MODULE IV

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Lesson 1 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Lesson 2 Flow of Compressible Fluids

Lesson 3 Measurement of Flow of Fluids

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MODULE IV

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with basic principles of fluid flow measurements. The
chapter also includes the fundamentals of fluid flow, flow of compressible
fluids and measurement of fluid flow which is important in the analysis of
fluids in the next course fluid machinery.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Determine the velocity of a fluid in a pipe.

2. Calculate energy head.
3. Differentiate isothermal and isentropic flow.
4. Determine the velocity at a certain point.
5. Determine the flow rate.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have learned from
it. Work on these exercises/seatworks carefully and submit your output to our
google classroom.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 Fundamentals of
Fluid Flow

Fluid Flow

Fluid flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform or nonuniform; Laminar

or turbulent one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional;
rotational or irrotational.

Steady Flow

Steady flow occurs if, at any point, the velocity of successive fluid
particles is the same at successive periods of time. Thus the velocity is
𝜕𝑉
constant with respect to time, or 𝜕𝑡 = 0, but it may vary at different points or
with respect to distance. This statement implies that other fluid variables will
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑄
not vary with time, or = 0, = 0, etc.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Uniform Flow

Uniform flow occurs when the magnitude and direction of the velocity
𝜕𝑉
do not change from point to point in the fluid, or 𝜕𝑠 = 0. This statement
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝜌
implies that other fluid variables do not change with distance, or = 0, =
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑝
0, = 0, etc. Flow of liquids under pressure through long pipelines of
𝜕𝑠
constant diameter is uniform flow whether the flow is steady or unsteady.

Steamlines

Streamlines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the

direction of motion in various sections of the flow of the fluid system. A
tangent at any point on the curve represents the instantaneous direction of
the velocity of the fluid particles at that point.

Streamtubes
A streamtube represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid
bounded by a group of streamlines that confine the flow. If the streamtube’s
cross-sectional area is sufficiently small, the velocity of the midpoint of any
cross section may be taken as the average velocity for the section as a whole.

Equation of Continuity

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The equation of continuity results from the principle of conservation of

mass. For steady flow, the mass of fluid passing all sections in a stream of
fluid per unit of time is the same. This can be evaluated as
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Or
𝛾1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝛾2 𝐴2 𝑉2 (𝑙𝑏⁄sec 𝑜𝑟 𝑁⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 )

For incompressible fluids and where 𝛾1 = 𝛾2 for all practical purposes, the
equation becomes
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑓𝑡 3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 )

Where 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1 are respectively the cross-sectional area and average

velocity of the stream at section 1, with similar terms for section 2.
The equation of continuity for steady two-dimensional incompressible flow is.
𝐴𝑛1 𝑉1 = 𝐴𝑛2 𝑉2 = 𝐴𝑛3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Where 𝐴𝑛 terms represent areas normal to the respective velocity vectors.

Flow Nets

Flow nets are drawn to indicate flow patterns in cases of two-

dimensional flow, or even three-dimensional flow. The flow net consists of (a)
a system of streamlines so spaced that rate of flow q is the same between
each successive pair of lines, and (b) another system of lines normal to the
streamlines.

Energy Head

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Moving fluids possess

energy. In analyzing fluid flow problems, there forms of energy must be
considered; potential, kinetic, and pressure energy.

Consider the fluid element within the conduit shown in figure. The element is
located z above a reference datum and has a velocity V and pressure p,
Potential energy refers to the energy possessed by the element of fluid due to
elevation.

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Kinetic energy refers to the energy possessed by the element of fluid due to
its velocity. Kinetic energy (KE) is determined quantitatively by multiplying the
mass (m) of the element by the square of the velocity (V) and taking half the
product. Therefore,
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2
2
The mass term (m) may be placed by W/g (where W is weight and g is the
acceleration of gravity). Giving

1 𝑊𝑉 2
𝐾𝐸 = ( )
2 𝑔
Pressure energy, sometimes called flow energy, is the amount of work
required to force the element of fluid across a certain distance against the
pressure.
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑝𝑊 ⁄𝛾
Total Energy or referred as “head” H
𝑉2 𝑝
𝐻 =𝑧+ +
2𝑔 𝛾
Where z is the elevation head; V2/2g is known as the velocity head; and p/𝛾 is
known as the pressure head. Each are expressed in ft or meters.

