Nerve Structure:

Transmission of Nerve Impulse: Nerve impulses are action potentials that move along the length of
an axon as a wave of depolarisation

 Depolarisation occurs when ion channels open and cause a change in membrane potential
 The ion channels that occupy the length of the axon are voltage-gated (open in response to
changes in membrane potential)
 Hence, depolarisation at one point of the axon triggers the opening of ion channels in the
next segment of the axon
 This causes depolarisation to spread along the length of the axon as a unidirectional “wave”

Synaptic Transmission:

 When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated
calcium channels
 Calcium ions (Ca2+) diffuse into the cell and promote the fusion of vesicles (containing
neurotransmitter) with the cell membrane
 The neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal by exocytosis and cross the
synaptic cleft
 Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic membrane and open
ligand-gated ion channels
 The opening of ion channels generates an electrical impulse in the post-synaptic neuron,
propagating the pre-synaptic signal
 The neurotransmitters released into the synapse are either recycled (by reuptake pumps) or
degraded (by enzymatic activity)
Neonicotinoids:

Diseases:

Parkinsons: Decreased stimulation in the motor cortex. Results in decreased dopamine

production. Slow movement and tremors. For treatment giving dopamine doesn’t work,
because it is unable to cross blood-brain barrier. However, L-dopa is a dopamine precursor
that can cross blood-brain barrier, then converted to dopamine. L-dopa reduces some effects
of Parkinson’s.

Depression: Extremely low mood, feeling hopelessness. Depression may be caused by

environmental factors such as stress and also biological factors, i.e., low serotonin
production. Treatment of depression is by drugs that alter serotonin levels. Most common
one does this by preventing the breakdown of serotonin in brain.
Nerve Impulses:

 Resting potential: Before the action potential occurs, the neuron should be in a state of rest
(approx. –70 mV)
 Depolarization: A rising spike corresponds to the depolarisation of the membrane via sodium
influx (up to roughly +30 mV)
 Repolarization: A falling spike corresponds to repolarisation via potassium efflux
(undershoots to approx. –80 mV)
 Refractory period: The oscilloscope trace returns to the level of the resting potential (due to
the action of the Na+/K+ pump)

Male Reproductive System:

 Testis: The testis (plural: testes) is responsible for the production of sperm and testosterone
(male sex hormone)
 Epididymis: Site where sperm matures and develops the ability to be motile (i.e. ‘swim’) –
mature sperm is stored here until ejaculation
 Vas Deferens: Long tube which conducts sperm from the testes to the prostate gland (which
connects to the urethra) during ejaculation
 Seminal Vesicle: Secretes fluid containing fructose (to nourish sperm), mucus (to protect
sperm) and prostaglandin (triggers uterine contractions)
 Prostate Gland: Secretes an alkaline fluid to neutralise vaginal acids (necessary to maintain
sperm viability)
 Urethra: Conducts sperm / semen from the prostate gland to the outside of the body via the
penis (also used to convey urine)
Female Reproductive System:

 Ovary: The ovary is where oocytes mature prior to release (ovulation) – it also responsible
for estrogen and progesterone secretion
 Fimbria: Fimbria (plural: fimbriae) are a fringe of tissue adjacent to an ovary that sweep an
oocyte into the oviduct
 Oviduct: The oviduct (or fallopian tube) transports the oocyte to the uterus – it is also
typically where fertilisation occurs
 Uterus: The uterus is the organ where a fertilised egg will implant and develop (becoming
an embryo)
 Endometrium: The mucous membrane lining of the uterus, it thickens in preparation for
implantation or is otherwise lost (via menstruation)
 Vagina: Passage leading to the uterus by which the penis can enter (uterus protected by a
muscular opening called the cervix)

The Role of Testosterone:

 Causes the development of the male primary sexual characteristics; male genitelia.
 Causes the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics; sperm, body hair,
development of muscles, deepening of voice.
 Maintaining the sex drive and production of sperm.

The Role of Estrogen:

 Causes the development of the female primary sexual characteristics; female genitelia.
 Causes the development of the female secondary sexual characteristics; breast, wider hips,
fat deposition, body hair, external genitalia development.
 Monthly preparation of egg release.
IVF Steps:

 Stop normal menstrual cycle (with drugs)

 Hormone treatments to promote super ovulation
 Extract multiple eggs from the ovaries
 Sperm collected, then prepared (via capacitation) and injected into egg
 Fertilisation occurs externally under controlled conditions (in vitro)
 Implantation of multiple embryos into uterus (either patient or surrogate)
 Test for pregnancy after two weeks

Mnemonic: SHE’S FIT

Hormone Features:

 Insulin: Insulin is released from beta (β) cells of the pancreas and cause a decrease in blood
glucose concentration.
 Glucagon: Glucagon is released from alpha (α) cells of the pancreas and cause an increase in
blood glucose concentration.
 Thyroxin: Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help
control body temperature.
 Leptin: Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and act on the hypothalamus of the brain
to inhibit appetite.
 Melatonin: Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms