MAGNETISM

Comparison between Electrostates and Magnetism

Electrostates Magnetism
1. Charge : q 1. Pole strength: m or qm

2. Coulomb’s law : 2. Coulomb’s law :

3. Force on charge: 3. Force on charge:

4. Electric field due to point charge: 4. Magnetic field due to pole:

5. Electric dipole moment: p = 2aq 5. Magnetic dipole moment: M = 2 m

6. Torque on Electric dipole: 𝜏⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗

𝑝 6. Torque on Magnetic dipole: 𝜏⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀 × ⃗⃗⃗
7. Work done in rotation of electric dipole 7. Work done in rotation of magnetic dipole
𝑝 ( ) 𝑀 ( )

8. Potential energy of electric dipole 8. Potential energy of magnetic dipole

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑝 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗
9. Electric field due to electric dipole: 9. Magnetic field due to magnetic dipole:
(i) At axial point (i) At axial point
𝑝 𝑀
( −𝑎 ) ( −𝑙 )

If r >> 𝑎 i.e. for a very electric dipole. If r >> i.e. for a very short bar magnet.
𝑝 𝑀
3 3

(ii) At equatorial point (ii) At equatorial point

𝑝 𝑀
( +𝑎 )3/ ( +𝑙 )3/

If r >> 𝑎 ie for a very electric dipole, If r >> ie for a very short bar magnet,
𝑝 𝑀
3
3

10. Gauss’s law 10. Gauss’s law

⃗ ∮ ⃗⃗ ⃗
∮⃗
Bar magnet equivalent to solenoid :

Cause of magnetism in matter:

Every matter consists many atoms and every atom is having revolving electrons. These electrons behave, like
current carrying loops, so that each loop behaves like magnetic dipole.

Note :

1. Cause of magnetic moment inside an atom

 Orbital motion of electron: Major contribution

 Spinning motion of electron :

 Magnetic moment of nucleus:
2. In atoms of some elements. The magnetic moment of electron gets cancelled due to clockwise and
anticlockwise motion of pair of electrons so that they behave like Diamagnetic.

Ex. He -: 1s2

3. But in atoms of some elements (Atomic dipole), magnetic moments of electrons do not cancel due to unpair
of electron so that they behave like Paramagnetic or Ferromagnetic substance.
4. In matter due to absence of external magnetic field the net magnetic moment will be zero (⃗⃗⃗ ).

5. On application of an external magnetic field, a torque acts on magnetic dipoles and

this torque align maximum dipoles in the direction of external magnetic field. So
that the net magnetic moment will not equal to zero.
Alignment can be increased:
 By decreasing temperature
 By applying strong external magnetic field

Various Terms Related to Magnetism:

1. Magnetic field and magnetic lines of force : Space around a magnetic pole or magnet or current carrying
wire within which it's effect can be experienced is defined as magnetic field. Magnetic field can be
represented with the help of a set of lines or curves called magnetic lines of force.

N S S N

(A) Isolated north pole (B) Isolated south pole (C) Magnetic dipole

Properties of Magnetic field lines:

(i) They are closed curves, starting from north pole, which after travelling in air enters again at south pole
and continues through the body of the magnet to the north pole.
(ii) Tangent to the magnetic field line gives the direction of magnetic field intensity.
(iii) Magnetic field lines can never intersect each other since at point of intersection; two intersecting
field lines, giving two directions of magnetic field intensity, which is not possible.
 (iv) Spacing of magnetic field lines in space tells about the strength of magnetic field at that lines
indicate strong magnetic field intensity.
(v) They start normally from a surface and also end at a surface normally.
(vi) They behave like stretched, elastic threads and tend to decrease in length (longitudinal contraction).
They repel each other sideways (lateral repulsion)
2. Magnetic flux () and flux density (B):
(i) The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through a surface is defined as magnetic
flux (). It's S.I. unit is weber (wb) and CGS unit is Maxwell.
Remember 1 wb = 108 Maxwell.
(ii) When a piece of a magnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field the substance becomes
magnetised. The number of magnetic lines of induction inside a magnetised substance crossing unit
area normal to their direction is called magnetic induction or magnetic flux density (B). It is a vector
quantity.

S N

wb N J volt  sec
It's SI unit is Tesla which is equal to    and CGS unit is Gauss.
m 2
amp  m amp  m 2
m2
Remember 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss.
3. Magnetic permeability : It is the degree or extent to which magnetic lines of force can enter a substance
and is denoted by . Or characteristic of a medium which allows magnetic flux to pass through it is called
it's permeability. e.g. permeability of soft iron is 1000 times greater than that of air.

