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Article

Journal of Social and

The association between Personal Relationships
2021, Vol. 38(3) 1015–1034 ª

romantic competence and The Author(s) 2020

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DOI: 10.1177/0265407520980533

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Jiaqi Zhou1, Vickie Bhatia1,2, Tamara Luginbuehl3, and Joanne

Davila1

Abstract
This study examined the association between romantic competence and observed
couple social support behaviors in a sample of 89 emerging adult mixed-gender
couples (M age ¼ 20.65 for men, 20.16 for women). Across analyses, findings generally
indicated that higher romantic competence was associated with both seeking and
providing support in a more positive and less negative manner, even when controlling
for attachment security, relationship satisfaction, and relationship length. The findings
extend our understanding of how romantic competence affects dyadic processes, and
identifies romantic competence as a novel target underlying the ability to effectively
seek and provide support. Clinical implications for relationship education programs as
well as psychotherapy that may be focused on improving relationship functioning is
discussed.

Keywords
Couples, dating, romantic competence, romantic relationships, social support

It has been well documented that adaptive romantic relationship functioning is

important to the health and well-being of both individuals and couples (e.g., Dush &
Amato, 2005; Proulx et al., 2007), including long-term and married couples, as well as
younger unwed

1
Stony Brook University, USA
2
Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, USA
1016 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)
3
Swiss Distance University Institute, Switzerland

Corresponding author:
Joanne Davila, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA.
Email: joanne.davila@stonybrook.edu
couples (Braithwaite et al., 2010; Kershaw et al., 2013). However, the field has lacked a
clear, theory-driven model for conceptualizing the overarching skills necessary for
adaptive romantic relationship functioning (Davila et al., 2017a). The construct of
romantic competence was developed as a skills-based model of how people can
function adaptively in their romantic lives (Davila et al., 2009, 2017a). In the present
study, we examined associations between romantic competence and observed couple
support behavior to assess whether romantic competence is associated with more
adaptive support behavior and, in doing so, we attempted to further validate the
romantic competence construct.

Romantic competence
Romantic competence is defined as the capacity for people to function adaptively in
their romantic lives at all stages of the relationship process, regardless of relationship
status and relationship type (see Davila et al. (2009, 2017a) for a detailed discussion of
the construct and its theoretical origins). Romantic competence is delineated by three
skill domains: (1) insight/learning, which includes the ability to think about romantic
relationships in a thoughtful, insightful way, to learn from previous romantic
experiences and relationships, and to be able to think about the consequences of one’s
actions; (2) mutuality, which includes the ability to understand that relationships consist
of two individuals and their varying needs and to work toward each partner’s relational
needs while maintaining respect for oneself and one’s partner; and (3) emotion
regulation, which includes the ability to be aware of and regulate emotions in an
adaptive manner in response to relationship experiences, to keep relational experiences
in perspective, and to maintain self-respect and make effective decisions in emotional
situations (Davila et al., 2009, 2017a).
Recent work has provided initial validation of the romantic competence construct in
adolescent and emerging adult samples. For instance, among adolescent girls, greater
romantic competence is associated with engaging in a greater number of typical
romantic behaviors (e.g., having a crush, flirting with a potential romantic partner), and
having higher quality, and more stable, romantic relationships (Davila et al., 2009;
Shulman et al., 2011). Lower competence is associated with engaging in sexual
intercourse at an early age (Davila et al., 2009), a behavior that can be considered risky.
Among emerging adults, greater romantic competence is associated with greater self-
reported romantic attachment security, healthier relationship decision making, greater
relationship satisfaction, and fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety (Davila et al.,
2017a), as well as with the expression of positive emotion among partners in a positive
interaction task (Davila et al., 2017b). Zhou and Davila (2019) further demonstrated
that romantic competence can be expressed behaviorally in conflict resolution
interactions among couples, and greater behavioral romantic competence was
Zhou et al. 1017
associated with satisfaction. Moreover, this association was stronger than that between
satisfaction and observed negative affect, a more traditional, commonly used measure
of problem solving behavior (see Humbad et al., 2011).
Conflict resolution and the expression of emotion in couple interactions fall into the
category of what Karney and Bradbury (1995) call “adaptive processes” in couple
relationships. In their vulnerability-stress-adaptation (VSA) model of romantic
relationship functioning, the extent to which couples adaptively navigate these
important behavioral interactions is directly related to key relationship outcomes, such
as satisfaction. The VSA model also purports that individual partner factors affect
partners’ ability to behave in an adaptive manner (e.g., to effectively resolve conflicts or
express positive emotions). Research to date, thus, supports romantic competence as an
individual factor that has implications for important adaptive relational processes.
In addition to conflict resolution and emotion expression, there are other important
“adaptive processes” in relationships. In order to most fully validate the construct of
romantic competence and clarify its utility in understanding relationship functioning, it
is important to examine whether romantic competence is associated with additional
behavioral processes. In this study we chose to focus on couple social support
behaviors.

