Index
abductions 24
Abkhazia 52
Abyssinia 13
accumulation of events doctrine 46–8,
124, 129
Afghanistan 70, 168, 186, 220
African Union (AU) 159, 169–80
African Peace and Security
Architecture (APSA) 174–5,
179, 187
European Union 175, 180, 181,
182–3, 186, 187
Africa–EU partnership 178–9
intervention by invitation 169–70,
176
SC authorisation 170, 176–8
subregional organisations 171–4,
175, 176
African Standby Force 176
AU authorisation 176
ECOWAS 87–8, 142, 171, 172,
177, 179, 182–3
SC authorisation 176–8
UN–AU partnership 178
use of force 169–71
aggression 96, 106, 134, 173, 184
definition of 49, 133
League of Arab States 162–3
aircraft
hijack: Entebbe incident 51–2
interception of single 24
mistake: shooting down of civilian
airliners 31–2
no-fly zones 85–7, 163
Albania 28, 34
Amin, Idi 51, 82
ancient Greece and Rome 1–2
Annan, Kofi 164
anticipatory and preventive self-defence
59–65, 222–3
cyber attacks 63, 127–8, 129, 225
apology 32
245
Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925
Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
Aquinas, Saint Thomas 4
Arab League 159, 162–4
arbitration 163
Argentina 23, 35, 50
armed attack 100, 111, 184
anticipatory and preventive
self-defence 59–65
customary law: Caroline
formula 59, 61, 63, 127,
222–3
cyber attacks 63, 127–8, 129,
225
imminent threats 61–5, 128,
129, 222–3, 225
‘occurs’ 59–60
cyber attacks 50, 54, 63, 122, 123–8,
129, 130, 224, 225
gravity 43–50, 123–5, 128, 130
accumulation of events doctrine
46–8, 124, 129
frontier incidents 46
mining of vessel 44, 46
occupation of victim State
territory 48–50
NATO 165–6
non-State actors 53–8, 219–21
conduct attributable to State
53–5, 125–7
cyber attacks 54, 125–7, 130,
224
internationally wrongful act
and self-defence 58, 126,
220–221
substantial involvement of State
54–5, 126
object of 50
protection of nationals abroad
50–53
armed force 19–21
armed reprisals 7, 45, 97–106, 124
art 2(4) UN Charter 98–9
cyber attacks 124–5, 129
via free access
246 Regulating the use of force in international law

law enforcement 97, 101–3, 106 jus cogens 37–8, 134

chemical weapons 103–6 League of Nations 9–12, 15, 133
Naulilaa case 98 low-level uses of force and recourse
non-forcible countermeasures 99, to 45–6
100 regional organisations see separate
proportionality 98, 100–101, 103, entry
104, 106, 125, 129 Security Council 15, 45–6, 62, 75,
self-defence and 100–103, 106, 85, 132, 198, 223
124–5, 129 armed reprisals 100, 101
Armenia 48–50, 67 authorisation to use force
arms embargoes 137 139–45, 159, 161,
artificial intelligence (AI) 129–30, 224–5 163–4, 166, 167–8, 170,
Assad, Bashar al- 93, 104 176–8, 186, 187, 216,
Augustine, Saint 3, 4 218
Australia 57, 68, 128 breach of the peace 73, 135
Azerbaijan 48–50, 67 discretion 133–4, 135, 149, 222
enforcement action 139–45,
Bangladesh 83–4 146, 153, 158–9, 161,
biological attack against Sergei Skripal 163–4, 166, 167–8, 170,
28 176–8, 186, 187, 196–7,
Bosnia and Herzegovina 167 200, 206, 208, 216, 218
Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 193 General Assembly and 146–8
Brahimi, Lakhdar 164, 194, 205 non-forcible measures (art 41)
Brazil 19–20, 95 135–9, 197
Burundi 171 procedural hurdles 80
regional organisations 153, 155,
Canada 23–4, 32, 59 157, 158–9, 161, 163–4,
Caroline formula 59, 61, 63, 127, 222–3 166, 167–8, 170, 176–8,
Central African Republic 204 186, 187
chemical weapons 93, 94–6, 103–6 review of decisions and the
threat to the peace 135 veto 148–50
China 8, 31, 32, 147, 155, 164 sanctions 136–9, 144, 149,
humanitarian intervention 80, 88, 183–4, 218
90, 95 threat to the peace 37–8, 88,
Christianity 3–4, 5 135, 222
Cicero, Marcus Tullius 2 triggers (art 39) 133–5, 146–7,
civilisation, standard of 7–8 159
collective security 14–15, 73, 132–51 self-defence and 43, 62, 70, 74–8,
act of aggression 133–4, 147 142
art 39 determinations 133–5, 146–7, threat to the peace 133–5
159 Comoros 171
breach of the peace 133–5 consent 50
General Assembly humanitarian intervention 87
role in use of force 145–8 invitation, intervention by 106–12,
Uniting for Peace 146–8 169–70, 176
human rights 80, 135, 150 peacekeeping operations 171, 193,
responsibility to protect 91–2 194, 195, 196–7, 198–9,
sanctions 137, 138–9, 183–4 199–202, 207, 209, 210
Iraq 73, 137, 142–4 regional organisations 157, 158,
200–201