In air In soft iron

(A) (B)

Also  =  0  r ; where  0  absolute permeability of air or free space = 4 10 7 tesla  m / amp.
B flux density in material
and  r  Relative permeability of the medium =  .
B0 flux density in vacuum
4. Intensity of magnetising field ⃗⃗ (magnetising field) : It is the degree or extent to which a magnetic field
can magnetise a substance. Also

Bext
H

 N N J J
It's SI unit is A / m.    3  It's CGS unit is Oersted. Also 1 Oersted
m  Tesla wb m  Tesla m  wb
2

= 80 A/m
5. Intensity of magnetisation (I) : It is the degree to which a substance is magnetised when placed in a
magnetic field.
It can also be defined as the pole strength per unit cross sectional area of the substance or the induced
m M
dipole moment per unit volume. Hence I =  . It is a vector quantity, it's S.I. unit is Amp/m.
A V

6. Magnetic susceptibility () : It is the property of the substance which shows how easily a substance can
be magnetised. It can also be defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) in a substance to the
I
magnetic intensity (H) applied to the substance, i.e.   . It is a scalar quantity with no units and
H
dimensions.
7. Relation between permeability and susceptibility : Total magnetic flux density B in a material is the
sum of magnetic flux density in vacuum Bext produced by magnetising force and magnetic flux density due
to magnetisation of material Bin . i.e.
B  Bext  Bin
 B   0 H   0 I   0 ( H  I )   0 H (1   ) .
Also r  (1   )

Magnetic Materials:
On the basis of mutual interactions or behavior of various materials in an external magnetic field, the
materials are divided in three main categories.
(1) Diamagnetic materials: Diamagnetism is the intrinsic property of every material and it is generated due to
mutual interaction between the applied magnetic field and orbital motion of electrons. The weekly repelled
in external magnetic field ( ) and intensity of magnetization (⃗⃗⃗ ) occurs opposite to magnetizing field
Intensity(⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ). So that I and H will be opposite to each other.

  , is very small and negative.
  , is slightly less than 1.
(2) Paramagnetic materials: In these substances the inner orbits of atoms are incomplete. The electron spins
are uncoupled, consequently on applying a magnetic field the magnetic moment generated due to spin
motion align in the direction of magnetic field and induces magnetic moment in its direction due to which
the material gets feebly magnetised. In these materials the electron number is odd.
The weekly attracted in external magnetic field ( ) and intensity of magnetization (⃗⃗⃗ ) occurs in the
direction of magnetizing field Intensity (⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ). So that I and H will be in same direction to each other.

  , is very small and positive.
 , is slightly greater than 1.

(A) (B)
When no field is applied
On application of field
(3) Ferromagnetic materials: They strongly attracted in external magnetic field and in this the atomic dipoles
interact with each other in such a way that they spontaneously align in the same direction in small volumes
are called domains.
In every unmagnetised ferromagnetic material, the atoms form domains inside the material. Different
domains, however, have different directions of magnetic moment and hence the materials remain
unmagnetised. On applying an external magnetic field, these domains rotate and align in the direction of
magnetic field.
  , is very large and positive ( ).
 , is very large ( ).

Curie Law: The magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic substances is inversely proportional to its absolute
1 C
temperature i.e.      ; where C = Curie constant, T = absolute temperature.
T T
On increasing temperature, the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic materials decreases and vice versa. The
magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic substances does not change according to Curie law.
Curie temperature (Tc) : The temperature above which a ferromagnetic material behaves like a paramagnetic
material is defined as Curie temperature (Tc).
or
The minimum temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance is converted into paramagnetic substance
is defined as Curie temperature. For various ferromagnetic materials its values are different, e.g. for Ni,
TCNi  358o C for Fe, TCFe  770o C
for CO, TCCO  1120 o C
At this temperature the ferromagnetism of the substances suddenly vanishes.
Curie-Weiss law: At temperatures above Curie temperature the magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic
materials is inversely proportional to (T – Tc)
1 
i.e.  
T  Tc
C
 
(T  Tc )
TC T
Here Tc = Curie temperature
-T curve is shown (for Curie-Weiss Law)