Energy Equation
The energy equation results from application of the principle of
conservation of energy to fluid flow. The energy possessed by a flowing fluid
consists of internal energy and energies due to pressure, velocity, and
position. In the direction of flow, the energy principle is summarized by the
general equation

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 − 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

= 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛2
Simplifies to,

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
( + + 𝑧1 ) + 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿 − 𝐻𝐸 = ( + + 𝑧2 )
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
This equation is known as the Bernoulli theorem.

Velocity Head
Velocity head represents the kinetic energy per unit weight that exist
at a particular point. If the velocity at a cross section were uniform, then the
velocity head calculated with this uniform or average velocity would be the
true kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid.
1 𝜐 3
𝛼 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉
Where:
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜐 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Energy Line

The energy line is graphical representation of the energy at each

section. With respect to a chosen datum, the total energy (as a linear value in
feet or meters of fluid) can be plotted at each representative section, and the
line so obtained is a valuable tool in many flow problems.
Hydraulic Grade Line
The hydraulic grade line lies below the energy line by an amount equal
to the velocity head at the section.
Power
Power is calculated by multiplying the number of pounds (or newtons)
of fluid flowing per second (𝛾𝑄) by energy H in ft-lb/lb (or mN/N). These
result the equations.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. When 0.03 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 flows through a 300 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe that later reduces to

a 150 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe, calculate the average velocities in the two pipes.

Solution:

𝑄 0.03 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑉300 = =
𝐴300 1 𝜋(0.300𝑚)2
4
Then,
𝑉300 = 0.424 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑄 0.03 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑉150 = =
𝐴150 1 𝜋(0.150𝑚)2
4
Then,
𝑉150 = 1.698 𝑚⁄𝑠

2. If the velocity in 300𝑚𝑚 − 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 is 0.5 𝑚⁄𝑠, what is the velocity in 75 −

𝑚𝑚 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 jet issuing from a nozzle attached to the pipe?

Solution:

𝑄 = 𝐴300 𝑉300 = 𝐴75 𝑉75

Then,
1 1
𝜋(300𝑚𝑚)2 (0.5 𝑚⁄𝑠) = 𝜋(75𝑚𝑚)2 𝑉75
2 2
𝑉75 = 8 𝑚⁄𝑠

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3. Air flows in a 6" pipe at a pressure of 30.0 𝑝𝑠𝑖 gage and a temperature
of 100℉. If barometric pressure is 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and velocity is 10.5 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 ,
how many pounds of air per second are flowing?
Solution:

The gas laws require absolute units for temperature and pressure (psf). Thus
𝑝
𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
𝑅𝑇
Then,

2
(30 + 14.7)𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑏2 (144𝑓𝑡
𝑖𝑛
2)
𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
(53.3𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏−°𝑅
)(100 + 460)°𝑅

𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.216 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3

𝑊 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝛾𝑄 = 𝛾𝐴6 𝑉6

2
1 1
𝑊 = 0.216 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 ( 𝜋) ( 𝑓𝑡) (10.5 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
4 2

𝑊 = 0.445 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

4. For the 100 − 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 suction pipe leading to a pump shown in

figure 1, the pressure at point A in the suction pipe is a vacuum of
180 𝑚𝑚 of mercury. If the discharge is 0.0300 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 of oil (𝑠 = 0.85),
find the total energy head at point A with respect to a datum at the
pump.

Solution:
𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐴2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝐴
𝛾 2𝑔

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𝑄 0.0300 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑉𝐴 = =
𝐴 1
( )2
4 𝜋 0.1𝑚
𝑉𝐴 = 3.820 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ
𝑘𝑁
𝑝𝐴 = (13.6) (9.81𝑚3 ) (−0.180𝑚)
𝑝𝐴 = −24.015 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑘𝑁
−24.015𝑚 2 (3.820 𝑚⁄𝑠)2
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = + + (−1.200𝑚)
0.85(9.81 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 ) 2(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = −3.337 𝑚

5. Water flows through the turbine in figure at the rate of 0.214 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠

and the pressures at A and B, respectively, are 147.5 𝑘𝑃𝑎 and
−34.5 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Determine the power delivered to the turbine by the water.

