Understand that chromosomes contain DNA, which carries genetic information in

the form of genes

Describe a haploid nucleus as a nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes

3 Describe a diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes
A diploid cell has two complete sets of chromosomes. Most cells in humans are diploid,
comprising 23 chromosome pairs, so 46 chromosomes in total. This is 22 pairs of
autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. One copy of each chromosome pair came
from the individual's mother and the other from the individual's father

Mitosis
 Most body cells have two copies of each chromosome
 We describe these cells as diploid
 When cells divide their chromosomes double beforehand
 This ensures that when the cell splits in two, each new cell still has two copies of
each chromosome (is still diploid)
 This type of cell division is used for growth, repair of damaged tissues,
replacement of cells and asexual reproduction and is known as mitosis
 Mitosis is defined as nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
The process of cell division by mitosis
Process:

 Just before mitosis, each chromosome in the nucleus copies itself exactly (forms
x - shaped chromosomes)
 Chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell where cell fibers pull them
apart
 The cell divides into two; each new cell has a copy of each of the chromosomes

Importance:

 All cells in the body (excluding gametes) are produced by mitosis of the zygote
 Mitosis is important for replacing cells e.g, skin cells, red blood cells and for
allowing growth (production of new cells e.g. when a zygote divides to form an
embryo)

Occurs in:

 Growth: mitosis produces new cells

 Repair: to replace damaged or dead cells
 Asexual reproduction: mitosis produces offspring that are genetically identical to
the parent

Mitosis & Stem Cells

 Many tissues in the human body contain a small number of unspecialised cells
 These are called stem cells and their function is to divide by mitosis
and produce new daughter cells that can become specialised within the
tissue and be used for different functions
 The ultimate stem cell is the zygote
o A zygote divides several times by mitosis to become a ball of
unspecialised cells (around 200-300 cells)
 These are embryonic stem cells
o These cells are all the same and start differentiating as the fetus develops
with recognisable features
o
 Meiosis
 Meiosis is a type of nuclear division that gives rise to cells that are genetically
different
 It is used to produce the gametes (sex cells)

 The number of chromosomes must be halved when the gametes (sex cells) are
formed
 Otherwise there would be double the number of chromosomes after they join at
fertilisation in the zygote (fertilized egg)
 This halving occurs during meiosis, and so it is described as a reduction
division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid,
resulting in genetically different cells
 It starts with chromosomes doubling themselves as in mitosis and lining up in the
centre of the cell
 After this has happened the cells divide twice so that only one copy of each
chromosome passes to each gamete
 We describe gametes as being haploid - having half the normal number of
chromosomes
 Because of this double division, meiosis produces four haploid cells
The process of cell division by meiosis to produce haploid gamete cells
Process:

 Each chromosome makes identical copies of itself (forming X-shaped

chromosomes)
 First division: chromosomes pair up along the centre of the cell, recombination
occurs and then cell fibres will pull the pairs apart, each new cell will have one of
each recombinant chromosome pair
 Second division: chromosomes will line up along the centre of the cell, cell fibres
will pull them apart (as with mitosis)
 A total of four haploid daughter cells will be produced

Importance:

 Production of gametes e.g. sperm cells and egg cells, pollen grains and ovum
 Increases genetic variation of offspring

 Meiosis produces variation by forming new combinations of maternal and

paternal chromosomes every time a gamete is made, meaning that when
gametes fuse randomly at fertilisation, each offspring will be different from any
others

Differences between Mitosis & Meiosis

 Uncontrolled Cell Division & Cancer
 Cancers demonstrate how important it is that cell division is precisely controlled, as
cancers arise due to uncontrolled mitosis
 Cancerous cells divide repeatedly and uncontrollably, forming a tumour (an irregular
mass of cells)
 Cancers start when changes occur in the genes that control cell division. A change
in any gene is known as a mutation. If the mutated gene is one that causes cancer it is
referred to as an oncogene
o Mutations are common events and don’t lead to cancer most of the time
o Most mutations either result in early cell death or result in the cell being
destroyed by the body’s immune system
o As most cells can be easily replaced, these events usually have no harmful effect
on the body
 The mutations that result in the generation of cancerous cells do not result in early cell
death or in the cell being destroyed by the body’s immune system
 This means that the harmful mutation occurring in the original cell can be passed on to
all that cell’s descendants
 A typical tumour contains around a thousand million cancerous cells by the time it is
detected

 Carcinogens are any agents that may cause cancer (eg. UV light, tar in tobacco smoke
and X-rays). If the agent causes cancer it is described as carcinogenic
 Some tumours (such as warts) do not spread from their original site – these are known
as benign tumours and do not cause cancer
 Some tumours spread through the body, invading and destroying other tissues – these
are known as malignant tumours and cause cancer
o Malignant tumours interfere with the normal functioning of the organ / tissue in
which they have started to grow (eg. they may block the intestines, lungs or
blood vessels
o Malignant tumour cells can break off the tumour and travel through the blood
and / or lymphatic system to form secondary growths in other parts of the
body
o The spreading of cancers in this way is known as metastasis
o Metastasis is very dangerous as it can be very difficult to detect, locate and
remove secondary cancers
 Stages in the development of cancer

Cancer treatments

 Almost half of all people with cancer possess a mutated p53 gene
o This is a gene that helps to control cell growth
 However, there are also many other reasons why the control of cell division
deteriorates
o This means that there is no single effective treatment for individuals suffering
from cancer
 Most current cancer treatments/drugs work by controlling the rate of mitosis
o Methotrexate - inhibits the synthesis of DNA nucleotides in cells
o Vincristine and taxol - prevent the formation of the mitotic spindle