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Index
African Union 169–71, 176
European Union 187
League of Arab States 163
North Atlantic Treaty
Organization 166
Organization of American
States 161–2
Côte d’Ivoire 87
crimes against humanity 81, 170, 215
critical national infrastructure (CNI) 121,
128
Cuba 29, 161
customary international law 14, 17–18
armed reprisals see separate entry
cyberspace 117, 123
force 20, 24, 39, 40
humanitarian intervention see
separate entry
non-State actors 18–19
self-defence 15, 41, 42–3
Caroline formula 59, 61, 63,
127, 222–3
cyber attacks 123
duty to report to SC 77
necessity 43, 65
proportionality 43, 65
protection of nationals abroad
50
threats to security 59, 61, 63
cyber attacks 114–31, 223–4, 224
armed attack 122, 123–8, 130
anticipatory and preventive
self-defence 63, 127–8,
129, 225
imminence 63, 128, 129, 225
last window of opportunity 128
non-State actors 54, 125–7, 224
object of 50
armed reprisals 124–5, 129
attribution 54, 125–7, 130, 224
automatic cyber defence 129–30,
224–5
defend forward 128–9, 224
force, concept of 22, 118
international law and cyberspace
115–17
prohibition on threat or use of force
116–22
contextual approach 122
de minimis threshold 119–20
Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925
Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
247
loss of functionality 120–22
physical effects 118–19,
120–21
self-defence 50, 54, 63, 123–8
armed attack see above
automatic cyber defence
129–30, 224–5
defend forward 128–9, 224
necessity 129, 130
proportionality 129, 130
cyber technologies and peacekeeping 211
Darfur 168, 178, 186, 200
de minimis threshold
use of force 22–4, 119–20, 123
democracy 160, 161–2, 169, 170, 171,
172, 173, 179, 181
future of use of force regime 213,
216–17
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
56, 147, 185–6, 196, 203, 208–9
Denmark 95
distributed denial of service (DDoS)
attacks 121–2
Ebola 135
Economic Community of Central African
States (ECCAS) 171, 173–4
Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS) 87–8, 142,
171, 172, 177, 179, 182–3
economic sanctions 137
Egypt 60
UNEF I 147, 196, 199–200, 202,
204–5
Eichmann, Adolf 23
Eritrea–Ethiopia Commission 46
Estonia 121–2
ethnic cleansing 88, 92
European Union (EU) 24, 159, 180–89
African Peace Fund 175, 181
Africa–EU partnership 178–9
common security and defence policy
180–82, 184, 185, 187
Court of Justice of the (CJEU)
182–3
Kadi 138–9, 183–4
Kosovo 186
legal instrument: decisions 181–2
via free access
248 Regulating the use of force in international law