Solution:

Using A to B (Datum B), with

𝑄 0.214 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑉300 = =
𝐴300 1 𝜋(0.3𝑚)2
4

𝑉300 = 3.027 𝑚⁄𝑠

0.214 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑉600 =
1
( )2
4 𝜋 0.6𝑚

𝑉600 = 0.757 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝟐 𝟐
𝑝𝐴 V300 𝑝𝐵 V600
( + + 𝑧𝑨 ) + 0 − 𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ( + + 𝑧𝐵 )
γ 2g γ 2g

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
147.5𝑚 2 (3.027 𝑚⁄𝑠)𝟐 −34.5𝑚 2 (0.758 𝑚⁄𝑠)2
( 𝑘𝑁 + + 1𝑚) − 𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ( + + 0)
9.81𝑚 3 2(9.81𝑠𝑚2) 𝑘𝑁
9.81𝑚 3 2(9.81𝑠𝑚2)
𝐻𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 19.99 𝑚

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Solving for power

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 )(0.214 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 )(19.99 𝑚)
(

𝑘𝑁∙𝑚
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 41.966 or 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 41.966 𝑘𝑊
𝑠

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Activity Number 11

Solve the given problems:

1. A 150 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe carries 0.0813 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 of water. The pipe branches into

two pipes, one 50 𝑚𝑚 in diameter and the other 100 𝑚𝑚 in diameter.
If the velocity in the 50 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe is 12.2 𝑚⁄𝑠, determine is the
velocity in the 100 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe?

2. A 300 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe carries oil of 𝑠 = 0.812 at rate of 0.111 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠, and the
pressure at a point A is 18.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎 gage. If point A is 1.89 𝑚 above the
datum plane, calculate the energy at A.

3. Water flows through a horizontal 150 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe under a pressure of

414 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Assuming no losses, solve for the flow if the pressure at a
75 − 𝑚𝑚 diameter reduction is 138 𝑘𝑃𝑎?

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Lesson 2

 Flow of
Compressible Fluids

Introduction

Many flow problems, however, involve fluids that are compressible,

such as air. As general rule, gases are compressible whereas liquids are more
or less incompressible. Analysis of compressible flow is often more
complicated than that of incompressible flow because mass density varies
with applied pressure in the case of compressible flow.

Isothermal Flow

Isothermal means at the same (or constant) temperature. Isothermal

flow of a compressible fluid in a conduit occurs if heat transferred out of the
fluid (through the conduit walls) and energy converted to heat by friction
offset each other so that the temperature of the fluid is constant.
Isothermal flow in a pipe can be analyzed by using the following
fomula:

𝐺 2 𝑅𝑇 𝐿 𝑝1
𝑝12 − 𝑝22 = 2
[𝑓 + 2 ln ]
𝑔𝐴 𝐷 𝑝2
Where
𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐺 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑡. 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑡. 2
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

The equation above has some limitations. First of all, it should not be
used for large pressure drops. The pipe diameter must be constant, and
pressure changes due to differences in elevation are considered negligible.

Isentropic Flow

Flow that is both adiabatic and frictionless is called isentropic flow.

(Adiabatic means that no heat is transferred to the system from its
surroundings or vice versa). Isentropic flow exhibits no change in entropy.
Isentropic flow can be analyzed by using the equations

𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑘 𝑝2 (𝑘−1)⁄𝑘

= ( ) [1 − ( ) ]
2𝑔 𝛾1 𝑘 − 1 𝑝1
Or

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𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑘 𝑝1 (𝑘−1)⁄𝑘

= ( ) [( ) − 1]
2𝑔 𝛾2 𝑘 − 1 𝑝2
Where

𝑣2 = velocity at point 2
𝑣1 = velocity at point 1
𝑔= acceleration of gravity
𝑝2 = pressure at point 2
𝑝1 = pressure at point 1
𝑘= specific heat ratio
𝛾1 = specific weight at point 1
𝛾2 = specific weight at point 2

The Convergent Nozzle

Isentropic flow of compressible fluid from a large tank through a

convergent nozzle, as shown in figure is discussed. Indicated in the figure are
the section 1 and 2 where we can consider the pressure, mass density, and
temperature. The left side will be the point within the tank.

Convergent nozzle

In a convergent nozzle, flow through the nozzle’s throat will be either

sonic or subsonic. If flow is sonic, the Mach number is equal to unity, and the
ratio 𝑝2 ⁄𝑝1 must be equal to the “critical pressure ratio” as defined by
𝑝2 2 𝑘⁄(𝑘−1)
( ) =( )
𝑝1 𝑐 𝑘+1

Where

𝑝
(𝑝2 ) = critical pressure ratio
1 𝑐
𝑘 = specific heat ratio

If flow through the throat is subsonic, the ratio 𝑝2 ⁄𝑝1 will be larger
𝑝2
than (𝑝 )
1 𝑐

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If the pressure drop is small [(𝑝2′ ⁄𝑝1 ) > (𝑝2 ⁄𝑝1 )𝑐 ], flow through the
nozzle will be subsonic and the pressure at the exit of the nozzle will be the
same as the pressure outside the tank (𝑝2 = 𝑝2′ ). We can determine the
weight flow rate from the equation
2𝑔𝑘 𝑝2 2⁄𝑘 𝑝2 (𝑘+1)⁄𝑘
𝐺 = 𝐴2 √ 𝑝1 𝛾1 [( ) −( ) ]
𝑘−1 𝑝1 𝑝1

Where
𝐺= weight flow rate
𝐴2 = throat area
𝑔= acceleration of the gravity
𝑘= specific heat ratio
𝑝1 = pressure inside the tank
𝛾1 = specific weight of fluid inside the tank
𝑝2 = pressure of the jet at the exit if the nozzle

If the pressure drop increases (either by increasing 𝑝1 or decreasing 𝑝2′ ,

or both), flow through the nozzle will remain subsonic until the point is
reached where the ratio 𝑝2′ ⁄𝑝1 is equal to the critical pressure ratio (𝑝2 ⁄𝑝1 )𝑐 .
At this point flow through the nozzle will be sonic (𝑝2 = 𝑝2′ ). The weight flow
rate can be determined from the equation

𝐴2 𝑝1 𝑔𝑘 2 (𝑘+1)⁄(𝑘−1)
𝐺= √ ( )
√𝑇1 𝑅 𝑘 + 1

Where 𝑇1 is the absolute temperature of the fluid inside the tank, 𝑅 is the gas
constant, and other terms are as defined above.

Compressible Flow Through a Constriction

In the figure below depicts compressible fluid flow through a

constriction in a conduit. It is shown in the figure point 1 and point 2 where
we can have the parameters like pressure, density and temperature from the
larger section to smaller section. The cross section at point 1 is generally not
large to neglect 𝑣1 .

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Compressible flow through a constriction

The weight flow rate for compressible flow through a constriction can
be determined from the equation

𝐴2 2𝑔𝑘 𝑝2 2⁄𝑘 𝑝2 (𝑘+1)⁄𝑘

𝐺= √ 𝑝1 𝛾1 [( ) −( ) ]
√1 − (𝑝2 ⁄𝑝1 )2⁄𝑘 (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2 𝑘 − 1 𝑝1 𝑝1

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. At one point on a streamline in an isentropic airflow, the velocity,

pressure, and the unit weight are 30.5 𝑚⁄𝑠 , 350 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (absolute), and
0.028 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 , respectively. Find the pressure at a second point on the
streamline, where the velocity is 150 𝑚⁄𝑠.

Solution:
𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑘 𝑝2 (𝑘−1)⁄𝑘
= ( [1
) −( ) ]
2𝑔 𝛾1 𝑘 − 1 𝑝1

From table 1 in the appendix, 𝑘 = 1.40

(150 𝑚⁄𝑠)2 − (30.5 𝑚⁄𝑠)2 350 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 1.4 𝑝2 (1.4−1) ⁄1.4

= ( [1
) −( ) ]
2(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) 0.028 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 1.4 − 1 350𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑝2 = 320.172 𝑘𝑃𝑎

2. Air at 180 𝐶 flows isothermally through a 300 − 𝑚𝑚 −diameter pipe at a

flow rate of 0.45 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑠 . The pipe is “smooth”. If the pressure at one
section is 550 𝑘𝑃𝑎, find the pressure at a section 200 𝑚 downstream.

