years, the Institute has carried out complex
experimental studies of the influence of various modes of
magnetic field exposure on the creep characteristics of
nickel with a purity of 99.996% at T = 77 K and theoretical
calculations supplemented by numerical simulation of ki-
netic processes in crystals associated with the impact of
pulsed electric fields [88–90]. The purpose of these studies
is to propose a general mechanism for the softening of
metals under the influence of a magnetic and electric field.
Figure 16 illustrates the experimentally observed effect
of nickel softening during creep with the imposition of dif-
ferent types of magnetic field pulse regimes. In mode 3
(periodic monopolar pulses with sample demagnetization),
the interactions of dislocations with the boundaries of mo-
bile domains were excluded, as well as significant thermal
effects associated with an inductive electric field. Curve 4,
corresponding to the effect of harmonic pulses, is located
above curve 3, which is a consequence of the additional
contribution to the softening due to the interaction of dislo-
cations with domain walls. The low strain rate in the exper-
iment prevented the possible action of the softening mech-
anism associated with the interaction of dislocations with
spin waves. As a result, the effect of softening in the mode
of action of periodic monopolar pulses with demagnetiza-
tion of the sample should be attributed to the action of pre-
dominantly “electrical mechanisms”.
The theoretical model proposed by V. I. Karas et al.
[88–90] includes the results of a consistent kinetic consid-
eration of the nonequilibrium dynamics of the electron-
1455
 V. I. Sokolenko
Fig. 16. Dependencies of the softening value of polycrystalline Ni
on the degree of deformation for different types of magnetic field
pulses with a strength of 4·104 A/m with different rise time t, s:
1.0 (switching on a permanent field) (1); 0.005 (periodic mono-
polar pulses without sample demagnetization) (2); 0.005 (periodic
monopolar pulses with sample demagnetization) (3); 0.005 (har-
monic pulses) (4) [88].
phonon subsystem of a magnetic crystal in an electric field
based on the proposed method for numerically solving the
system of Boltzmann equations for the distribution func-
tions of electrons and phonons without expansion distribu-
tion functions of electrons in a series in terms of phonon
energy. It has been established that under the action of an in-
ductive electric field, the electron distribution function be-
comes nonequilibrium near the Fermi energy and, due to
electron-phonon collisions, transfers significant energy to
the phonon subsystem, forming a nonequilibrium phonon
distribution function. Based on the modified model of Gra-
nato–Lücke and Landau–Hoffmann, using the calculated
Fig. 17. Dependencies of the strength drop on the current density.
The experimental data [86] (squares), the experimental data [91]
(triangles). The results obtained on the basis of the Granato–
Lücke and Landau–Hoffmann models with the phonon distribu-
tion function at time t = 4 µs for electric field strengths 1, 2, 5, 8,
and 10 V/cm (crosses); the results at time t = 12 µs for electric
field strengths 1, 2, and 5 V/cm (open circles).
1456 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
phonon distribution function, a significant increase in the
force acting on dislocations is shown compared to conven-
tional induction heating.
Figure 17 demonstrates that the proposed approach gives
results of the same order of magnitude as the experimental
data. The calculated values of the strength drop ∆σ should
be considered as a lower estimate, since in the calculations
the duration of the action of the electric field was taken
several times shorter than the duration of the current pulse
in the experiment.
The need for complex theoretical and experimental studies
and the development of a physical and mathematical model
for describing the nonstationary nonequilibrium kinetics
of the electron–phonon subsystem of a crystal in electric
and/or magnetic fields, taking into account the excitation
of plasmonic solitons, breathers, and other nonlinear for-
mations, was noted in [88].
3.5. Changes in the mechanical properties
of ferro- and antiferromagnets under preliminary
exposure to magnetic fields
MPE studies have stimulated work on the study of the
effects of magnetic fields on the complex of physical and
mechanical properties of magnetically ordered materials,
the structural state of which has changed as a result of various
influences (deformation, irradiation with high-energy par-
ticles, welding).
