Political Science & International Relations

By: TEAM EXAMVAT

WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

• Political: derived from word ‘Polis’ – Greek term, meaning state/governance

• The ideas dealing with state, government and governance are the subject matter of
“political thought”.
• State- an administrative unit. Aristotle calls it a ‘self-sufficient community’.
• Thought: Thought refers to the thinking of an age, understanding ideas with reference to
time and space. For example: Ancient Indian Thought, Modern Western Thought.
• Theory: It aims at explaining a phenomenon, so political theory is explanation of political
phenomenon. It will have features of falsification, repeated results, etc.
• SOPHISTS AND SOCRATES
• In Athens, education was in private hands. Sophists were earliest political educators.
They were charging money for imparting/giving education.
• Because they were teaching the rich, they were only telling them what they wanted to
hear, and not what they should learn. For them, money and power are the means of good
life.
• Socrates opposed them, and said they are not doing justice with their jobs.
• They called sophists ignorant. They believe in dialectics.
SOCRATES

Greek philosopher from Athens

Founder of Western Philosophy
Considered the ‘wisest man’.
He used “dialectics” as a method of teaching.
He was accused of misleading the youth, that’s why
state ordered him to drink Hemlock (poison). He
spent his last day in prison, refusing offers to help
him escape.
Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly
through the posthumous accounts of classical writers,
particularly his students Plato and Xenophon.
“Knowledge is virtue”.
“unexamined life is not worth living”
PLATO

• founder of the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution of
higher learning in the Western world.
• Plato, whose original name is Aristocles, was interested in pursuing philosophy and
searching for the "truth”
• Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the
European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."
• Plato is considered the founder/father political philosophy.
Theory of Philosopher King
• The philosopher king is a hypothetical ruler in whom political skill is combined with
philosophical knowledge.
• Concept given in- Republic, written around 375 BC
• Plato argued that the ideal state – one which ensured the maximum possible
happiness for all its citizens – could only be brought into being by a ruler possessed of
absolute knowledge, obtained through philosophical study.
• “Until philosophers are the rulers or rulers learn philosophy, there is no end to the
predicament (problem) of human life”.
• “No law or ordinance is mightier than knowledge”.
• Philosopher king is a symbol of knowledge and sacrifice.
• Qualification: Proven ability of reason. Should have gone through 50 years of education,
and should not have a family or property.
• Power: There should be no limitation on the powers of the philosopher king because he
is the symbol of absolute knowledge. He can’t be wrong, or take wrong decisions.
• “It is foolish to limit the expert practitioner of medicine with the book of medicine”.
• He argued that neither law nor public opinion can be a match to the wisdom of
philosopher king.
• The only limitation on him is that he can’t change the constitution of the republic.
• Aristotle criticized Plato’s justification of the rule of person over rule of law. He said
“law is reason without passion”.
• Later, in his book “The Laws”, Plato accepted limitations of his ideas and re-established
the centrality of laws.

Theory of Ideas/Forms
• Plato wants to create an ideal state for which we must have the “idea of an ideal state”.
• Socrates theory of knowledge, Pythagoras theory of soul, Heraclitus and Parmenides
influenced Plato.
• For Plato, idea belongs to the spiritual world (and not material), and idea is the “perfect
manifestation of anything”.
• Since ideas can’t be seen, hence it can be understood only through the use of
reason/logic/dialectics.
Theory of Soul
• There are two parts of our body: physical and spiritual.
• Spiritual means soul.
• According to Plato, every soul has three elements:
• Reason, Courage, Passions (appetite)
• In each person, one of these traits dominate.

Theory of “Myth of Metal”

• the myth of the three metals, to illustrate his ideas as a whole.
• he myth of the three metals is based off of the story that Mother Nature invented all human
beings and created these human beings by utilizing different metals.
• The three metals utilized were gold, silver, iron or bronze. From these metals, each
person was born into the role they would presume in society.
• Gold represents the guardians, who are governed by reason, making them suitable to
rule.
• Silver depicts the auxiliaries, who are guided by spirit, suggesting them to be guards.
• The final metals are iron or bronze, which share the same traits. Iron or bronze displays
the farmers and other craftsmen, who are led by their appetites, creating the physical
laborers in the society.
• he utilizes the myth of the three metals to provide justification for the class system which
he believes will create a perfect society.
• Plato opposed democracy because it made Socrates drink poison
Allegories
• The Cave
• Ring of Gyges
• Chariot