Solution:

𝐺 2 𝑅𝑇 𝐿 𝑝1
𝑝12 − 𝑝22 =
2
[𝑓 + 2𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑔𝐴 𝐷 𝑝2
From table 1 in the appendix, 𝑅 = 29.3 𝑚⁄𝐾
𝜋(0.3 𝑚)2
𝐴= = 0.071𝑚2
4

Module IV
 15

To determine the value of 𝑓, the Reynold’s number must first be evaluated.

However, to evaluate it, values of mass density and velocity must be
determined as follows.
𝑝
𝛾=
𝑅𝑇

550 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝛾=
(29.3 𝑚⁄𝐾 )(18 + 273)𝐾

𝛾 = 0.065 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Solving for density
0.065 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 = 𝜌(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )
𝜌 = 0.007 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑠 2 ⁄𝑚4
Solving for velocity
𝐺 = 𝛾𝐴𝑉
0.450 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑠 = (0.065 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 )(0.071𝑚2 )𝑉
𝑉 = 97.508 𝑚⁄𝑠
For Reynold’s number

𝜌𝐷𝑉 (0.007 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑠 2 ⁄𝑚4 )(0.3𝑚)(97.508 𝑚⁄𝑠)

𝑅𝑒 = = 1 𝑘𝑁
𝜇 (1.81 × 10−5 ) 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠 ⁄𝑚2 (1000 𝑁
)
7
𝑅𝑒 = 1.131 × 10
From diagram A-1, using the “smooth pipe” line, 𝑓 = 0.008
2 2
(0.450)2 (29.3)(291) 0.008(200)
550 − 𝑝2 = [ ]
(9.81)(0.071)2 0.3

𝑝2 = 341.016 𝑘𝑃𝑎

(0.450)2 (29.3)(291) 0.008(200) 550

5502 − 𝑝22 = 2
[ + (2) (𝑙𝑛 )]
(9.81)(0.071) 0.3 341.016

𝑝2 = 174.398 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Module IV
 16

Activity Number 12

Solve the given problems:

1. Air at 100℉ flows, isothermally through a 4 − 𝑖𝑛 −diameter pipe.

Pressures at sections 1 and 2 are 120 and 80 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎, respectively.
Section 2 is located 400 𝑓𝑡 downstream from section 1. Determine the
weight flow rate of the air. Assume the pipe has smooth surface.

2. Oxygen flows isentropically through a 100 − 𝑚𝑚 −diameter pipe. At

one point, the velocity of flow, pressure , and unit weight are 125 𝑚⁄𝑠,
450 𝑘𝑃𝑎, and 0.058 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 , respectively. At another point a short
distance away from the first, the pressure is 360 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Determine the
velocity at the second point.

Module IV
 17

Lesson 3

 Measurement of
Flow of Fluids

Introduction

Numerous devices are used in engineering practice to measure the

flow of fluids. Velocity measurements are made with Pitot tubes, current
meters, and rotating and hot-wire anemometer.

Pitot Tube

The pitot tube measures the velocity at a point by virtue of the fact
that the tube measures the stagnation pressure, which exceeds the local
static pressure.

Coefficient of Velocity

The coefficient of velocity (𝑐𝑣 ) is the ratio of the actual mean velocity
in the cross section of a stream (jet) to the theoretical mean velocity that
would occur without friction. Thus
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Coefficient of Contraction

The coefficient of velocity (𝑐𝑐 ) is the ratio of the area of the contracted
section of a stream (jet) to the area of the opening through which the fluid
floes. Thus
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑗𝑒𝑡) 𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑜

Coefficient of Discharge

The coefficient of discharge (𝑐𝑑 ) is the ratio of the actual discharge

through the device to the theoretical discharge. This coefficient can be
expressed as
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑄
𝑐𝑑 =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑄
More practically, when the coefficient of discharge (𝑐𝑑 ) has been determined
experimentally,
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
Where

Module IV
 18

𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝐻 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
The coefficient of discharge can also be written as
𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑣 × 𝑐𝑐

Lost Head

The lost head in orifices, tubes, nozzles, and Venturi meters is

expressed as

2
1 𝑣𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ( 2 − 1)
𝑐𝑣 2𝑔
When the expression is applied to a Venturi meter, 𝑣𝑗𝑒𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 and
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐𝑐 .