It has been established [92–95] that the impact of non-
stationary magnetic fields is an effective method for im-
proving the mechanical characteristics of ferrite-pearlite steel
15Kh2NMFA (2Cr, 1Ni, 0.5Mn, 0.5Mo), used for the ma-
nufacture of vessels for nuclear reactors of the VVER-1000
type, and its welded joints.
Magnetic treatment (alternating magnetic field H = 500 Oe)
leads to a significant decrease in the temperature of the duc-
tile-brittle transition and an increase in the impact tough-
ness of the welded joint of 15Kh2NMFA steel [93, 94].
Figure 18 illustrates the change in the character of the tem-
perature dependence of impact toughness. The effect is re-
Fig. 18. Temperature dependencies of impact toughness ak: steel
15Kh2NMFA (1), its welded joint before (2) and after magnetic
treatment (3).
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
lated to the relaxation of internal stresses due to the destruc-
tion of dislocation walls with the formation of a disordered
ensemble of dislocations, similar to the tempering structure,
and partial relaxation by the mechanism of dislocation polar-
ization in thin extended bending configurations. As a result
of magnetic treatment in the weld at a distance of 3–5 mm
from the transition layer and the symmetrical part of the
matrix material, a significant decrease in the average size of
coherent scattering regions and the average value of type II
stresses is observed.
The effect of a non-stationary magnetic field with am-
plitudes not exceeding the saturation field of magnetization
on the structure and processes of plastic flow of steel
15Kh2NMFA, the radiation hardening of which was the
result of irradiation with electrons with an energy of E =
= 10 MeV and a dose of D = 5·1019 cm–2, was studied.
It has been shown that, depending on the mode of magnetic
treatment, both active development of recovery processes
and an increased stability of the structure during creep are
possible [95].
For samples of 15Kh2NMFA steel subjected to severe
low-temperature deformation and characterized by low duc-
tility and high strength, it is shown that exposure to an al-
ternating magnetic field leads to a significant decrease of
the yield strength (by 18%) and an increase of the ultimate
strength at fracture (up to 10%), total elongation (up to 65%)
and transverse narrowing (up to 60%) in the temperature
range 293–138 K [96]. These effects were accompanied by
a decrease in the background of internal friction and coer-
cive force, an increase in the dynamic shear modulus in the
range of 300–500 K. Changes in the physical and mechan-
ical properties and structure are related to processes of a
magnetic and electrical nature that cause stress relaxation
in microvolumes with a high level of internal stresses
(high-angle boundaries, dense clusters of dislocations).
Figure 19 shows a diagram illustrating the mechanism
of a possible decrease in local internal stresses τ due to a de-
crease in the number of dislocations in staggered pileups
due to the passage of the domain boundary, which also
Fig. 19. The decrease in the number of dislocations in a flat pileup (according to the Cottrell model) when the domain wall passes
through the pileup (from left to right), which corresponds to τ2 < τ1. Arrows in different positions show spin rotation in a Bloch wall of
width δB.
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
causes an effective softening of the elastic moduli, which
promotes dislocation migration. The displacement of dislo-
cations to neighboring slip planes is possible due to the ef-
fects of nonlinear dislocation dynamics, which leads to the
formation and displacement of double kinks under the action
of low-amplitude alternating magnetostrictive stresses.
The work [97] demonstrated the effectiveness of mag-
netic treatment in relation to antiferromagnetic materials,
in particular, the industrial alloy VKh-2K based on chromium
(98.5 Cr, (0.3–0.4) La, (0.2–0.3) Ta, (0.4–0.5) V, wt%).
Preliminary exposure of samples VKh-2K to an alternating
magnetic field (Н = 1.3 kOe, f = 50 Hz, Т = 77 K, t =
= 30 min) leads to a slight decrease in strength characteris-
tics and an increase in elongation to failure from 16 to 32%
at 300 K, which is comparable to the effect of heat treat-
ment at 1420 K. Such a change in mechanical properties is
related to the relaxation of stresses in places of their con-
centration due to magnetostrictive effects and displacement
of domain boundaries.
