Lecture 5

General Physics, Phys1011
Lecture V: Oscillations, Waves and

Optics
by
Lbelo Ashebir
Department of Physics
Samara University
Samara, Ethiopia
July 13, 2021

Simple Harmonic Motion The simple Pendulum Wave and Its Characteristics Resonance The Doppler Effect Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors
OUTLINE
1 Simple Harmonic Motion
2 The simple Pendulum
3 Wave and Its Characteristics
4 Resonance
5 The Doppler Effect
6 Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Simple Harmonic Motion
Introduction
An oscillation is a disturbance in a physical system that is

repetitive in time.
A wave is a disturbance in an extended physical system that is
both repetitive in time and periodic in space.
In general, an oscillation involves a continuous back and forth
flow of energy between two different energy types: e.g., kinetic
and potential energy, in the case of a pendulum.
A wave involves similar repetitive energy flows to an oscillation,
but , in addition, is capable of transmitting energy and
information from place to place.
Now, although sound waves and electromagnetic waves, for
example, rely on quite distinct physical mechanisms, they,
nevertheless, share many common properties.
The same is true of different types of oscillation.
Periodic and Oscillatory Motion
If an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth over the same

path, each cycle taking the same amount of time, the motion is
called periodic.
The mass and spring system is a useful model for a periodic
system.
The periodic motion in which there is existence of a restoring
force and the body moves along the same path to and fro about
a definite point, equilibrium position, is called oscillatory motion.
There are two types of oscillatory motion:
1 Linear oscillation: E.g. mass spring system, fluid column in a
U-tube, floating cylinder, body dropped in a tunnel along earth
diameter, strings of musical instruments.
2 Circular oscillation: E.g. simple pendulum, solid sphere in a
cylinder, circular ring suspended on a nail, balance wheel of a
clock, Rotation of the earth around the sun.
Periodic and Oscillatory Motion
Oscillatory systems are of two types,

1 Mechanical oscillatory system: In this type of system a body
itself changes its position. For mechanical oscillation two things are
especially responsible, inertia and restoring force.
2 Non-mechanical oscillatory system: In this type of system, the
body itself doesn’t change its position but its physical property
varies periodically.
Period (T): is the time required to complete one full cycle of
vibration or oscillation.
Frequency (f): The frequency is the number of complete
oscillations or cycles per unit time. The frequency of wave is
given by: f = 1/T
Amplitude (A): is the maximum displacement of the oscillator
from the equilibrium position.
Angular frequency(ω) is 2π times the frequency: ω= 2πf.
Simple harmonic motion is a special kind of periodic motion

when the force acting on an object is proportional to the position
of the object relative to some equilibrium position.
Assume that the surface is frictionless.
There is a point where the spring is neither stretched nor
compressed;this is the equilibrium position.
The force exerted by the spring depends on the displacement:
F = −kx (Hook 0 s Law)
Minus sign indicates that a restoring force that is directed to
restore mass to its equilibrium position and k is spring constant.
From Newton’s 2nd law; F=ma, applied to the block gives:

−kx = ma ⇒ a = −(k /m)x = −ω 2 x
Where k is the spring constant or stiffness factor and ω is the
angular frequency of the oscillator.
Not all periodic motions over the same path can be classified as
simple harmonic motion.
Characteristics of SHM:
The amplitude A is constant.
The frequency and period are independent of the amplitude.
Fluctuating quantity can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal
function of a single frequency.
For SHM to occur,
there must be a stable equilibrium position
there must be no dissipation of energy the acceleration is
proportional to the displacement and opposite in direction.
For a particle in spring system period and frequency is given by;
r r
m 1 k
T = 2π and f =
k 2π m
Displacement in a SHM
x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)
p
Where A is amplitude, ω (angular frequency)= (k /m) and φ is
phase constants (initial phase angle).
Velocity in a SHM
dx d
= A cos(ωt + φ) = −ωA sin(ωt + φ)
dt dt
Maximum velocity occurs at equilibrium position with vmax = ωA.
Acceleration in a SHM
d 2x d
= −ωA sin(ωt + φ) = −ω 2 A cos(ωt + φ)
dt 2 dt
Maximum acceleration is observed at x = 21 A; amax = ω 2 A.