Weirs

Weirs measure the flow of liquids, usually water, in open channels.

Theoretical Weir Formula

The theoretical weir formula for rectangular weirs is

3⁄2 3⁄2
2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑏√2𝑔 [(𝐻 + ) − ( ) ]
3 2𝑔 2𝑔
Where
𝑄= flow in cfs (or 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠)
𝑐= coeffiecient (to be determined experimentally)
𝑏= length of weir crest in feet (or meters)
𝐻= Head on weir in feet (or meters) (height of level liquid surface
above crest)
𝑉= average velocity of approach in 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 or 𝑚⁄𝑠.

Francis Formula
The Francis formula, based upon experiments on rectangular weirs
from 3.5 𝑓𝑡 (1.1 𝑚) to 17 𝑓𝑡 (5.2 𝑚) long under heads from 0.6 𝑓𝑡 (0.2 𝑚) to
1.6 𝑓𝑡 (0.5 𝑚), is

3⁄2 3⁄2
𝑛𝐻 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑄 = 3.33 (𝑏 − ) [(𝐻 + ) −( ) ]
10 2𝑔 2𝑔

Where the notation is the same as above and

𝑛= 0 for a suppressed weir
𝑛= 1 for a weir with one contraction
𝑛= 2 for fully contracted weir

Module IV
 19

Bazin Formula

The Bazin formula (lengths from 1.64 ft to 6.56 ft under heads from
0.164 ft to 1.969 ft) is
0.0789 𝐻 2
𝑄 = (3.25 + ) [1 + 0.55 ( ) ] 𝑏𝐻 3⁄2
𝐻 𝐻+𝑍
Where 𝑍 = height of the weir crest above the channel bottom.
The bracketed term becomes negligible for low velocities of approach.

Fteley and Stearns Formula

The Ftely and Stearns formula (lengths 5 ft and 19 ft under heads from
0.07 ft to 1.63 ft) for suppressed weirs is

3⁄2
𝑉2
𝑄 = 3.31𝑏 (𝐻 + 𝛼 ) + 0.007𝑏
2𝑔

Where 𝛼 = factor dependent upon crest height 𝑍 (tables of values required).

The Triangular Weir Formula

8 𝜃
𝑄= 𝑐 tan √2𝑔𝐻 5⁄2
15 2
Or for a given weir,
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐻 5⁄2

The Trapezoidal Weir Formula

𝑄 = 3.367𝑏𝐻 3⁄2

This weir has side (end) slopes of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical

For Dams Used as Weirs

The expression for approximate flow is
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑏𝐻 3⁄2

Where 𝑚 = experimental factor, usually from model studies.

Time to Empty Tanks

By means of an orifice is
2𝐴𝑇
𝑡 = 𝑐𝐴 (ℎ11⁄2 − ℎ21⁄2 ) (constant cross section, no inflow)
𝑜 √2𝑔

ℎ −𝐴𝑇 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 = ∫ℎ 2 𝑄 (inflow < outflow, constant cross section)
1 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑄𝑖𝑛

Time to Empty Tanks

Module IV
 20

By means of weirs is calculated by using

2𝐴 𝑇 −1⁄2 ⁄
𝑡= (𝐻 − 𝐻1−1 2 )
𝑚𝐿 2
Time to establish Flow

In a pipeline is
𝐿𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉
𝑡= ln ( )
2𝑔𝐻 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A Pitot Tube having a coefficient of 0.98 is used to measure the

velocity of water at the center of a pipe. The stagnation pressure head
is 5.67 𝑚 and the static pressure head in the pipe is 4.73 𝑚. What is
the velocity?

Solution:
If the tube is shaped and positioned properly, a point of zero velocity
(stagnation point) is developed at 𝐵 in front of the open end of the tube
(refer to the given figure). Applying Bernoulli theorem from A to B.

𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐵
( + + 0) − 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = ( + 0 + 0)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Then, for an ideal “frictionless” fluid

𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐵 𝑝𝐴
= −
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
or
𝑝𝐵 𝑝𝐴
𝑉𝐴 = √2𝑔 ( − )
𝛾 𝛾
Considering coefficient 𝑐 = 0.98

𝑝𝐵 𝑝𝐴
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑐 √2𝑔 ( − )
𝛾 𝛾

Module IV
 21

𝑉𝐴 = 0.98√2(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )(5.67 − 4.73)𝑚

𝑉𝐴 = 4.208 𝑚⁄𝑠

2. Air flows through a duct, and the Pitot-static tube measuring the
velocity is attached to a differential gage containing water. If the
deflection of the gage is 4 𝑖𝑛, calculate the air velocity, assuming the
specific weight of air is constant at 0.0761 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 and the coefficient of
the tube is 0.98.

Solution:
For the differential gage,
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐴 (4 ÷ 12)𝑓𝑡(62.4) 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
= = 273.325 𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝛾 0.0761 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3
Then,
𝑉 = 0.98√(62.4) 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3 (273.325 𝑓𝑡)
𝑉 = 127.985 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠

3. The actual velocity in the contracted section of a jet of liquid flowing

from a 50 − 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 orifice is 8.53 𝑚⁄𝑠 under a head of 4.57 𝑚.

a) What is the value of the coefficient of velocity?

b) If the measured discharge is 0.0114 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠, determine the coefficients

of contraction and discharge.

Solution:
a) 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻
8.53 𝑚⁄𝑠 = 𝑐𝑣 √2(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )(4.57 𝑚)

𝑐𝑣 = 0.901
b) 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

1
0.0114 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 = 𝑐𝑑 [ 𝜋(0.05 𝑚)2 ] √2(9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 (4.57 𝑚))
4

𝑐𝑑 = 0.613

𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑣 × 𝑐𝑐

𝑐𝑑
𝑐𝑐 =
𝑐𝑣

0.613
𝑐𝑐 = = 0.68
0.901

Module IV
 22

Activity Number 13

Solve the given problems:

1. Air at 120℉ flows by a Pitot-static tube at a velocity of 60 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 . If the

coefficient of the tube is 0.95, determine the water differential reading
is expected, assuming constant specific weight of the air at
atmospheric pressure?

2. What size standard orifice is required to discharge 0.016 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 of water

under a head of 8.69 𝑚?

3. A sharp-edged orifice has a diameter of 1" and coefficients of velocity

and contraction of 0.98 and 0.62 respectively. If the jet drops 3.08 𝑓𝑡 in
a horizontal distance of 8.19 𝑓𝑡, determine the flow in cfs and the head
on the orifice.

Module IV
 23

 SUMMATIVE TEST

1. Water flows through a 200 − 𝑚𝑚 −diameter pipe at a velocity of

2 𝑚⁄𝑠. Determine the volume flow rate, weight flow rate, and mass
flow rate.

2. Oil of 𝑠 = 0.752 flows through a horizontal 150 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe under a

pressure of 414 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Assuming no losses, what is the flow rate at a
75 − 𝑚𝑚 diameter reduction is 138 𝑘𝑃𝑎?

3. Water flows upward in a vertical 300 − 𝑚𝑚 pipe at the rate of

0.222 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠. At a point A in the pipe the pressure is 210 𝑘𝑃𝑎. At B,
4.57 𝑚 above A, the diameter is 600 𝑚𝑚, and the lost head A to B
equals 1.83 𝑚. Determine the pressure at B.

4. At one point in a streamline of isentropic airflow, the velocity, pressure,

and unit weight are 80 𝑚⁄𝑠, 405 𝑘𝑃𝑎, and 0.046 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 , respectively.
The velocity of flow at a second point in the streamline is 165 𝑚⁄𝑠.
Determine the pressure at the second point.

5. Oil of 𝑠 = 0.8 flows from a closed tank through a 75 − 𝑚𝑚 −diameter

orifice at the rate of 0.026 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠. The diameter of the jet is 58.5 𝑚𝑚.
The level of the oil is 7.47 𝑚 above the orifice, and the air pressure is
equivalent to −152 𝑚𝑚 of mercury. Determine the three coefficients of
the orifice.

Module IV