Allegory of Caves

• Plato used allegory of caves to explain the difference between beliefs and knowledge.
• Some people are in a cave living like prisoners with their hands and foots tied so that they
can’t go out. They are chained. This chain is a symbol of reluctance.
• They are sitting facing the wall of the cave and their back towards the mouth (opening) of
the cave. This symbolizes person turning himself away from the source of knowledge.
• In the caves fire wood is burning. In the light of fire, they witness the shadow of the
objects outside on the walls of the cave.
• They consider these shadows as real. These shadows are not real rather they are ‘illusion
of reality’.
• By chance, one person becomes free, he runs out of the cave. Initially, his eyes feel pain
due to the sunlight- (resembles real knowledge), and he realizes what he was considering
real was just ‘shadows’.
• That person comes back to share his experience with others, but they don’t believe him.
They fight, and the person tries to push them outside the cave.
• Once they are pushed out, they see reality for themselves.
• Hence, “Reality is the shadow of ideas”, says PLATO.
Theory of Justice
• Plato defines justice in a broader ‘moralistic’ sense.
• In his book Republic, Plato discusses about justice using the method of dialectics.
• Plato aims at giving the ‘perfect idea of justice’.
• Plato engage various scholars, and discuss justice with them.
Cephalus
He is an old man, supporting the traditional idea of justice. He gives two features of justice.
1. Performing one’s duty
2. Paying one’s dues.
Plato’s response: Plato agrees with the first part but expects Cephalus to throw more light on his
second argument. Plato asks whether it will be right to return weapon to a person who has turned
mad.
Polymarchus
He is son of Cephalus. He tries to clarify what his father meant. Paying one’s dues means being
good to your friend and harm your enemy.
Plato’s response: Plato accepts that justice means doing good but he doesn’t accept that the idea
of justice may involve the idea of harming someone. He also suggested that is not easy to
identify who is our enemy and who is our friend.
Thrasymachus
He is a Sophists, and gives radical theory of justice.
For him, “Justice is the interest of the strong”./ “Might is Right”.
Sophists were realist in their approach, and gave primacy to individualistic in nature, and state a
creation of man. Those who are in power makes law for their own interest.
We serve our interest better when we don’t follow the law. Thus, one should follow law only
when it is necessary and avoid whenever possible.
Plato’s response: Thrasymachus is telling the reality. Plato doesn’t have any strong arguments
against him, but suggests that what “is” should not determine what “ought” to be. Might is right
in the state of nature but this logic can’t work in the society.
It is true that man is an animal but he is a ‘social animal’. Society is a necessity and society has
to be based on the principles of justice or ethics. The basis of justice/ethics is ‘reason’.
Therefore, what matters is how we live in society in the company of others and not just as
individuals. Thus, justice rather than power is the basis of society.
Glaucon
Contractual or pragmatic theory of justice. According to him, justice is the interest of the weak.
Those who are weak can’t protect themselves, hence they entered into the contract with the rich
to form the state. Rich accepted to protect them in return of their service, and the weak accepted
to serve them and not to criticize them.
Plato’s response: He has two objections: It is wrong to think that state is the product of contract;
It is wrong to believe that only weak require state. No one is self-sufficient. Rich and weak both
have to live in a society.
PLATO’S CONCEPT OF JUSTICE
“State is an individual writ large”
• Plato's theory of Justice is famously known as the Architectonic Theory of Justice. He
explains that as during the construction of a building, each part is assigned to different
artisans, but the architect combines it to contribute to the final outlay of the building and
add to its splendour.
• Similarly, the three cardinal virtues, namely Temperance, Courage, and Wisdom, would
be cultivated by Traders, Soldiers and Philosopher class, respectively, and Justice, the
fourth virtue, would act as the architect establishing a perfect state.
• Finding out the principles of justice is the main concern in Plato's Republic, to the extent
that it is also subtitled as ‘Concerning Justice’
• Plato's idea of justice believes that just individuals and just society are interwoven. To
further understand Plato's theory of justice and its essence, it is important first to solve
the issue of selecting the best ruler for the state. According to his argument,
statesmanship is a special function and can only be performed by qualified persons with a
moral character.
• Plato believed in "Like Man, Like State", implying that the character of the state is
dependent on the character of its citizens.
• Plato characterises human behaviour in three main sources:
➢ Desire (or Appetite)
➢ Emotion (or Spirit)
➢ Knowledge (or Intellect)
• Each human being has all three emotions but what varies is the degree to which these
emotions are present in them. According to Plato, the ones who are restless and rapacious
are fit for trade. Others who are driven by their emotion or spirit are best suited to
become soldiers. Lastly, there are few who find no pleasure in worldly pursuits or victory
and are satisfied in mediation. Such beings yearn to learn, and they are always in search
of truth, and according to Plato, only these men of wisdom are fit to rule.
• Justice: the virtue of state
• In his idea of justice, Plato identifies virtues that suit each social class.
• The social class of traders, whose dominant trait is desire, the befitting virtue of traders is
TEMPERANCE.
 • The social class of soldiers, whose dominant trait is spirit or emotion, the befitting virtue
of soldiers is COURAGE.
• The social class of Philosophers, whose dominant trait is knowledge or intellect, the
befitting virtue of Philosophers, is WISDOM.
• The virtue that befits the state is JUSTICE which creates harmony in all the three social
classes and is a necessary condition for human happiness.
• The first three virtues belong to the respective three social classes, but the fourth virtue is
a manifestation of harmony between all the three classes. These four virtues are also
referred to as the four Cardinal Virtues of Plato's theory of Justice.
PLATO’S THEORY OF EDUCATION
To find out who has what quality, Plato gives a defined theory of education, where merit is not
based on birth. Hence, anyone based on merit and not n birth can be the Philosopher King.
• He favored education that is not privatized, and supported state sponsored education that
was there in Sparta.
• He supported Spartan system with strict state oversight on education.
• State should ensure that right values are taught in the schools, that help people achieve
good life.
• He even suggested education for women, and advocated for philosopher queen. Hence,
first feminist scholar of the time.
• He wanted education to be a mixture of various traditions, skills and subjects. He was
also impressed with the military education found in Sparta.
PLATO’S SCHEME OF EDUCATION
• 1st Stage: Primary education 0 to 6 years
This should have Gymnastics (physical development), Music (exercise of mind), and Moral
stories (character building).
• 2nd Stage: Secondary Education 7 to 20 years
This should have all general subjects to impart basic knowledge.
• 1st Screening 20 years
Those who passed the test will go for higher education, rest will join the bronze/producer’s class.
• 3rd Stage – 20 years to 30 Years : Higher Education
• 2nd Screening
Those who passed will go for further learning, and the rest will join the soldiers class/silver class.
• 4th stage: 30 years to 50years
➢ 1st stage: 30 to 35 years, person will be taught dialectics.
➢ 2nd Stage: 35 to 50 years, 15 years of practical learning and training.
Finally, at the age of 50, a person becomes a philosopher.
Since many people will become philosopher, to find the philosopher king, Plato suggests the
following.
According to him, philosophers are not eager to govern because they don’t have the lust/greed
for power. Hence, they will accept becoming ruler as a part of their obligation towards the state.
Hence, philosopher is not just a symbol of knowledge, he is a symbol of sacrifice.
“Those states are best governed where rulers are reluctant to govern rather where they are eager
to govern”.
PLATO’S THEORY OF COMMUNISM
Plato proposed communism of Property, family and wife.