The studies, the results of which are presented in this
section, were carried out by I. M. Neklyudov, V. I. Soko-
lenko, K. A. Yushchenko, A. V. Mats and co-authors.
4. Increasing the strength of metals and alloys
and modifying the structural state by ultrasonic
influences and irradiation
4.1. Creation of highly distorted structures
and nanostructures in fcc, bcc, and hcp metals and alloys
by low-temperature deformation methods and study
of physical and mechanical characteristics
At the Institute, using the developed unique methods of
deformation (rolling, drawing, torsion, quasi-hydroextrusion,
forging in the range of cryogenic temperatures, 4.2–77 K),
priority studies were carried out to create structures with an
extremely high density of defects, including nanostructures,
in metals and alloys with various types of crystal lattice.
A number of new, non-trivial effects have been discovered
that could not be predicted on the basis of traditional ideas
1457

about the regularities in the formation of structure and
properties during conventional low-temperature deformation.
The main contribution to the development of research in
this direction was made by I. A. Gindin, I. M. Neklyudov,
Ya. D. Starodubov, V. K. Aksenov, V. I. Sokolenko, I. F.
Borisova, E. V. Karaseva, P. A. Khaimovich M. B. Laza-
reva, A. V. Mats, V. M. Matsevity, V. S. Okovit, O. I. Vol-
chok, and L. A. Chirkina.
For the first time, a nanostructure state in a metal (cop-
per) was obtained at KIPT by I. A. Gindin, M. B. Lazareva,
V. P. Lebedev, Ya. D. Starodubov, V. M. Matsevity, and
V. I. Khotkevich [98]. As follows from Fig. 20, as a result
of deformation by rolling in liquid hydrogen and helium to
a degree of δ ≥ 40%, the average size of a copper disloca-
tion cell is in the nanometer range. Note that the term “nano-
structure” was not used in the literature at that time.
Low-temperature quasi-hydroextrusion (QHE) [99, 100],
recently named barocryodeformation (BCD) [101], being
an analogue of hydroextrusion, differs in that not a liquid
is used as a medium transferring pressure to the workpiece,
but a ductile solid body (indium). The QHE method makes
it possible to carry out low-temperature deformation to large
degrees of not only ductile, but also weakly plastic metals
with their significant hardening.
As a result of QHE or rolling of copper at 4.2 and 20 K,
a record high strength was obtained [102]. Deformation of
stainless steel by the QHE method and subsequent anneal-
ing of the extrudates makes it possible to fulfill high
strength characteristics (Fig. 21) while maintaining thermal
stability [103, 104].
It was shown [102] that the type of strain state at large
plastic deformation (LPD) has a significant effect on the
character of the dislocation structure. For example, during
low-temperature extrusion of copper, nickel, and austenitic
steel Kh18N10T, the cellular structure characteristic of roll-
ing deformation “degenerates” into a lamellar structure of
a high degree of dispersion with a lamella thickness of
several hundred angstroms. Using low temperature rolling,
one type of texture can be obtained instead of the two types
observed simultaneously in copper strained at higher tem-
Fig. 20. Dependencies of the average cell size in Cu on the degree
of rolling deformation at T, K: 300 (1), 77 (2), 20 (3), and 4.2 (4).
1458
V. I. Sokolenko
Fig. 21. Dependencies of the strength of Kh18N10T steel on the de-
gree of deformation during barocryodeformation. BCD at 300 K (1),
BCD at 77 K (2), the same with subsequent annealing at 480 °C (3),
BCD at 20.4 K (4), the same with subsequent annealing at 450 °C
(5), BCD with counter pressure at 77 K (6), the same with subsequent
annealing at 500 °C (7), the same with subsequent annealing at
450 °C (8).
peratures. In the case of low-temperature rolling of Ni and
Nb single crystals oriented according to the crystallographic
texture elements of the polycrystalline, it is possible to
achieve high strength while maintaining single crystallinity.
Moreover, the hardened single crystals of textural orienta-
tions have a high thermal stability.