The simple Pendulum
The simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is another mechanical system that exhibits

periodic motion.
It consists of a small bob of mass m suspended by a light string
of length L fixed at its upper end, as shown in Figure
The pendulum bob moves along a circular arc, rather than back
and forth in a straight line.
When the oscillations are small, however, the motion of the bob
is nearly straight, so Hooke’s law may apply approximately.
The tangential component is a restoring force,
d 2s
Ft = −mg sin θ = m
dt 2
The simple Pendulum
The simple Pendulum
Where s is bob’s position measured along the arc and negative

sign indicates that tangential force acts toward equilibrium
(vertical) position. Because s = θL, and L is constant, this
equation reduces to
d 2θ g
= − sin θ
dt 2 L
However, if we assume that θ is small, we can use the
approximation sin θ = θ thus, in this approximation, the equation
of motion for the simple pendulum becomes;
r
g
ω=
L
The period of the motion is;
r s
2π L
T = = 2π
ω g
The simple Pendulum
The simple Pendulum
The above equation reveals somewhat surprising result that the

period of a simple pendulum doesn’t depend on the mass, but
only on the pendulum’s length and on the free-fall acceleration.
Further, the amplitude of the motion isn’t a factor as long as it’s
relatively small.
Geophysicists often make use of the simple pendulum when
prospecting for oil or minerals.
Deposits beneath the Earth’s surface can produce irregularities
in the free-fall acceleration over the region being studied.
A specially designed pendulum of known length is used to
measure the period, which in turn is used to calculate g.
Although such a measurement in itself is inconclusive, it’s an
important tool for geological surveys.
The simple Pendulum
Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
In the absence of friction, the total energy of a block-spring

system is constant and equal to the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies.
The kinetic energy of the block as:
1 1
mv 2 = mω 2 A2 sin2 (ωt + φ)
K =
2 2
1 2 1
Kmax = mvmax = mω 2 A2 .
2 2
The elastic potential energy stored in the spring;
1 2 1
kx = kA2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
U=
2 2
The total mechanical energy of the simple harmonic oscillator as;
1 2 1
E =K +U = kA (sin2 (ωt + φ) + cos2 (ωt + φ)) ⇒ E = kA2 .
2 2
The simple Pendulum
Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Finally, we can use the principle of conservation of energy to

obtain the velocity for an arbitrary position by expressing the total
energy at some arbitrary position x as;
1 1 1
E = K + U = mv 2 + kx 2 = kA2
r 2 2 2
1 k 2 1
q
v= (A − x 2 ) = ω (A2 − x 2 ).
2 m 2
Exercise: A 0.500-kg cart connected to a light spring for which
the force constant is 20.0 N/m oscillates on a horizontal,
frictionless air track.
(A) Calculate the total energy of the system and the maximum
speed of the cart if the amplitude of the motion is 3.00 cm.
(B) What is the velocity of the cart when the position is 2.00 cm?
(C) Compute the kinetic and potential energies of the system
when the position is 2.00 cm.
Wave and Its Characteristics
Wave is a disturbance from normal or equilibrium condition that

travels, or propagates, carrying energy and momentum through
space without the transport of matter.
Pulse is a single disturbance traveling into a medium.
The world is full of waves, the two main types being mechanical
waves and electromagnetic waves based on the need of material
medium for its propagation.
Mechanical Waves- waves produced by oscillation of particles
of mechanical medium and need medium for propagation. E.g.
water waves, sound wave and waves in strings etc.
All mechanical waves require:
some source of disturbance
a medium that can be disturbed and
physical medium through which elements of the medium can
influence each other.
Electromagnetic (EM) waves- produced by accelerated
charged particles and can propagate through both medium and
vacuum. E.g. Light, radio and television waves, micro waves,
x-rays, etc
Waves can either move in space (e.g. water waves), the so

