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Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World

Article in Academia Letters · June 2022

DOI: 10.20935/AL5757

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 ACADEMIA | Letters
Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World

Gandhiv Kafle*
Faculty of Forestry, Agriculture and Forestry University, Hetauda, Nepal
Email address:
gandhivkafle@gmail.com

Abstract: Soil classification categorizes soils into different classes on the basis of
their distinguishing characteristics. It considers soil horizons and factors of soil
formation as the basis of classification. Soil horizons are important characteristics of
soils that reflect the evolution and properties of soils. They are useful in identifying
soil suitability for diverse purposes. An indepth review of diagnostic horizons of
soils was conducted with support from relevant literatures. The information was
systematically presented with suitable subheadings. This paper provides an overview
of diagnostic horizons, their types, and characteristics in the world which could be
useful to undergraduate and graduate students in agriculture and forestry sectors. In
total, eight epipedons and twenty diagnostic subsurface horizons of the world are
presented. The surface horizons are epipedons and the horizons located deep in the
soil profile are subsurface horizons. The epipedons include Anthropic, Folistic,
Histic, Melanic, Mollic, Ochric, Plaggen and Umbric. The subsurface horizons
include Agric, Anhydritic, Albic, Argillic, Calcic, Cambic, Duripan, Fragipan,
Glossic, Gypsic, Kandic, Natric, Ortstein, Oxic, Petrocalcic, Petrogypsic, Placic,
Salic, Sombric and Spodic. The diagnostic horizons are the basis for identifying the

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

1
 suitability of the soil for specific land use. Indepth investigation of the diagnostic
horizons in different countries is essential.

Keywords: Soil Taxonomy, Epipedons, Subsurface Horizons, World

1. Introduction The systematic categorization of soils into different classes based on

their distinguishing characteristics is called soil classification. Nowadays, two main systems
of soil classification exists: 1) the soil order system of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (ST) and 2)
soil group system, published as the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB),
developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. These
systems of classification consider diagnostic horizons and factors of soil formation as the
basis of classification.
A horizon is defined in Soil Taxonomy as “a layer, approximately parallel to the surface
of the soil that is distinguishable from adjacent layers by a distinctive set of properties
produced by the soil-forming processes” [1]. Soil horizons have a direct relationship with
the engineering behavior of soils. The origin of the diagnostic horizons from different factors
and processes of soil formation is well described by [2]. The 1957 Sixth Approximation of
Soil Taxonomy identified the diagnostic soil horizons for the first time [3]. The World
Reference Base [4], the national soil classification systems of Russia [5], China [6], and
other countries also used the diagnostic soil horizons. The diagnostic horizons reflect the soil
weathering processes and maturity of soils. They also reflect the suitability of the soils for
agriculture, engineering, and other purposes. They are used as criteria in soil taxonomy. The
presence or absence of certain diagnostic horizons is an important criterion to categorize a
soil into certain class. Diagnostic soil horizons are used at the four highest categories in soil
taxonomy: order, sub-order, great group, and subgroup [7]. This paper provides an overview
of diagnostic horizons, their types, and characteristics in the world which could be useful to
undergraduate and graduate students in agriculture and forestry sectors.

2. Epipedons and Subsurface Horizons

There are two broad categories of diagnostic horizons: a) epipedons and b) subsurface
horizon. Diagnostic horizons which are found at or near the land surface are called
epipedons, and those found deep in the soil profile are called subsurface horizons. Epipedon

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

2
is characterized by the presence of organic matter or eluviation or both. Generally, an
epipedon includes O and A horizons but sometimes also B horizon if it shows darkening by
organic matter.

3. Types of Diagnostic Horizons

At present, there are eight epipedons, or diagnostic surface horizons, and 20 diagnostic
subsurface horizons in Soil Taxonomy (ST) [8] (Table 1).

Table 1. Diagnostic horizons and their defining features.

Diagnostic
Defining features
horizons
Epipedons
Modified by human, high organic matter content, high available
Anthropic
phosphorus content, moderately thick, dark in color
Folistic Organic horizon saturated for less than 30 days per normal year, thick
Histic Too high organic matter content, wet during some part of year
Thick, black, very high organic carbon (>6%), common in volcanic ash
Melanic
soils
Relatively thick, dark, humus-rich, neutral to alkaline, strong structure,
Mollic
high base saturation
Pale, too thin, too dry, too little organic matter, hard or massive when
Ochric
dry
Human-made sodlike horizon created by years of manuring, dark
Plaggen
colored, high organic carbon
Umbric Same as Mollic except low base saturation
Subsurface
horizons
Organic and clay accumulation just below plow layer resulting from
Agric
cultivation
Containing anhydrite as the predominant calcium sulfate mineral with
Anhydritic
gypsum either absent or present only in minor amounts
Albic Light-colored, clay and Fe and Al oxides mostly removed, eluvial