The influence of the comprehensive compression factor
in the process of deformation of QHE and quasi-hydroex-
trusion with counter pressure at 300 and 77 K on the me-
chanical and electrical properties of titanium VT1–0 in
the temperature range of 77–800 K was studied [105, 106].
It is shown that with an increase in pressure under conditions
of comprehensive compression, the degree of deformation
defects accumulation and the rise in strength characteristics
decreases, which is related to the intensification of recovery
processes. It has been found that the deformation of titanium
under conditions of uniform compression leads to a decrease
in the energy of the stacking fault and causes an increase in
the shear modulus in the region of 77–750 K, and an in-
crease in the temperature at the beginning of the athermal
region of the temperature dependence of the yield stress.
This is due to the appearance of split dislocations with
packing corresponding to the fcc lattice, which has a higher
shear modulus than the hcp lattice [106].
It has been established that as a result of forging defor-
mation at T = 77 K, a defect structure with a characteristic
size of ≈ 25 nm is formed in titanium, the occurrence of
which is due to microtwinning processes. A twofold in-
crease in microhardness and an anomalous decrease in re-
flectivity in the IR region of the spectrum were shown,
which indicates a significant change in the concentration of
conduction electrons and an increased long-range fields of
elastic stresses at the interfaces of a nanocrystalline struc-
ture [107].
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
The structural features of zirconium after 92% defor-
mation by rolling at 100 and 300 K and subsequent anneal-
ing have been studied by measuring the electrical resistance,
thermo-emf, X-ray diffraction analysis, and optical micro-
scopy [108]. It is shown that under conditions of large plastic
deformations, the deformation temperature does not affect
the type of texture formed and the parameters of the material
microstructure. The observed increase in creep resistance and
higher thermomechanical stability of zirconium obtained
using preliminary deformation by rolling at 100 K are due to
the specific features of the structure of grain boundaries.
The method of combined plastic deformation by rolling
at room and liquid nitrogen temperatures (e = 3.9) was
used to obtain nanostructures with subgrain sizes of 82, 61,
and 94 nm, in Zr and in Zr-based alloys [Zr1Nb and E125
(Zr–2.5% Nb)], respectively [109–111]. Figure 22 illus-
trates the distribution of subgrains in Zr. It is shown that
the kinetics of the formation of the main part of the sub-
grain boundaries has a disclination character and is not the
result of dynamic polygonization and recrystallization.
Nanostructured samples of Zr and Zr1Nb are characterized
by the values of yield strength σ02 = 650 and 670 MPa,
ultimate strength σB = 810 and 830 MPa and fracture stress
σB = 1090 and 880 MPa, respectively, with ductility of 13
and 12%, which indicates a high the degree of homogenei-
ty of the nanostructure.
The results of a quantitative assessment of the evolution
of the microstructure of commercial-grade titanium during
multi-pass rolling up to the true deformation e = 2.66 at 77
and 293 K are presented in [112]. Deformation at both
temperatures was accompanied by twinning. At Т = 77 K,
twinning was more extensive in terms of the proportion of
twinned grains and the duration of the twinning stage. As a
result of rolling, a microstructure was formed with a
grain/subgrain size of 80 nm at 77 K or 200 nm at 293 K.
The contribution of various mechanisms to the strengthen-
ing of titanium after rolling at 77 and 293 K was quantita-
tively analyzed.
Scientists from the ILTPE also studied the effect of
LPD by rolling at 77 K on the formation of a nanostructure
in titanium. In a series of works [113–118] carried out by
V. A. Moskalenko and co-workers, Ti with a grain size
Fig. 22. Size distribution of subgrains in deformed Zr.
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
of up to 30 nm was obtained and studied. The physical me-
chanism of the process of grain refinement has been estab-
lished, which has a staged nature and correlates with the
activity of deformation twinning. It is shown that the limit
of decrease in the average grain size is several tens of na-
nometers, which is explained by the impossibility of fur-
ther creation of deformation nanotwins in such grains. The
observed low-temperature feature of grain-boundary hard-
ening is explained within the framework of theoretical mo-
dels, according to which, under the conditions of the de-
pendence of the dislocation loop diameter on the nanoscale
grain size, the stress of dislocation nucleation at the boundary
is inversely proportional to the grain size.
With the use of deformations by rolling and QHE at
77 K in an ultrafine-grained (d = 150–200 nm) VT6 titanium
alloy, various structural states were created and the mecha-
nical and dissipative properties were studied [119, 120]. It is
shown that as a result of deformations by 60%, an additional
refinement of the alloy structure to a nanometer (70 nm)
scale and a significant increase in strength properties occur
without loss of plasticity. The optimal degrees of QHE de-
formation are established and substantiated. The excess de-
formation causes the appearance of microcracks, which limits
the maximum of deformation dispersion of the structure
and hardening (σB = 1360 MPa, δ = 8%) of the VT6 alloy.
The revealed features of temperature dependencies in the
range of 100...600 K of internal friction and shear modulus
in the nanostructured state are analyzed in comparison with
the ultrafine-grained state.
A number of new effects caused by LPD of metals at
low temperatures have been discovered: an anomalously
high mass transfer of interstitial atoms during QHE of nio-
bium [121], oscillations of the mechanical, superconduct-
ing, and structural characteristics of metals [121–123],
changes in the law of low-temperature creep [50], and the
kinetics of diffusion decomposition of the niobium-titanium
alloy after cryogenic mechanical-thermal treatment [124].
By using the example of vanadium, it was found [125] that
the processes of self-organization of dissipative structures
bound the growth of defects of the same type even at low
temperatures. It is also shown that the development of mul-
tiple fragmentation after large (> 90%) deformations by
drawing leads to nonmonotonicity in the dependence of
mechanical properties on the degree of deformation related
to the structural instability of the material.
At LPD, a fragmented structure is formed containing
high-angle boundaries, stress relaxation in which leads to
the formation and evolution of new interfaces with a miso-
rientation reaching tens of degrees. However, the material is
damaged in some cases when creating nanostructures with-
out reaching the formation of a fragmented submicrostruc-
ture. To prevent the destruction of the material, it is advis-
able to use a combination of pressure treatments that create
different stress diagrams. By using the example of austenitic
steel (Fig. 23) [126] and titanium alloy [120], the structural-
1459
 V. I. Sokolenko
Fig. 23. Dependencies of the microhardness of steel 06Kh16N15M3B
on the degree of deformation by drawing at 77 K (1) and QHE (2);
on the proportion of deformation by drawing with a sequential
combination of drawing and QHE (3). The initial state (·····);
εfin = const = 70%.
phase criterion for optimizing the ratio of modes of the
deformation methods used is substantiated.
By combining conventional methods of severe plastic de-
formation with low-temperature QHE, nanocrystalline tita-
nium of increased purity with a grain size of 75 nm, high
strength (σB = 930 MPa) and plasticity (δ ≈ 12%) was ob-
tained [127]. Such a material may be of interest for various
applications, in particular for the manufacture of medical
implants.
The results of studies carried out at the Institute on the
influence of various types of deformation with different stress
diagrams (rolling, drawing, QHE, and a sequential combi-
nation of drawing and QHE at 77 K and 300 K) on the phy-
sical and mechanical properties of a number of hcp, fcc, and
bcc metals and alloys are analyzed in the review [106].