called traveling waves, or be stationary in an enclosure, the so
called standing waves.
Waves can also be categorized as transverse and longitudinal
waves based on the way they are propagating.
Transverse wave: a traveling wave or pulse that causes the
elements of the disturbed medium to move perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. E.g. water waves, waves on strings,
and all EM waves.
Longitudinal wave: a traveling wave or pulse that causes the
elements of the medium to move parallel to the direction of
propagation. E.g. Sound waves.
Sinusoidal waves
Crests/Troughs: are positions in a wave with maximum

displacements above/below the equilibrium position.
Amplitude(A): is the maximum displacement from the
equilibrium position.
Displacement(y): is position of a wave from equilibrium position
at any time.
Wave length (λ): distance between any two consecutive points
which are in phase.
Period (T): is the time taken by a wave to move one wave length.
Frequency (f): number of oscillations performed per unit time.
Speed (v): is constant in a medium provided the medium is
homogeneous.
Wave travels a distance of one wavelength in one period. So,
wave speed, wavelength, and period are related by expression
λ
v=
T
Sinusoidal waves
2π
The angular wave number k and the angular frequency ω; k = λ
and ω = 2π
T
Speed of a sinusoidal wave; v = ωk and v = 2π
f .
Resonance
Resonance
Damped oscillator: when the retarding force is small, the

oscillatory character of the motion is preserved but the amplitude
decreases in time, with the result that the motion ultimately
ceases.
A system capable of oscillating is said to be in resonance with
some driving force whenever the frequency of the driving force
matches one of the natural frequencies of the system. When the
system is resonating, it oscillates with maximum amplitude.
The best examples of resonance can be observed in various
musical instruments around us.
A classic example of resonance is the swinging of a person
sitting on a swing.
The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is described as the effect produced by a

moving source of waves in which there is an apparent upward
shift in frequency for observers towards whom the source is
approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency for
observers from whom the source is receding.
Let: fo = frequency heard by the observer and fs = frequency
emitted by the source.
Let: vo , v, and vs respectively be velocities of the observer, sound
wave and the source.
The observed frequency due to Doppler Effect is:
v ± vo
fo = fs ( )
v ∓ vs
"Upper" signs (+vo and -vs ) is motion of one towards the other.
"Lower" signs (-vo and +vs ) is motion of one away from the other.
Toward is associated with an increase in observed frequency.
Away from are associated with a decrease in observed
frequency.
The Doppler Effect
Characteristics of Waves
Reflection of Waves:- Whenever a traveling wave reaches a

boundary, part or all of the wave bounces back. This
phenomenon (rebounding of wave from a surface) is called
reflection.
Refraction of wave: - It is the change in direction of a wave
passing from one medium to another caused by its change in
speed.
Diffraction of wave:- It is the spreading of waves around
obstacles.
Interference of wave: - It is the net effect of the combination of
two or more wave trains moving on intersecting or coincident
paths. The effect is that of the addition of the amplitudes of the
individual waves at each point affected by more than one wave.
Interference also occurs between two wave trains moving in the
same direction but having different wavelengths or frequencies.
Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors
Images Formed by plane Mirrors
If the reflecting surface of the mirror is flat then we call this type
of mirror as plane mirror.
Images are located either at a point from which rays of light
actually diverge or at a point from which they appear to diverge.
1 A real image is formed when light rays pass through and diverge
from the image point.
2 A virtual image is formed when light rays do not pass through
image point but only appear to diverge from that point.
Nature image is always virtual, laterally inverted ,same size as
object and formed behind the mirror.
Reading assignment:- the position and nature of the image
formed by concave and convex mirror.
Images formed by Lenses
Lenses are commonly used to form images by refraction in