loyalty clause 182 European Union 181, 186

Mali 180 Kadi 138–9, 183–4
mutual defence clause 184–5 future of use of force regime 213,
NATO 184, 185, 186, 188–9 216–17
peacekeeping 168, 185, 187–8 humanitarian intervention 30,
piracy 186 79–97, 173, 213–15, 216
smuggling and trafficking 186 peacekeeping operations 192, 205
solidarity clause 185 neutrality/impartiality 202, 204
prohibition of use of force 26, 27,
Finland 12 29–30, 32, 90
fishing stocks 23–4 promotion of 29–30, 79–80
force, concept of 19–22, 40, 118 international co-operation 30
France 12, 80, 104, 105, 108, 122 sanctions 137, 138–9, 183–4
humanitarian intervention 85–7, threat to the peace 135
95–6 humanitarian crises 135
future of use of force regime 212–26 humanitarian intervention 30, 79–97, 173
morality 213–18 after Cold War 85–97
new technologies 224–5 Kosovo 88–90, 95, 166
non-State actors 218–21 Liberia 87
security risks 221–4 no-fly zones in Iraq 85–7
responsibility to protect (R2P)
Gaddafi, Muammar 144, 167, 170 90–93
The Gambia 171 Sierra Leone 87–8
genocide 81, 82–3, 150, 170, 215 Syria 93–6
Georgia 24, 57, 122, 186 during Cold War 81–4
Germany 12, 59, 98, 105 morality, return of 213–15, 216
Greece, ancient 1–2 Hurd, Douglas 86
Grenada 29, 52, 109, 217 Hussein, Saddam 61, 85
Grotius, Hugo 5–6, 213–14
Group of 77 90 imminent threats 61–5, 128, 129, 222–3,
Guaidó, Juan 162 225
Guterres, António 178, 195 India 82–4, 95
indirect force 24–5, 110
Hadi, Abdrabbuh Mansur 111–12 Indonesia 95
Hague Peace Conferences 8–9 International Committee of Jurists 84
Haiti 218 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 27,
Hammarskjöld, Dag 196 31–2
historical development 1–15 Armed Activities 48, 55, 56, 72
ancient Greece and Rome 1–2 armed force 20–21
early modern period 5–8 armed reprisals 100–101
Hague Peace Conferences 8–9 Certain Expenses Advisory Opinion
Kellogg–Briand Pact 12–14, 15 196, 198
League of Nations 9–12, 15 Conditions of Admission Advisory
Middle Ages 3–5 Opinion 150
United Nations 14–15 Corfu Channel 28, 34
Holy Roman Empire 4, 5 Fisheries Jurisdiction 23–4
Honduras 162 humanitarian intervention, unilateral
human rights 68, 71, 150, 160, 163, 169, 84
172, 179

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Index
Nicaragua v. United States 24–5,
39, 42, 44, 47–8, 54, 55, 72,
76, 77, 79, 84, 100–101, 123,
217–18
Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion
26, 35, 100
Oil Platforms 20, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50,
72, 100–101
peacekeeping operations 196–7, 198
implied powers 196, 198
principle of non-use of force 16
jus cogens 36, 37
pro-democratic intervention 217–18
Security Council decisions
incidental review of 148–9
self-defence 42
accumulation of events doctrine
47–8
armed attack 44, 46, 47–8, 50,
53–5, 56, 58, 123–4
armed attacks committed by
States 56, 58
collective 72
conduct attributable to State
53–5
failure to report to SC 76–7
object of armed attack 50
substantial involvement 54–5
threshold: use of force 23–4, 120
Wall Advisory Opinion 56
international crimes 135
crimes against humanity 81, 170,
215
genocide 81, 82–3, 150, 170, 215
war crimes 93, 179
International Criminal Court (ICC)
Statute of 133
International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia (ICTY) 54,
136, 148
International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda (ICTR) 136
international human rights law 26, 68, 71
see also human rights
international humanitarian law 26, 68,
71, 110, 163
threat to the peace 135
International Law Association (ILA) 109
International Law Commission (ILC)
Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925
Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
249
State Responsibility for
Internationally Wrongful
Acts 30, 36, 53–4, 58
International Military Tribunal at
Nuremberg 59
invitation, intervention by 106–12
African Union 169–70, 176
legitimate government 107–8
authorised representatives 109
negative equality 109–12
Iran 20, 35, 47, 111–12
mistake: civilian airliners shot down
31–2
nuclear reactors: Stuxnet virus
118–19, 120, 124, 126, 127
US cyber attack 124–5
US drone strike against Soleimani
70
Iraq 70, 168
2003 action against 61–2, 143–4,
164
humanitarian intervention 85–7
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
(ISIL) 57, 68, 70, 74, 112,
145
Israeli air strike on nuclear reactor
27, 60–61
Kuwait 135, 137, 140, 142–3
First Gulf War 67, 73–4, 85,
143
Islam 4–5
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
(ISIL) 57, 68, 70, 74, 112, 145
Israel
chemical weapons 105
cyber attacks 118
Eichmann 23
Entebbe incident 51–2
Gaza, military incursion into 47
Iran 35
Lebanon: air strikes 99
non-State actors and self-defence 56
nuclear reactors: air strikes
Iraq 27, 60–61
Syria 62–3, 127
Six Day War 60
Italy 12, 13
Japan 8, 12, 13
jihad (holy war) 4–5
via free access
250 Regulating the use of force in international law