4.2. Changes in the structural state and physical
and mechanical properties of nanocrystalline metals
and heterophase materials as a result of ultrasonic
exposure and irradiation
Nanostructured materials obtained by LPD are charac-
terized by a high level of strength properties and reduced
characteristics of thermomechanical stability and ductility,
which is due to a high level of internal stresses and the dif-
ficulty in implementing the main modes of plastic defor-
mation. To relax the stresses of a nonequilibrium structure
in nanomaterials, heat treatments are usually used, the effi-
ciency of which towards relieving internal stresses increases
with temperature. However, in this case, the probability of
significant coarsening of grains increases, which can lead
to the loss of the advantages of the nanostructure state. He-
terophase materials, as well as metals with inclusions of
second phases, are characterized by the presence of com-
ponents with different lattice types, which causes the ap-
pearance of internal stresses at interphases both as a result
1460 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
of technological operations during their making, or at ex-
posure to various physical fields that generate crystal lat-
tice defects that interact with interfaces or accumulate near
boundaries. One type of impact that allows relaxation of
internal stresses and normalization of the structural state,
eliminating a significant change in the grain size of the
nanostructure or destruction of the composite material,
is low-intensity ultrasonic exposure (USЕ) with amplitudes
below the static flow stress without the occurrence of fatigue
damage. An ultrasonic wave passing through a material in-
teracts with defects of various types and causes structural
changes, which depend on the parameters of ultrasound,
mainly on its power, subsequently affecting properties.
When strained metals are irradiated with high-energy part-
icles, relaxation processes also occur in the defect structure
due to the generation of radiation defects.
In a series of works [126–130] on nanocrystalline sam-
ples of Zr and alloys Zr1Nb, Zr–2.5% Nb and VT1–0 ob-
tained by LPD by rolling at 77 and 300 K, the effect of
USE with different stress amplitudes σUSE and electron
irradiation on the change in mechanical properties, creep
characteristics and structural state have been studied.
In the Zr–2.5% Nb alloy (d = 94 nm) [128], the effects of
ultrasonic relaxation and structural instability were revealed
when exposed to high-frequency (f = 20 kHz, T = 300 K)
stresses below (σUSE = 85 MPa) and above (σUSE = 200 MPa)
threshold value, respectively. Figure 24 illustrates the cha-
racter of change in the microhardness Hµ of the alloy de-
pending on the exposure to USE at different σUSE values.
At σUSE = 85 MPa, relaxation of the structural state occurs
with a decrease in the level of internal stresses by micro-
shear deformation without appreciable dislocation genera-
tion, which leads to a decrease in d to 78 nm. The action of
σUSE = 200 MPa causes detachment of dislocations from
pinning points and generation of new dislocations. After low
USE exposures (t = 1 min), the value d = 61 nm is reached,
which is the result of the formation of new boundaries due
to the redistribution of dislocations inside the grains (Nd de-
creases to 7·1010 cm–2). With an increase in the duration
of USE, such structural state becomes unstable and a new
nanograin structure (d = 98 nm) with more equilibrium
boundaries and a relatively low (Nd < 1.3·1010 cm–2) den-
sity of lattice dislocations is formed. These processes cor-
respond to the stage of noticeable decrease in the depend-
ence Hµ(t) (Fig. 24).
The papers [110, 129, 130] present the results of studies
of the effects of ultrasonic action with subthreshold ampli-
tudes duration t = 10 min for Zr and Zr1Nb alloy samples
with an average grain size of d = 82 and 61 nm, respectively.
It was shown that Zr is characterized by a ~ 15% decrease
in strength characteristics at 300 and 700 K with a simulta-
neous increase in plasticity and creep rate without a notice-
able change in the size of the initial nanostructure [129].
From the analysis of creep curves after USE and the evalua-
tion of the activation volume (Veff ~ 10–22 cm3), it follows
 Low-temperature investigations of the physico-mechanical properties of solids and topical problems
0.2 µm
Fig. 24. Microstructure with an electron diffraction pattern of a deformed Zr–2.5% Nb alloy and the dependence of the microhardness
Hµ on duration USE exposure. The thick arrows indicate the grain size, and the thin arrows indicate the σUSE values.
that plastic flow is associated with the displacement of point
defects and is controlled by several mechanisms that are
more characteristic of high-temperature deformation: grain
boundary diffusion, dislocation creep, and slip along grain
boundaries. Ultrasonic treatment of the Zr1Nb nanostructure
alloy [110, 130] leads to a decrease in the level of internal
stresses due to the formation of a more equilibrium struc-
ture of boundaries with insignificant grain growth: d increases
from 61 to 67 nm, which is associated with a decrease in
the number of grains with low-angle boundaries. The effect
of reducing the strength characteristics as a result of USE
was ~ 15% for σ0.2 and ~ 5% for σB. The ductility has al-
most doubled, but the creep rate has changed insignificantly.