optical instruments, such as cameras, telescopes, and
microscopes.
A lens is a part of a transparent thick glass which is bounded by
two spherical surfaces and an optical system with two refracting
surfaces.
The two types of lenses are convex and concave lenses.
1 Convex lenses: converging lenses thickest at their center and
converge a beam of parallel light to real focus.
2 Concave lenses: diverging lenses thinnest at their center and
diverge a beam of parallel light from a virtual focus.
Images formed by Lenses
focal length (f): The distance from the focal point to the lens.
Thin lens formula and magnification(m) is given by;
1 1 1 hi si
= + and m = =
f so si ho so
Images formed by Convex Lenses
Position and the Nature of the image formed by convex lens:

When object is at infinity, then image is real, inverted, diminished
and formed at F2
When object is beyond 2F1 ,then image is real, inverted,
diminished and formed between 2F2 and F2 .
When object is at 2F1 , then image is real, inverted, same size
and formed at 2F2 .
When object is 2F1 and F1 , then image is real, inverted, enlarged
and formed beyond 2F2 .
When object is at F1 , then image is real, inverted, enlarged and
formed at infinity.
When object is between F1 and lens, then image is virtual, erect
,enlarged and formed on same side as object.
Images formed by Concave Lenses
Reading assignment:
The position and the nature of the image formed by concave lens
by using ray tracing method and thin lens formula?
Tutor Marked Assignment
1 An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x

axis. Its position varies with time according to the equation
x = 4.00m cos πt + π4 where t is in seconds and the angles in the
parentheses are in radians.
a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, and period of the motion.
b) Calculate velocity and acceleration of object at any time t.
c) Using the results of part (b), determine the position, velocity,
and acceleration of the object at t = 1.00 s.
d) Determine maximum speed and acceleration of object.
2 A rock swings in a circle at constant speed on the end on a
string, making 50 revolutions in 30sec. What is the frequency
and the period for this motion?
3 A butcher throws a cut of beef on spring scales which oscillates
about the equilibrium position with a period of T = 0.500 s. The
amplitude of the vibration is A = 2.00 cm (path length 4.00 cm).
Find: a) frequency, b) maximum acceleration and velocity
THANK YOU!

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General Physics, Phys1011

Lecture V: Oscillations, Waves and

July 13, 2021

1 Simple Harmonic Motion

2 The simple Pendulum

3 Wave and Its Characteristics

5 The Doppler Effect

6 Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Simple Harmonic Motion

An oscillation is a disturbance in a physical system that is

Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic and Oscillatory Motion

If an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth over the same

Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic and Oscillatory Motion

Oscillatory systems are of two types,

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is a special kind of periodic motion

Simple Harmonic Motion

From Newton’s 2nd law; F=ma, applied to the block gives:

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion

Maximum acceleration is observed at x = 21 A; amax = ω 2 A.

The simple Pendulum

The simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum is another mechanical system that exhibits

The simple Pendulum

The simple Pendulum

Where s is bob’s position measured along the arc and negative

The simple Pendulum

The simple Pendulum

The above equation reveals somewhat surprising result that the

The simple Pendulum

Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

In the absence of friction, the total energy of a block-spring

The simple Pendulum

Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

Finally, we can use the principle of conservation of energy to

Wave and Its Characteristics

Wave is a disturbance from normal or equilibrium condition that

Wave and Its Characteristics

Wave and Its Characteristics

Waves can either move in space (e.g. water waves), the so

Wave and Its Characteristics

Crests/Troughs: are positions in a wave with maximum

Wave and Its Characteristics

Damped oscillator: when the retarding force is small, the

The Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect is described as the effect produced by a

The Doppler Effect

Reflection of Waves:- Whenever a traveling wave reaches a

Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Images Formed by plane Mirrors

Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Images formed by Lenses

Lenses are commonly used to form images by refraction in

Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Images formed by Lenses

Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Images formed by Convex Lenses

Position and the Nature of the image formed by convex lens:

Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors

Images formed by Concave Lenses