• Plato’s communism is meant only for guardian class, which included philosophers, rulers,
auxiliaries and soldiers.
• In Plato’s division of labour only guarding class have real power. That is power to make
laws and the power of military. Hence, we can only they have the capacity to misuse their
authority for gaining property.
• Since producers don’t have the power, it is not possible for them to do corruption for
property.
• Plato thinks that family is the biggest reason why people would want to accumulate
property by doing corruption. Hence he proposed communism of family for guardians
class for the same reason.
• Plato saw family as the source of influence for desires. Hence, he proposed that guardians
should not be allowed to have family of their own.
• Eugenic Purpose:
• To produce chain of future rulers Plato proposed that mating of guardians should be
regulated by the state. state will select guardians who will be allowed to have kids. All
this happens outside of the family system.
• Once the children are born, they will be taken away by the state for future education.
Guardians will not know who their children are. Similarly, the children will not know
who their parents are.
• Since rulers didn’t know who their family are they will treat the state and society as their
family and hence they can’t act for their own self interest at the cost of the society.
Because, society is their family now.
Plato as a Fascist:

• Plato’s state is absolute.

• Citizens have no rights only duties.
• Citizens were expected to obey the philosopher king without any objection.
• A society based on class.
• State censorship on education.
Plato as an enemy of open society: Karl Popper
• Popper’s book : Open Society and its enemies
• Volume 1 titled “spell of Plato”
• Pointed at the dangerous totalitarian tendencies in Plato
• Following three reasons he give:
1. Holism – Collective state over individual. For eg. Race important than Individual
(Hitler)
2. Essentialism: Essence of idea. This will always divert the attention from the real
problems. His ideas are utopian.
3. Historicism: Political use of History. Used history, ideas, philosophy to justify his
ideas.
Plato Law of Decay
For history, in Plato's view, was governed by an iron law, the iron law of de- generation and
decay. All historical change was change for the worse, and there was nothing that any human
being could do about the matter, except perhaps to arrest the process at some particular point.
According to Plato, ideal state will decay into rule of courage (timocracy), then into rule of rich
(oligarchy/aristocracy), then to the rule of poor (democracy).