The relaxation of internal stresses in the bulk of the material
is due, as in the case of Zr, to the formation of a large
number of vacancies, which stimulates the nonconservative
sleep of dislocations.
The influence of ultrasonic action (f = 20 kHz, σUSE =
= 65 MPa, T = 300 K, t = 30 min) on the evolution of the
structure and creep of the nanostructured (d ~ 100 nm)
titanium alloy VT1–0 was studied in [131]. It is shown that
USE causes relaxation of internal stresses due to the for-
mation of an equilibrium structure of the boundaries without
noticeable grain growth. In contrast to nanostructured Zr
and Zr1Nb samples, titanium is characterized by an increase
in the ultimate strength while maintaining yield strength and
ductility. The observed effect may be caused by the low
stacking fault energy of the VT1–0 alloy, which hinders
the course of relaxation processes, as well as the restructur-
ing during creep with the formation of new deformation
boundaries that are more resistant to tensile loads.
For nanocrystalline metals and alloys (Zr, Zr1Nb, VT1–0),
the papers [132, 133] present the results of studies of changes
in the mechanical characteristics and structural state due to
irradiation with high-energy electrons (E = 10 MeV) at
various doses D.
It was shown [132] that electron irradiation with D =
= 5∙1019 cm–2 has unimportant effect on the mechanical
characteristics of VT1–0 both in the coarse-grained and in
the nanostructured state, however, it leads to the saving and
Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
stabilization of the nanostructure during creep at T = 20 °C
and restrains the process of the structure transformation at
T = 350 °C, as a result of a decrease in the level of internal
stresses. Such irradiation does not change the character of
the Zr nanostructure, but initiates recovery processes at grain
boundaries and near-boundary regions, for example, anni-
hilation and dislocation climbing due to their interaction
with vacancies of radiation origin [133]. Preliminary ultra-
sonic relaxation of internal stresses before irradiation leads
to a decrease in the intensity of dynamic recrystallization
during creep at 670 K, which indicates increased thermo-
mechanical stability and makes it possible to maintain a
sufficiently high level of strength and plasticity of nanostruc-
tured Zr after electron irradiation.
For the Zr1Nb nanostructured alloy, as well as Zr, irra-
diation with doses D = 6∙1017 and 5∙1019 cm–2 does not
change the character of the deformation structure. It has
been noted that recovery processes in grain boundaries and
near-boundary regions cause changes in the crystal anisot-
ropy of the hcp lattice, which leads to softening of the ma-
terial during creep at 380°C [134].
The influence of USE with stress amplitudes below the
threshold values on the nature of temperature dependencies
in the range of 77–600 K of mechanical properties and
impact strength, the level of micro distortions, and the dis-
location structure of 15Kh2MFA and 15Kh2NMFA ferrite-
pearlite steels and welded joints has been studied [135].
The observed effects are due to the flow of relaxation pro-
cesses, including the unblocking and annihilation of dislo-
cations in the ferrite matrix, and a decrease in the efficiency
of stress concentrators at the carbide-matrix interfaces. It is
shown that the structure formed by USE has a reduced ten-
dency to radiation embrittlement at electron (E = 225 MeV,
D = 1.6·1018 cm–2) and neutron (E ≥ 1.15 MeV, D =
= 4·1020 cm–2) irradiation.
Martensitic phases in steels of the austenitic class, which
are formed as a result of external influences (deformation,
irradiation, strong magnetic fields, etc.), create internal
stress fields localized at the austenite-martensitic interfaces,
which leads to an undesirable change in a number of prop-
1461
 V. I. Sokolenko
erties. It was shown [136] that a low-intensity USE affect-
ing the structure makes it possible to control the degree of
conjugation of interfaces in an austenite-martensite struc-
ture, which are sinks of point defects of radiation origin.