judicial review 148, 182–4 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty

jus cogens 36–8, 134, 183 Organization) 157, 159, 165–9
just war 213 armed attack 165–6
Aquinas, Saint Thomas 4 chemical weapons 105–6
Augustine, Saint 3, 4 collective self-defence 165–6
Catholicism 5 European Union 184, 185, 186,
Grotius 5–6 188–9
League of Nations 10 Kosovo 27, 32, 88–90, 141–2, 147,
New World and European States 166, 168, 214–15
7–8 Libya 144, 167, 216
Protestantism 5 peacekeeping 167–8, 185, 209
Roman Empire 2 natural law 2, 42, 213
sovereignty 6–7 Naulilaa 98
Treaty of Westphalia 6 necessity
armed reprisals 98, 106
Kadi 138–9, 183–4 humanitarian intervention 94
Kampuchea 81–2 self-defence see necessity under
Kellogg–Briand Pact 12–14, 15 self-defence
Kenya 57 Netherlands 122
Korean War 146, 147 Nicaragua v. United States 24–5, 39, 42,
Kosovo 27, 32, 88–90, 95, 141–2, 147–8, 44, 47–8, 54, 55, 72, 76, 77, 79,
166, 168, 186, 214–15 84, 100–101, 123, 217–18
Kuwait 135, 137, 140, 142–3 non-intervention principle 7, 25, 110,
First Gulf War 67, 73–4, 85, 143 116, 214
African Union 169
League of Arab States (LAS) 159, 162–4 distributed denial of service (DDoS)
League of Nations 9–12, 15, 133 attacks 121–2
Lebanon 99 Organization of American States
liberal democracy 85, 107–8 160, 161–2
Liberia 87, 142 peacekeeping operations 200, 201
Libya 102, 140, 144, 163–4, 170, 216 UN Charter (art 2(7)) 200
non-State actors 78, 209
collective security
Macron, Emmanuel 105 threat to the peace 135
Maduro, Nicolás 162 customary international law 18–19
Mali 108, 177, 179–80, 208 cyber attacks 54, 125–7, 130, 224
Manchuria 13 future of use of force regime
mediation 162, 163, 179 218–21, 223
Middle Ages 3–5 indirect force 24–5
Milošević, Slobodan 88 intervention by invitation 107
mission civilisatrice 8 self-defence 53–8, 130
mistake armed attack by NSA 55–8,
objective and subjective fault 30–31 67–8, 126–7
shooting down of civilian airliners conduct attributable to State
31–2 53–5, 125–7
use of force and 30–33 necessity 67–8
morality 213–18 North Atlantic Council 58
Mussolini, B. 13 North Korea 135, 137–8
Norway 59
Nagorno-Karabakh 48–9, 67 nuclear reactors: air strikes