Social support behaviors in couples

There is extensive research demonstrating the positive effects of observed couple social
support behaviors (e.g., the seeking and provision of support in a positive manner) on
relationship functioning. For instance, observed support behaviors have been shown to
be predictive of relationship satisfaction 2 years (Pasch & Bradbury, 1998) and 10 years
later (e.g., Sullivan et al., 2010). Behavior in support interactions also predicted
changes in relationship satisfaction over and above behaviors displayed during conflict
resolution interactions, and negative behaviors during conflict had less of a negative
impact on satisfaction when there was strong support in the relationship (Pasch &
Bradbury, 1998). In addition, Lavner and Bradbury (2012) found that highly satisfied
newlywed couples that demonstrated more negative support behavior were more likely
to divorce within the first 10 years of marriage, suggesting that poor support skills may
make couples more vulnerable to dissolution, regardless of relationship satisfaction.
Similarly, Sullivan and colleagues (2010) followed newlywed couples for 10 years, and
found that difficulty in seeking and providing support at the beginning of marriage led
to increased negativity in conflict resolution tasks 1 year later, suggesting that one
reason couples with poor support skills may divorce over the first decade of marriage
may be partly due to increases in negative conflict behavior over time. In addition to
relationship satisfaction, social support in couples has also been linked to sexual
satisfaction, overall happiness, life satisfaction, and satisfaction with family life
(Acitelli & Antonucci, 1994).
Taken together, these studies highlight the importance of studying support processes
in couples and understanding what contributes to adaptive functioning in this domain
(i.e., greater positive and less negative seeking and provision). If greater romantic
competence is associated with more adaptive couple support behavior, particularly
1018 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)
among young people, this may represent a novel target to enhance skillful relationship
behavior.
We contend that the romantic competence skills are necessary for partners to
effectively seek and provide support in an adaptive manner. For instance, in order to
seek support, insight is needed to identify the problem at hand, to understand oneself
and one’s partner, and to anticipate what each person’s reactions and behaviors may be
in a given situation. Furthermore, greater insight/learning skills may help an individual
approach their partner for support in a more adaptive manner since they are able to pull
from previous experiences and to think about the consequences of their approach.
Mutuality skills, in conjunction with emotion regulation skills, are necessary to be able
to communicate the problem and need for support in a clear and calm manner. Emotion
regulation skills also are needed to manage and tolerate difficult or negative emotions
before, during, and after the support seeking process.
The skills are also necessary in providing support to one’s partner. For example,
insight is needed to understand one’s own and partner’s vulnerabilities, behavioral
patterns, and reactions that could impact support choices and processes. Mutuality is
necessary to be able to take one’s partner’s perspective and understand what their needs
are. Emotion regulation skills are necessary to understand and validate one’s partner’s
emotions, be able to tolerate negative emotions during and after the discussion, and not
respond in an impulsive or maladaptive manner. As such, we predicted that greater
romantic competence should be associated with partners’ more adaptive support
seeking and provision.

Is the association between romantic competence and couple support

unique?
Although we are proposing that romantic competence may contribute to adaptive
support behavior, there are other factors known to do so. One is relationship
satisfaction, which, as we have noted in our review, is related to both romantic
competence and support behaviors.
Additionally, research has extensively demonstrated the association between couple
support behaviors and romantic attachment security—an important individual factor in
the VSA model (Karney & Bradbury, 1995). A secure attachment pattern has been
associated with providing and receiving support in a more adaptive manner (for a
review see Simpson & Rholes, 2017). Anxious (e.g., anxiety about abandonment) and
avoidant (e.g., lack of comfort with intimacy) forms of attachment insecurity, by
contrast, are associated with less support in general (for a review, see Li & Chan, 2012).
In addition, this lower level of general support tends to be elicited by certain types of
situations, such as feeling pressure to give and receive support and feeling threatened
with the stability or quality of current relationships, which can frequently emerge in
situations when support is expected (Simpson & Rholes, 2017). Given that romantic
attachment security is associated with couple support behaviors and with romantic
competence (Davila et al., 2017a), it is necessary to examine whether romantic
competence contributes to support behavior above and beyond the effect of romantic
Zhou et al. 1019
attachment security. If it does, then the importance of targeting romantic competence
skills for improving relationship functioning will be strengthened.

The current study

The current study examined the association between romantic competence and couple
support behaviors among emerging adults. As we have noted elsewhere (Davila et al.,
2017a, 2017b; Zhou & Davila, 2019), emerging adults are an important group in which
to study relational processes. They are trying to determine what type of relationship/
partner is right for them (Arnett, 2000; Scott et al., 2009). They have high rates of
relationship involvement and sexual activity (Arnett & Schwab, 2012; Chandra et al.,
2011), and the quality of their relationships is related to important experiences and
outcomes, including rejection sensitivity and depressive symptoms (e.g., Norona &
Welsh, 2016; Whitton & Kuryluk, 2012). As such, studying romantic competence
among emerging adults may allow for identification of ways to increase relational
success early on and reduce negative consequences.
The current study had two primary goals. First, we examined whether romantic
competence was associated with observable support behavior in couples. We conducted
analyses that allowed us to examine both within- and cross-partner associations. We
predicted that greater competence would be associated with more positive and less
negative support seeking and provision within-partners. We treated cross-partner
associations as exploratory. Second, we explored whether romantic competence
contributed uniquely to support behaviors above and beyond the effects of romantic
attachment security and relationship satisfaction. We also controlled for relationship
length, given the age of the sample and variability in relationship duration (see method
section).

Method
Participants
Participants were 89 mixed-gender college-aged couples who were recruited from a
Psychology Human Subjects pool and via flyers and announcements on the campus of a
large, public university in the Northeast United States. In our prior research, when
recruiting for all couples (mixed- and same-gender), very few same-gender couples
participated. Given this, we did not expect to be able to make comparisons across
mixedand same-gender couples, so we recruited mixed-gender couples only to
maximize sample size (given our sampling time frame) and allow us to draw
conclusions about a specific group.
Participants were required to be between the ages of 18 and 25 years of age, in a
committed relationship for a minimum of 3 months, unmarried and with no children,
and fluent in English. The mean age of men participants was 20.65 years (SD ¼ 1.82)
and the mean age of women participants was 20.16 (SD ¼ 1.63). The average
relationship length was 73.9 weeks (SD ¼ 76.5 weeks). Couples were ethnically
1020 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)
diverse; 52.8% of men described themselves as Caucasian, 22.5% as Asian/Pacific
Islander, 15.7% as Latino, 4.5% as Middle Eastern, 3.4% as Black/African American,
and 1.1% as another ethnicity, and 41.6% of women described themselves as
Caucasian, 33.7% as Asian/Pacific Islander, 11.2% as Latina, 5.6% as Black/African
American, and 7.8% as another ethnicity. The vast majority of participants were
students, with only four women and four men (4.5% each) indicating that they were not
enrolled in school.

Procedures
Couples arrived together at the laboratory and each partner provided written consent
prior to the lab session. Participants first individually completed a brief battery of
online questionnaires, which assessed demographics, and current relationship
satisfaction. Following this, partners were interviewed separately about their romantic
competence by trained research assistants. Following the interview, couples completed
a series of timed social support interaction tasks. Each participant either received $25 or
research credit for their participation. The university IRB approved this study.

Measures
Romantic relationship satisfaction. Current relationship satisfaction was assessed with
the 16-item version of the Couple Satisfaction Index (CSI-16; Funk & Rogge, 2007).
The CSI-16 is a self-report measure in which participants respond to 10 global
evaluations of their romantic relationship on a 6-point Likert scale (0 ¼ not at all
true/never; 5 ¼ completely true/all the time) and six characteristics of their relationship
on a bipolar adjective scale (e.g., 0 ¼ miserable, 5 ¼ enjoyable). A total score was
calculated by summing the responses to all of the items, with higher scores indicating
greater relationship satisfaction (possible range 0–81). The alpha in the current study
was .92.

Romantic competence. The Emerging Adult version of the Romantic Competence

Interview (RCI-EA; Davila et al., 2017a) was used to assess the romantic competence
of each partner. The RCI-EA is a semi-structured interview designed to assess the
overall romantic competence of a participant by assessing the broad domains of
insight/learning, mutuality, and emotion regulation. Using developmentally appropriate
language, scenarios, and relationship contexts, participants are asked to answer
questions on their thoughts, feelings, approaches to, and behaviors in actual and
hypothetical romantic and sexual situations. Participants were asked about typical
romantic experiences (e.g., being romantically attracted to someone), potential betrayal
situations (e.g., your romantic partner flirts with someone else or cheats on you), and
potential rejection situations (e.g., your romantic partner breaks up with you). In
addition, since participants were all in a current relationship, interviewers asked about
the communication and support, trust, conflict resolution, and mutuality of the current
relationship. The length of the interview ranged from 30 to 60 minutes depending on
relationship experience and verbosity of each participant. Utilizing all information
Zhou et al. 1021
gathered during the interview, the interviewer assigned codes to the skill domains, as
well as an overall global competence score on a 5point scale (1 ¼ no evidence of
competence; 5 ¼ significant level of competence) with half points possible. Davila and
colleagues (2017a) have demonstrated that the skills domains form a coherent latent
romantic competence factor which is highly correlated with the global code, and as
such, the overall global competence score was used in the present study. Good
convergent validity has been reported on the RCI-EA (Davila et al., 2017a).
Interviewers were graduate students in clinical psychology and undergraduate
psychology majors who were trained by the developer of the interview and an advanced
graduate student (see Davila et al. (2009, 2017a) for details about the coding process
and coding examples). To assess reliability, 40 RCIs (i.e., 20 men interviews, 20 women
interviews) were coded by a second member of the research team (22.5% of sample).
An intraclass correlation (single measure, random, absolute method) was used to
analyze reliability. The ICC for the global romantic competence score was .87 for
women and .89 for men, indicating excellent reliability among the coding team
(Cicchetti, 1994). There were no discrepancies of more than ½ a point between coders;
as such, codes from the original coder were used in analyses.

Couple social support interaction tasks and coding procedures. Following the protocol
set by Bradbury and Pasch (1994), a research assistant asked each partner to identify a
personal characteristic, problem, or issue that he/she wanted to change prior to the start
of the interaction. Couples were explicitly restricted from choosing a topic that was a
source of major tension and/or conflict in the relationship. Each partner was asked to
disclose their topic prior to the interaction to ensure that it was not relationship-based.
The couple completed two 8-minute discussions with each partner playing the role of
the support seeker (i.e., the individual talking about a personal issue that he/she wants
to change) and the support provider (i.e., the individual talking to his/her partner about
an issue that the partner wants to change). The research assistant randomly chose one
individual to begin with and asked that individual to “talk about something that you
would like to change about yourself.” Partners were instructed to “be involved in the
discussion and respond in whatever way you wish.” The research assistant left the room
for 8 minutes and videotaped the interaction. At the end of the 8 minutes, the research
assistant returned and reversed the roles, providing the same instructions.
A modified version of the Social Support Interaction Coding System (SSICS;
Bradbury & Pasch, 1994) was used to code social support behavior. The original SSICS
is a microanalytic system in which each speech turn of each partner is coded for
positive and negative behaviors. Coders used a modified global coding system, utilized
in previous studies, in which overall negative and positive behavior during the
interaction was coded (see Beck et al., 2006). To ensure objectivity, coders only coded
one support task per couple. Overall positive and negative behavior codes were made
on a 5-point Likert scale (0 ¼ not present; 2 ¼ moderately; 4 ¼ extremely) for each
partner’s behavior. Both the frequency and quality of the behavior during the interaction
was considered. Behaviors included in the “providing support positively” composite
included behaviors such as validating their partner’s feelings, making specific
1022 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)
suggestions, encouraging the discussion, and providing physical comfort or affection.
Behaviors in the “seeking support positively” composite included expressing
appropriate feelings related to the topic, asking for help in a useful way, and responding
positively to their partner’s questions or suggestions. Behaviors in the “providing
support negatively” composite included criticizing or blaming their partner, being
inattentive or disengaged, and talking about oneself instead. Finally, behaviors in the
“seeking support negatively” composite included behaviors such as demanding help,
whining or complaining, and acting defensively.
To assess reliability, 18 social support tasks for each gender were coded by a second
coder (20.2% of sample). An intraclass correlation (single measure, random, absolute
method) was used to analyze reliability between the original coder and the reliability
coder. The ICCs for the SSICS codes ranged from .67 to .83, indicating good to
excellent reliability (Cicchetti, 1994). Discrepancies were discussed among coders and
consensus ratings were used in analyses.
Romantic attachment security. Romantic attachment security was assessed with the 18-
item Revised Adult Attachment Scale (RAAS; Collins & Read, 1990). Items were rated
on a 5-point scale (1 ¼ not at all characteristic of me, 5 ¼ very characteristic of me).
The RAAS includes three subscales: close, measuring the extent to which people feel
comfortable being close to their partner; depend, measuring the extent to which people
are comfortable relying on their partner and believe their partner is dependable; and
anxiety, assessing fears about abandonment and of being unloved. The RAAS is widely
used and has adequate psychometric properties (Collins & Read, 1990; Crowell et al.,
1999). Alphas were .77 for close, .68 for depend (.82 for the composite), and .83 for
anxiety. Consistent with standard practice, we averaged scores on close and depend to
form a measure of comfort with intimacy (Brennan et al., 1998; see Crowell et al.,
1999).

Data analytic approach

We analyzed the data using the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM; Kashy &
Kenny, 2000; Kenny, 1996; Kenny & Cook, 1999). APIM handles the non-
independence of dyadic data and allows for the independent and simultaneous
estimation of both actor and partner effects. Actor effects examine the influence of an
individual’s own score on a predictor variable on his/her own outcome, whereas partner
effects examine the influence of an individual’s own score on a predictor variable on
his/her partner’s outcome variable. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) in AMOS (v.
26) was used. All dyads were included in analyses, and there were no missing data.
Data from mixed-gender couples is typically analyzed as distinguishable dyads.
However, whether partners are distinguishable by gender is rarely tested. As such, we
first tested for this. Following Kenny et al. (2006), an omnibus test of distinguishability
was conducted. This involved evaluating the fit of a model that specifies the following
constraints: (1) Women and men have the same means for each variable (i.e., romantic
competence, relationship satisfaction, comfort with intimacy, anxiety about
abandonment, positive support provision behavior, negative support provision behavior,
Zhou et al. 1023
positive support seeking behavior, negative support seeking behavior), (2) women and
men have the same variances for each variable, (3) women and men have the same
intrapersonal covariances between each set of variables, and (4) women and men have
the same interpersonal covariances between each set of variables. The model yielded a
nonrejectable chi-square value (X2(72) ¼ 83.78, p ¼ .16), suggesting that there was no
evidence of overall distinguishability between dyad members.
As such, we analyzed the data as indistinguishable dyads using SEM due to our
multiple correlated outcomes (Kenny et al., 2006). Given the complexity of the
analysis, we also briefly present the analyses when dyads are treated as distinguishable.
We tested one model that included all variables from both partners (see Figure 1).
Romantic competence, relationship satisfaction, comfort with intimacy, anxiety about
abandonment, and relationship length (which was only one variable since it was the
same for both partners) were predictor variables. Positive support provision behavior,
negative support provision behavior, positive support seeking behavior, and negative
support seeking behavior were outcomes. All paths from predictors to outcomes were
specified, as were all correlations among the predictors and all correlations among the
error terms

Figure 1. Model of associations between partners’ romantic competence, attachment security,

relationship satisfaction, relationship length, and support behavior.
1024 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)
of the outcomes. Following Kenny et al. (2006), the following constraints were
specified: (1) women and men have the same means for each pair of predictor variables
of the same measure and the same intercepts for each pair of outcome variables of the
same measure, (2) women and men have the same variances for each pair of predictor
variables of the same measure and each pair of error terms for the outcome variables,
(3) women and men have the same intrapersonal covariances between each two
predictor variables (e.g., the covariance between women’s competence and women’s
relationship satisfaction would equal that between men’s competence and men’s
relationship satisfaction) and each two error terms for outcome variables, (4) women
and men have the same interpersonal covariances between each two predictor variables
(e.g., the covariance between women’s competence and men’s relationship satisfaction
would equal that between men’s competence and women’s relationship satisfaction) and
each two error terms for outcome variables, (5) the regression coefficients for women’s
and men’s actor effects are equal, and (6) the regression coefficients for women’s and
men’s partner effects are equal.
This results in a model, called the saturated model for indistinguishable dyads (I-sat;
Kenny et al., 2006) whose parameter estimates are interpretable, but the model’s
chisquare test can change depending on the random assignment of person 1 and person
2 in each dyad given the indistinguishability of the dyads. In other words, the chi-
square of this model cannot be used to interpret its model fit, which requires estimates
of two additional models (Kenny et al., 2006).
The first additional model included adding the constraint that actor and partner
effects would be equal (i.e., equal regression weights for each pair of actor and partner
effect paths; termed the a ¼ p model). The chi-square of the I-sat model reflects the
arbitrary assignment of persons to “1” and “2,” and should be subtracted from the chi-
square of the a ¼ p model for the interpretable adjusted chi-square and degrees of
freedom.
A null model is then needed to estimate model fit parameters (e.g., CFI). The null
model specified the following two sets of constraints: (a) the covariances equal zero,
and (b) means and variances from the same measure for both members are set to be
equal. In other words, the null model estimates only the unique means and intrapartner
variances. The chi-square and degrees of freedom of the null model were used to
calculate the CFI and RMSEA for the baseline model. An excel program developed by
Olsen & Kenny (2006; see Kenny, n.d.) was used to conduct all adjustments described.

Results
Means, standard deviations, and correlations for the study variables can be found in
Table 1. Participants reported a high level of relationship satisfaction, as means for
satisfaction were above the distress cut-off score of 51.5 set by Funk and Rogge (2007).
Partners’ romantic competence scores were significantly correlated, as were their
satisfaction scores (as previously reported in Davila et al., 2017a).
Zhou et al. 1025
APIM with indistinguishable dyads
The I-sat model yielded a significant association between partners’ competence (r ¼ .24,
p ¼ .026) and their relationship satisfaction (r ¼ .47, p < .001). Partners’ own
competence was associated with their own satisfaction (r ¼ .24, p ¼ .004), anxiety about
abandonment (r ¼.25, p ¼ .001), and comfort with intimacy (r ¼ .20, p ¼ .009). Partners’
own satisfaction was associated with their own anxiety about abandonment (r ¼.24, p ¼
.002), and comfort with intimacy (r ¼ .34, p < .001). There were no other significant
associations between predictor variables.
In line with hypotheses, there were significant paths between competence and a
number of social support behaviors. Partners’ own competence was associated with
their seeking support more positively (r ¼ .20, p ¼ .011) and less negatively (r ¼.24, p ¼
.001). Own competence also was associated with partners providing support in a less
negative manner (r ¼.17, p ¼ .029).
With regard to associations between other variables in the model, partners’ own
anxiety about abandonment was associated with seeking support less negatively (r ¼
.17, p ¼ .026). Own anxiety about abandonment also was marginally associated with
partners providing support in a less negative manner (r ¼.15, p ¼ .053). Longer
relationship duration was associated with partners seeking support less positively (r ¼
Zhou et al. 1027

1025

.19, p ¼ .007) and more negatively (r ¼ .24, p ¼ .002). There were no significant paths
between relationship satisfaction and behavior.
The fit of the I-sat model (X2 (80) ¼ 99.784, p ¼ .066) was then compared with the fit
of the a ¼ p model, (X2 (96) ¼ 144.516, p ¼ .096). This resulted in a non-significant
adjusted fit, X2 (16) ¼ 14.732, p ¼ .5443, with CFI ¼ 1.0 and RMSEA ¼ 0.00, as
calculated from the null model, X2 (152) ¼ 466.88. This non-significant adjusted X2
indicates that the I-sat model was not significantly different from the fully constrained
model. This suggests that the actor and partner effects are not significantly different
from one another.
The a ¼ p model yielded the same associations between the predictor variables in the
I-sat model. With regard to associations between romantic competence and behavior,
results were consistent with the I-sat model, and even more supportive of hypotheses.
Competence was significantly associated with more positive (r ¼ .10, p ¼ .035) and less
negative (r ¼.15, p ¼ .044) support seeking behavior, and less negative (r ¼.11, p ¼
.004) support provision behavior. Competence also was marginally associated with
more positive support provision behavior (r ¼ .09, p ¼ .093).
Regarding other associations, comfort with intimacy was marginally associated with
providing support in a more positive manner (r ¼ .12, p ¼ .097). Longer relationship
duration was associated with partners seeking support less positively (r ¼.19, p ¼ .008)
and more negatively (r ¼ .24, p ¼ .003). There were no significant paths between
relationship satisfaction and behavior. Figure 2 depicts the significant and marginally
significant results of the a ¼ p model (paths from predictor to support behavior
variables only). Full results for the a ¼ p model are provided in Supplemental Table 1.

APIM with distinguishable dyads

As a point of comparison, and given the complexity of using SEM to analyze APIM
with indistinguishable dyads (Kenny et al., 2006), we conducted an APIM with
distinguishable dyads in SEM using the model in Figure 1. As a saturated model, model
fit could not be examined, which was not of concern given that we were interested in
the path estimates and the extent to which they aligned with those from the
indistinguishable APIM.
In line with the indistinguishable models, the analysis yielded a significant
association between partners’ competence (r ¼ .25, p ¼ .024) and their relationship
satisfaction (r ¼ .48, p < .001). Women’s competence was associated with their own
satisfaction (r ¼ .30, p ¼ .008) and comfort with intimacy (r ¼ .29, p ¼ .008). Women’s
satisfaction was associated with their own anxiety about abandonment (r ¼.31, p ¼
.006), and comfort with intimacy (r ¼ .38, p < .001). Men’s competence was associated
only with their own anxiety about abandonment (r ¼.30, p ¼ .007), and their
relationship satisfaction was associated only with their own comfort with intimacy (r ¼
1028 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)

.27, p ¼ .015). There were no significant cross-partner associations between the

predictor variables.
Regarding associations between romantic competence and behavior, there were
significant actor effects for competence and negative support seeking for both women (r
¼.26, p ¼ .017) and men (r ¼.28, p ¼ .008). There were also significant actor effects for
women’s competence and their positive support seeking (r ¼ .29, p ¼ .007) and positive
support provision (r ¼ .23, p ¼ .044). There were significant partner effects

Figure 2. Results of the a ¼ p model (paths from predictor to support behavior variables only;
see Supplemental Table 1 for full results). Coefficients in black are significant. Coefficients in gray
are marginally significant (p < .10).

for women’s competence and their partners’ positive support provision (r ¼ .25, p ¼
.025), and men’s competence and their partners’ negative support provision (r ¼ .26, p¼
.015). These findings generally mirror those of the indistinguishable APIM. Moreover,
although these findings might appear to indicate gender differences, the findings of the
indistinguishable model suggest otherwise. Regardless, that both sets of analyses
yielded consistent associations between romantic competence and support behaviors,
even when controlling for attachment security, relationship satisfaction, and relationship
length, supports our hypotheses.
As for other associations, similar to the indistinguishable models, men’s anxiety
about abandonment was associated with their own positive (r ¼ .22, p ¼ .035) and
negative (r ¼.32, p ¼ .002) support seeking, and with their partners’ positive support
seeking (r ¼ .22, p ¼ .033), positive support provision (r ¼ .23, p ¼ .032), and negative
Zhou et al. 1029

support provision (r ¼.34, p ¼ .001). Relationship length was associated with men’s
positive (r ¼.31, p ¼ .003) and negative (r ¼ .27, p ¼ .008) support seeking, and men’s
positive support provision (r ¼.27, p ¼ .008),

Discussion
This study was designed to examine the association between romantic competence and
observed couple support behaviors in a sample of emerging adult couples. Furthermore,
by including romantic attachment security, a known correlate of support behavior, as
well as relationship satisfaction and relationship length, as covariates in the analyses,
the unique association of romantic competence with support behavior was examined.
The following findings emerged.

Romantic competence and support behaviors

Both the distinguishable and indistinguishable APIMs indicated that, controlling for the
covariates, greater romantic competence was associated, as predicted, with more
adaptive support behavior, including more positive and less negative support seeking
and support provision (though significant associations with positive support provision
emerged only in the analyses of distinguishable dyads). The most stringent model, in
which partners were treated as indistinguishable, and actor and partner effects were
treated as equivalent, provided the greatest support for the hypotheses. In this model,
greater romantic competence was significantly associated with more positive and less
negative support seeking behavior, and less negative support provision behavior.
Greater competence was marginally associated with more positive support provision
behavior. This provides strong evidence for our hypotheses, and is in line with the VSA
model (Karney & Bradbury, 1995). Indeed, the results of this study suggest that
romantic competence is an important individual factor to consider in understanding
adaptive support processes among emerging adult couples.
Of course, given that all of these associations are cross-sectional, it is important to
recognize that causality cannot be inferred. Although we speculate that romantic
competence results in more adaptive support processes, another possibility may be that
people who seek and provide support more positively and less negatively, may end up
with more competent partners via selection. In addition, people who end up being more
romantically competent may start out as more socially competent in general. If so, they
may be more competent at partner selection and/or have a larger pool of partners to
select from. People may also learn to be more romantically competent from their
partners. All of these possibilities would be important areas for future research.
Although not an a priori goal, the study sheds light on the utility of examining the
distinguishability of dyad members in mixed-gender couples. In general, research on
couples has assumed mixed-gender dyads to be distinguishable. We have done the same
in our own work. For instance, in separate analyses from this same sample (Davila et
al., 2017b), distinguishable analyses yielded more consistent associations between
women’s romantic competence and their ability to adaptively express positive emotions
in a relationship promoting interaction. On the other hand, in a separate sample
1030 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)

examining conflict resolution behavior, it was men’s romantic competence that

appeared to be more consistently associated with their behavior (Zhou & Davila, 2019).
Whether these are reliable gender differences is unclear. At the same time, the sample
size of the current study was relatively small, which may have reduced power to detect
significant differences between women and men. As such, we caution against
definitively concluding against potential gender differences until additional research
with larger samples is conducted. Should such research support gender differences, then
it will be necessary to consider whether there might be differences in how romantic
competence is translated into behavior for women and men. It will also be important to
examine associations between competence and behavior among couples in same-sex
relationships, where gender roles are more flexible and gender differences may be less
salient, and, relatedly, to examine whether other individual difference variables, that
may appear to be gender/ sex related, affect how romantic competence affects behavior.

Associations between support behaviors and other variables

Associations between romantic competence and support behaviors emerged even when
controlling for other variables, indicating that competence is a unique individual
predictor. In addition, attachment security also remained a unique predictor in some
cases, although the findings were less consistent across the models. For example, in the
a ¼ p model, greater comfort with intimacy was associated with greater positive support
provision. This is consistent with a large body of research on attachment and support
behaviors (Simpson & Rholes, 2017). However, in the I-sat and distinguishable models,
greater anxiety about abandonment was associated with seeking support in a less
negative manner and receiving support in a more positive manner. Although seemingly
inconsistent with what would be expected, anxiety about abandonment may manifest in
negative interaction behavior only when the interaction is relationship threatening
(Simpson & Rholes, 2017), which the support interaction is unlikely to be. In addition,
because individuals who are more anxious about abandonment tend to seek proximity
with partners and use emotion focused coping strategies (Simpson & Rholes, 2017), in
a support context this may inhibit negative support seeking and may be met with
positive support and caretaking from their partners.
All of the models yielded associations between longer relationship duration and
seeking support in a less positive and more negative manner. Although it is unclear why
this is the case, perhaps in longer relationships partners may be more trusting of their
partners’ availability and/or commitment, and, therefore, less “careful” about how they
approach their partners for support. This is, of course, speculative, and we were unable
to locate any studies that examine reductions in support over the course of romantic
relationships.
Unexpectedly, there were no significant associations between relationship
satisfaction and support behaviors. This was surprising given that previous studies have
consistently found associations (e.g., Pasch & Bradbury, 1998; Sullivan et al., 2010).
However, there are two aspects of our sample that may explain the contrary findings.
First, most existing data comes from samples of married couples (typically newlyweds).
Zhou et al. 1031

As such, it may be that the association between satisfaction and support behavior is
stronger among more highly committed couples. In addition, our sample was very
highly satisfied; in fact, only six individuals (one man, five women; 3.4% of sample)
scored in the relationship distress range. Moreover, eight individuals (4.5% of sample)
had the maximum score possible on the measure. Thus, even though newlywed samples
are generally satisfied, it may be that this study’s sample had a restricted relationship
satisfaction range producing a ceiling effect, and thus, we were unable to detect
significant associations.
However, consistent with prior research (Davila et al., 2017a; Zhou & Davila, 2019),
and prior data reported from this sample (Davila et al., 2017b) there was a significant
positive association between relationship satisfaction and romantic competence. Given
that research to date, including this study, is cross-sectional, it will be important to
examine temporal associations, as well the role of behavior in those associations. For
example, it may be that partners who are more competent engage in more adaptive
behaviors within the relationship, and are better able to get their needs met, which
results in higher satisfaction. It could also be that being in a relationship that is
satisfying allows for an environment to exist in which adaptive behaviors are more
likely to occur, which can develop or enhance competence.