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

3
 Argillic Silicate clay illuviation, presence of clay bridges or coatings
Calcic Accumulation of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate
In situ mineral weathering only, changed or altered by physical
Cambic
movement or by chemical reactions, generally nonilluvial
Duripan Hard pan, strongly cemented by silica
Fragipan Brittle pan, restricts rooting
Glossic Whitish eluvial horizon that tongues into a Bt horizon
Gypsic Accumulation of gypsum
Kandic Accumulation of low-activity clays, evidence of illuviation not necessary
Accelerated clay illuviation, high in sodium, columnar or prismatic
Natric
structure
Ortstein Subsurface layer >25 mm thick with cemented spodic materials
Highly weathered; aluminum oxide, iron oxide, and kaolin clay
Oxic
deposition
Petrocalcic Cemented calcic horizon
Petrogypsic Cemented gypsic horizon
Placic Thin pan cemented with iron alone or with manganese or organic matter
Salic Accumulation of salts
Sombric Organic matter accumulation, dark colored, strongly leached
Aluminum oxide, iron oxide, and humus deposition, dark colored, low
Spodic
base saturation (acidic)
Source: Adapted from [8, 9] 3.1. Surface Horizons or Epipedons

Anthropic Epipedon
The color, structure and organic carbon content of the anthropic epipedon is similar to the
mollic epipedon, but it is formed from long term use of the soils by humans. It contains a
relatively high base saturation. All parts of the anthropic epipedon are dry for nine or more
months in normal years if the soil is not irrigated. The dominant factor in the development
of anthropic epipedon is human activity [9].
Folistic Epipedon
This epipedon contains organic matter unless plowing of the soil. It is normally found
on the soil surface although it can be buried. They are saturated with water for less than thirty
days in normal years, hence they differ from histic epipedons. Littering, decomposition,
humification, ripening, and mineralization are the governing processes occurring in soils
with folistic epipedon [10].

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

4
 Histic Epipedon
The histic epipedon consists of organic soil material (peat or muck) with 20-60 cm
thickness in general. This epipedon is either being characterized by saturation and reduction
for some time in normal years or has been artificially drained. It occurs normally at the soil
surface, although it can be buried. Its color is black to dark brown. Its density is low.
Melanic Epipedon
The melanic epipedon is a mineral horizon found at or near the soil surface in a volcanic
area. It is thick (generally more than 30 cm) and dark. It has high organic carbon content,
usually more than six percent. It is very light.
Mollic Epipedon
The mollic epipedon is relatively thick (generally more than 25 cm) and dark. It has a
high level of humus. It has many bivalent cations in the exchange complex. It has high base
saturation. The grade of the structure is weak to strong. Mollic epipedons are moist at least
three months a year when the soil temperature is usually 5 degrees celcius or higher to a
depth of 50 cm [11]. It is considered as one of the most productive soils of the world. Soils
with mollic epipedon form primarily under grassland and savanna vegetation but may occur
under broad-leaved forest or even under mixed broadleaved and coniferous forest [12, 9].
Ochric Epipedon
The ochric epipedon is too thin, too dry, and too light in color. It contains too little
organic carbon. It is hard when dry. It includes eluvial horizons at or near the soil surface. It
does not have rock structure. It generally develops under forest vegetation.
Plaggen Epipedon
The plaggen epipedon is produced by long-term manuring. It is a human-made surface
layer with 50 cm or more thickness. Its color depends on the amount of organic matter used
for bedding.
Umbric Epipedon
The umbric epipedon is relatively thick and dark. It is rich in humus. It has a base
saturation less than fifty percent. It has a strong soil structure. It develops in areas where the
rainfall is high and the rocks have a lower content of calcium and magnesium. The mollic
and umbric epipedons have similar organic matter distribution, but the percentage base
saturation is higher (greater than 50%) in the mollic epipedon and lower (less than 50%) in
the umbric epipedon.