In a series of papers [137–141], the effects of low-in-
tensity USE for brittle ceramic materials and a supercon-
ducting composite were studied, and the temperature and
time parameters of their maximum manifestation were es-
tablished. A strong increase in the mechanical stability of
the magnetically hard material of the Nd–Fe–B system is
related to microshear relaxation of thermal stresses. This is
a consequence of the energy of ultrasonic vibrations dissi-
pation at the crystallite boundaries due to the difference
in the bulk density of the grain body and the boundary,
as well as the magnetomechanical hysteresis associated
with an increase in the mobility of the magnetic domain
boundaries [137].
Ultrasonic relaxation of internal stresses in Y–Ba–Cu–O
HTSC leads to an increase in the ultimate strength and
temperature of the superconducting transition, which corre-
lates with a decrease in the background and suppression of
internal friction peaks characterizing the migration of im-
purities and the degree of ordering of oxygen vacancies in
the Cu2O planes [139].
At study of ultrasonic effects for a composite based on
the Nb3Sn compound, a significant increase in the complex
of superconducting and mechanical properties was shown,
and a correlation was established between the supercon-
ducting transition temperature, the critical current, and the
electrical resistance ratio R300K/R18K, which characterizes
the level of relaxation of internal stresses in the composite
[140, 141].
The above data convincingly indicate that the use of ul-
trasonic treatment is an effective method for targeted modi-
fication of the structural state and physicomechanical pro-
perties of nanostructured and heterophase materials due to
the redistribution of linear and point defects and stress re-
laxation near nonequilibrium interfaces. Qualitatively si-
milar effects are caused by irradiation with high-energy
particles.
The studies, the results of which are presented in this
section, were carried out by V. I. Sokolenko, E. V. Karaseva,
A. V. Mats, O. I. Volchok with co-authors.
The author recalls the great contribution of the former
Head of the Laboratory of Physics of Strength and Plasticity,
NSC KIPT of NAS of Ukraine, Dr. Ya. D. Starodubov in
the development of low-temperature research, with his deci-
sive participation, the materials presented in Secs. 2.1 and
2.2 were prepared earlier.
The author is grateful to Professor V. D. Natsik, the fol-
lower and successor of V. I. Startsev be head of the De-
partment of Real Crystals Physics, B. Verkin ILTPE of
NAS of Ukraine, for valuable comments and recommenda-
tions on the discussion of the review materials.
1462 Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
The review was prepared during the implementation of
the project “Computer simulation and diagnostics of struc-
tural defects in solids” (application 1030287), funded by
the Simons Foundation, USA.
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Fizyka Nyzkykh Temperatur/Low Temperature Physics, 2023, Vol. 49, No. 11
Низькотемпературні дослідження
фізико-механічних властивостей твердих тіл
та актуальні проблеми кріогенного
матеріалознавства: дослідження в ННЦ ХФТІ НАН
України, пов’язані з науковою діяльністю
В. І. Старцева
(Огляд)
V. I. Sokolenko
В огляді представлено найбільш вагомі наукові результати,
отримані в ННЦ ХФТІ НАН України під час низькотемпера-
турних досліджень фізико-механічних властивостей широкого
кола металів і сплавів за період з другої половини 30-х років
XX століття до останніх років. За цей період в інституті сфор-
мувалася школа в галузі фізики міцності та пластичності, біля
джерел якої стояли І. В. Обреїмов, Р. І. Гарбер, В. І. Старцев,
В. Г. Хоткевич, Б. Г. Лазарєв та Й. А. Гіндін. У результаті до-
сліджень цих відомих вчених, їхніх учнів і послідовників були
розроблені фундаментальні уявлення в галузі низькотемпера-
турної фізики міцності та пластичності твердих тіл і кріоген-
ного матеріалознавства. Актуальність отриманих результатів
підтверджується також розвитком сучасної кріогенної та аеро-
космічної техніки, атомної та водневої енергетики, електро-
ніки тощо.
Ключові слова: низькі температури, тверді тіла, деформація,
структурний стан, ультразвук, магнітні поля,
опромінення, фізико-механічні властивості.
1465