Implications
Overall, our findings indicate a unique association between romantic competence and
couple support behavior, above and beyond the extensively documented association
between romantic attachment and support behaviors in couples (Simpson & Rholes,
2017). This is encouraging because romantic competence may be a better target for
relationships education and intervention compared to romantic attachment security.
Romantic attachment security, though changeable, may be less amenable to pedagogical
intervention or may require longer time investments (e.g., via psychotherapy) due to its
long-standing and/or emotionally deep nature (see Cobb & Davila, 2008; Davila &
Cobb, 2004). Romantic competence, in contrast, is a skills-based model that lends itself
well to skills-based education, perhaps particularly for younger people whose skills are
still developing. Indeed, one study (Davila et al., 2020) has demonstrated preliminary
support for the efficacy of a relationship education workshop designed to teach
romantic competence skills to emerging adults.
The findings have important implications for future research and for interventions
that target relationship functioning. First, they contribute to the growing literature on
the validity of the romantic competence construct, and suggest that romantic
competence may be one factor that contributes to the ability to engage in adaptive
support processes in a romantic relationship. Given that couple support has important
effects on relationship outcomes in the long run (Lavner & Bradbury, 2012; Pasch &
Bradbury, 1998; Sullivan et al., 2010), it may be that increasing romantic competence at
a young age can promote skills that help individuals foster healthy relationships.
Second, as noted earlier, because the romantic competence construct is skills-based, it
has the potential to be an important focus for relationship education, and preliminary
1032 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38(3)

data support this possibility (Davila et al., 2020). Although, that study did not examine
social support behaviors as outcomes, results showed that compared to participants on
the waitlist, participants who received the romantic competence relationship education
program reported increases in skills that could have a positive impact on support
behaviors, including, confidence in knowledge about what a healthy relationship is,
confidence in one’s ability to manage relationships, perspective taking, and adaptive
relationship decision making (Davila et al., 2020). Future research should examine
whether and how this might translate into support behavior.
Limitations
The results of the study must be considered in the context of the following limitations.
As noted earlier, the study was cross-sectional, and thus, we were unable to examine
temporal associations between competence and relationship behavior. Longitudinal
studies are needed to better understand the predictive power of competence on
relational functioning. In addition, romantic competence may be a dynamic construct in
emerging adulthood, and as such, it may be that it both affects and is affected by
relationship experiences. Given that there is an increased emphasis on romantic and
sexual involvement in emerging adulthood (e.g., Arnett, 2000; Raley et al., 2007),
relationship experience, including how young couples navigate support processes, may
play a part in the development of (more or less) competence. Longitudinal research
would shed light on this possibility.
The study was also limited by the inclusion of only mixed-gender couples. Although
romantic competence is a construct that is expected to apply to all individuals (and all
relationship statuses and types), individuals of differing sexual orientations face unique
challenges that may affect competence. Similarly, although our sample was relatively
diverse with regard to race/ethnicity (though too small for race/ethnicity comparisons),
it may be that the construct of romantic competence is socially and culturally
determined (see, for example, Beall & Sternberg, 1995, who argue for a social
construction of love). As such, research with more diverse samples, both within and
outside the US, will be necessary. This point is underscored by the fact that our sample
of US undergraduates falls into the category of Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich,
and Democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010), a group that is certainly not
representative of most of the US, let alone the world. Finally, although these skills are
expected to apply to individuals across the life span, additional research with samples at
different developmental stages will be necessary.

Conclusions
Despite limitations, this study further supports the validity of the romantic competence
construct among emerging adult couples by demonstrating that greater competence is
associated with more adaptive couple support behavior. Moreover, competence was
uniquely associated with support behavior, controlling for attachment security and
relationship satisfaction (and length). This suggests that efforts to teach romantic
competence skills to young people have the potential to have a positive effect on this
key aspect of adaptive relationship behavior.
Zhou et al. 1033

Authors’ note
This article is based on the doctoral dissertation of Vickie Bhatia which was conducted at Stony
Brook University.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
ORCID iD
Joanne Davila https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1250-5068

Open research statement

As part of JSPR’s encouragement of open research practices, the author(s) have provided the
following information: This research was not pre-registered. The data used in the research are
available. The data can be obtained by emailing: joanne.davila@stonybrook.edu. The materials
used in the research are available. The materials can be obtained by emailing: joanne.davila@
stonybrook.edu.

Supplemental material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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