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

5
3.2. Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Agric Horizon
The agric horizon is found on soils under cultivation. It is an illuvial horizon containing large
amounts of illuvial clay, silt, and humus.
Albic Horizon
The albic horizon generally occurs below an A horizon. It is an eluvial horizon with 1.0
cm or more thickness.
Anhydritic Horizon
Anhydrite is accumulated in this horizon. This horizon typically occurs as a subsurface
horizon.
Argillic Horizon
An argillic horizon is normally a subsurface horizon with clay illuviation. It contains
high amounts of phyllosilicate clay. It shows evidence of clay illuviation. It is formed by
moving of clay from one horizon to another or from one point to another within a horizon.
This horizon develops in areas with high rainfall for effective leaching. T
Calcic Horizon
The calcic horizon is an illuvial horizon with high amounts of secondary calcium
carbonate or other carbonates. It is 15 cm or more thick. These are found in arid and semi-
arid areas. It is very hard.
Cambic Horizon
A cambic horizon is a result of complex processes of physical alteration and chemical
transformation. Physical alterations destroy the original rock structure and result in soil
formation. There is no evidence of movement of clays in the cambic horizons. THis horizon
is usually found in young soils.
Duripan
A duripan is a very hard subsurface horizon. It is cemented mainly by alluvial silica and
supportively by calcium carbonate. It is very firm even after prolonged wetting.
Fragipan
A fragipan is an altered subsurface horizon with fifteen centimeters or more thickness.
It has low amount of organic matter and high bulk density. It is very hard.
Glossic Horizon
The glossic horizon is formed after the degradation of an argillic, kandic, or natric
horizon from which clay and free iron oxides are removed.
Gypsic Horizon

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

6
 The gypsic horizon is an illuvial horizon with the accumulation of large amounts of
secondary gypsum. Arid environments rich in gypsum contain gypsic horizons mostly.
Gypsum can dissolve in soil, so the foundations of infrastructures can be damaged.
Kandic Horizon
A Kandic horizon is a subsurface horizon. It contains significantly higher amounts of
clay than the overlying horizon or horizons.
Natric Horizon
The natric horizon is a special kind of argillic horizon with high amounts of sodium. It
has clay illuviation. It is found in arid areas.
Ortstein
Ortstein is a cemented horizon. It contains of spodic material.
Oxic Horizon
The oxic horizon is a mineral subsurface horizon with at least 30 cm (12 in) thickness.
It has low cation-exchange capacity and a low content of weatherable minerals dominated
by quartz. It is formed after an advanced stage of weathering. Hydrated oxides of iron or
aluminium or both and lattice clays are present in this horizon. They represent mature soils.
Petrocalcic Horizon
The petrocalcic horizon is an illuvial horizon. Calcium carbonates or other carbonates
are present to the cement horizon. These horizons represent advanced soil evolution.
Petrogypsic Horizon
The petrogypsic horizon is an illuvial horizon with 10 cm or more thickness. Gypsum is
present to the cement horizon. Roots cannot enter in this horizon except in vertical fractures.
Placic Horizon
The placic horizon is a thin, black to dark reddish pan with 2-10 mm thickness in general.
It is cemented by iron (or iron and manganese) and organic matter.
Salic Horizon
A salic horizon has high amounts of salts such as halite.
Sombric Horizon
A sombric horizon is a subsurface horizon in mineral soils. It is formed under free
drainage. It contains illuvial humus. Strong leaching occurs in this horizon, so its base
saturation is low.
Spodic Horizon
A spodic horizon is an illuvial layer with 85 percent or more spodic material. Spodic
materials contain illuvial active amorphous materials composed of organic matter and
aluminum, with or without iron. It is generally formed in pine forests.

Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

7
4. Conclusion
The soils have distinguishing characteristics that form the basis for the systematic
categorization of soils known as soil classification. Such distinguishing characteristics
mainly include the factors of soil formation and diagnostics horizons. The behavior of soil
is related to soil horizon. The diagnostic horizons can provide clues for the suitability and
utilization of the land for specific purposes. Epipedons are diagnostic horizons at or near the
land surface. Subsurface horizons are found deep in the soil profile. The world soils are
categorized into eight epipedons, or diagnostic surface horizons, and 20 diagnostic
subsurface horizons with distinct soil characteristics. The study of soil horizons universally
is recommended.

Funding statement
The research is part of author’s regular academic activities in Agriculture and Forestry
University, Nepal.

Conflicts of interest
There is no conflicts of interests to any person or institution regarding publication of this
article.

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[3] Smith, G. D. (1986). The Guy Smith interviews: Rationale for concepts in soil
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Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

8
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Academia Letters, June 2022 ©2022 by the authors – Open Access – Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Gandhiv Kafle, gkafle@afu.edu.np

Citation: Kafle, G. (2022). Diagnostic Horizons of Soils in the World. Academia Letters, Article 5757.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL5757

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