DIAMAGNETIC
1. Diamagnetic substances are
those substances which are
feebly repelled by a magnet.
Eg. Antimony, Bismuth,
Copper,
Gold,Silver,Quartz,
Mercury,
Alcohol, water, Hydrogen,
Air, Argon, etc.
2. When placed in magnetic
field, the lines of force tend to
avoid the substance.
3. When placed in non-uniform
magnetic field, it moves from
stronger to weaker field (feeble
repulsion).
4. When a diamagnetic rod is
freely suspended in a uniform
magnetic field, it aligns itself
in a direction perpendicular to
the field.
Properties of magnetic substances:
PARAMAGNETIC
Paramagnetic substances are
those substances which are
feebly attracted by a magnet.
Eg. Aluminium, Chromium,
Alkali and Alkaline earth
metals, Platinum, Oxygen, etc.
The lines of force prefer to pass
through the substance rather
than air.
When placed in non-uniform
magnetic field, it moves from
weaker to stronger field (feeble
attraction).
When a paramagnetic rod is
freely suspended in a uniform
magnetic field, it aligns itself in
a direction parallel to the field.
FERROMAGNETIC
Ferromagnetic substances are
those substances which are
strongly attracted by a magnet.
Eg. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
Gadolinium, Dysprosium, etc.
The lines of force tend to crowd
into the specimen.
When placed in non-uniform
magnetic field, it moves from
weaker to stronger field (strong
attraction).
When a Ferromagnetic rod is freely
suspended in a uniform magnetic
field, it aligns itself in a direction
parallel to the field very quickly.
5. If diamagnetic liquid taken
in a watch glass is placed in
uniform magnetic field, it
collects away from the centre
when the magnetic poles are
closer and collects at the centre
when the magnetic poles are
farther.
6. Induced Dipole Moment
(M) is a small – ve value.
7. Intensity of Magnetisation
(I) has a small – ve value.
8. Intensity of Magnetisation
(I) has a small – ve value.
9. Magnetic permeability μ is
always less than unity.
10. Magnetic susceptibility cm
has a small – ve value.
11. They do not obey Curie’s
Law. i.e. their properties do not
change with temperature.
If paramagnetic liquid taken in
a watch glass is placed in
uniform magnetic field, it
collects at the centre when the
magnetic poles are closer and
collects away from the centre
when the magnetic poles are
farther.
Induced Dipole Moment (M) is
a small + ve value.
Intensity of Magnetisation (I)
has a small + ve value.
Intensity of Magnetisation (I)
has a small + ve value.
Magnetic permeability μ is
more than unity.
Magnetic susceptibility cm has a
small + ve value.
They obey Curie’s Law. They
lose their magnetic properties
with rise in temperature.
If ferromagnetic liquid taken in a
watch glass is placed in uniform
magnetic field, it collects at the
centre when the magnetic poles are
closer and collects away from the
centre when the magnetic poles are
farther.
Induced Dipole Moment (M) is a
large + ve value.
Intensity of Magnetisation (I) has a
large + ve value.
Intensity of Magnetisation (I) has a
large + ve value.
Magnetic permeability μ is large
i.e. much more than unity.
Magnetic susceptibility cm has a
large + ve value.
They obey Curie’s Law. At a
certain temperature called Curie
Point, they lose ferromagnetic
properties and behave like
paramagnetic substances.
Hysteresis Curve: For ferromagnetic materials, by removing external magnetic field i.e. H = 0. The magnetic
moment of some domains remain aligned in the applied direction of previous magnetising field which results
into a residual magnetism. The lack of retracibility as shown in figure is called hysteresis and the curve is
known as Hysteresis loop.
(1) Retentivity: When H is reduced, I reduces but is not zero when H = 0. The remainder value OC of
magnetisation when H = 0 is called the residual magnetism or retentivity.
The property by virtue of which the magnetism ( ) remains in a material even on the removal of magnetising
field is called Retentivity or Residual magnetism.
I or (B)
C B
A

D O G H

F
E

(2) Corecivity or corecive force: It

is amount of magnetic intensity (H) required to demagnetize a material. When magnetic field H is reversed,
the magnetisation decreases and for a particular value of H, denoted by Hc, it becomes zero i.e., Hc = OD
when I = 0. This value of H is called the Corecivity.
Magnetic hard substance (steel)  High Corecivity
Magnetic soft substance (soft iron)  Low Corecivity
(3) When field H is further increased in reverse direction, the intensity of magnetisation attains saturation value
in reverse direction (i.e. point E)
(4) When H is decreased to zero and changed direction in steps, we get the part EFGB. Thus complete cycle of
magnetisation and demagnetisation is represented by BCDEFGB. This curve is known as hysteresis curve.
Soft iron Steel

I
I

H H

The area of hysteresis loop is less (low Energy loss) The area of hysteresis loop is large (high energy loss)
Less retentivity and corecive force More retentivity and corecive force
Magnetic permeability is high Magnetic permeability is less
I and  both are high I and  both are low
It magnetised and demagnetised easily Magnetisation and demagnetisation is not easy
Used in dynamo, transformer, electromagnet Used for making permanent magnet.
tape recorder and tapes etc.