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Index 251

Iraq 27, 60–61 preventive and anticipatory self-defence

Syria 62–3, 127
nuclear weapons 135
Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion 26,
35, 100
Nuremberg: International Military
Tribunal 59
occupation of territory 48–50, 67
Organization of American States (OAS)
58, 156, 159, 160–62
pacifism 3
Pact of Paris 12–14, 15
Pakistan 27–8, 82–4
Panama 217
peacekeeping operations 142, 146,
191–211, 218
consent 171, 193, 194, 195, 196–7,
198–9, 199–202, 207, 209,
210
revocation of 201–2
who is entitled to grant 201
implied or inherent powers 196, 198
legal basis 196–9, 202
Mali 179
nature and evolution 192–6
peace enforcement or 208–11
principles 199–210
consent see above
neutrality/impartiality 193, 194,
195, 201, 202–4, 209,
210
use of force in self-defence 136,
193, 194, 195, 204–10
regional organisations 198–9,
200–201
African Union 171, 178, 179
NATO 167–8, 185
sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA)
195
Uniting for Peace 147
pinprick approach 46–8
piracy 168, 186
Pol Pot 81–2
political independence or territorial
integrity 26–8
Portugal 98
59–65, 222–3
cyber attacks 63, 127–8, 129, 225
prohibition on threat or use of force
16–40, 78, 90, 213, 214
any other manner inconsistent 28–30
armed reprisals 98, 106
concept of force 19–22, 40, 118
cyberspace 116–22
de minimis threshold 22–4, 119–20,
123
desuetude: art 2(4) 38–40
indirect force 24–5, 110
international relations 25–6, 103
jus cogens 36–8
mistake 30–33
non-State actors 18–19, 219, 221
territorial integrity or political
independence 26–8
threat 33–5, 37
proportionality
armed reprisals 98, 100–101, 103,
104, 106, 125, 129
humanitarian intervention 94
responsibility to protect (R2P)
91
self-defence see proportionality
under self-defence
al-Qaida 58, 66, 183
regional organisations 152–90, 212
African Union (AU) see separate
entry
allocation of powers between UN
and 152–5
collective self-defence 160, 163,
165–6, 172, 173, 184–5
definition 155–7
Economic Community of Central
African States (ECCAS) 171,
173–4
Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS)
87–8, 142, 171, 172, 177,
179, 182–3
European Union (EU) see separate
entry

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
252 Regulating the use of force in international law

League of Arab States (LAS) 159, peacekeeping operations 194, 195,

162–4 199, 200, 201, 202
legal personality 158, 159, 170, 172 legal basis 196–8
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty use of force in self-defence
Organization) see separate 205–10
entry reporting and self-defence 15, 43,
Organization of American States 73, 75–7
(OAS) 58, 156, 159, 160–62 Resolutions 139, 140, 157, 159, 209
peacekeeping operations 198–9, 487 (1981) 27, 60
200–201 616 (1988) 31
African Union 171, 178, 179 660 (1990) 73
NATO 167–8, 185 678 (1990) 86, 140, 142–4
Southern African Development 687 (1991) 143–4
Community (SADC) 171, 688 (1991) 85–6
172–3, 176–7 788 (1992) 142
use of force by 816 (1993) 167
Security Council 153, 155, 157, 1162 (1998) 142
158–9, 161, 163–4, 166, 1199 (1998) 141
167–8, 170, 176–8, 186, 1203 (1998) 141
187 1244 (1999) 89–90, 168
responsibility to protect (R2P) 90–93, 1368 (2001) 58
147, 170, 213, 215–16 1373 (2001) 58, 138, 222
Rome, ancient 1–2 1441 (2002) 143
Russia 28, 80 1973 (2011) 144, 163–4, 167
Crimea 52–3, 108 2100 (2013) 179–80
Georgia 52, 57 2118 (2013) 94–5
humanitarian intervention 85–7, 88, 2249 (2015) 145
89, 90, 93, 95 2423 (2018) 208
Kosovo 88, 89, 90, 141, 147–8 self-defence 15, 43, 74–8, 142
Syria 93, 95, 106, 112, 147–8, 164 9/11 terrorist attacks 58
Rwanda: ICTR 136 accumulation of events doctrine
47
sanctions 136–9, 144, 149, 173, 183–4, anticipatory and preventive
218 60, 62
Organization of American States Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait 73
162 measures necessary 77–8
Saudi Arabia 111–12 non-State actors 58
Security Council 15, 215, 223 protection of nationals abroad
armed reprisals 99, 100, 101 53
chemical weapons 93, 94–6, 105 reporting obligation 15, 43, 73,
civilian airliner shot down 31 75–7
collective security see Security veto 31, 45–6, 88, 93, 106, 132, 135,
Council under collective 141, 146, 147–8, 164, 216
security review of 149–50
General Assembly and 146–8, self-defence 35, 39, 41–78, 82, 84, 142,
196–8 145, 212
humanitarian intervention 80, 83, 19th century State practice 7
85–6, 87, 87–8, 89–90, 91–6 armed attack see separate entry
Iraqi nuclear reactor 27, 60 armed reprisals and 100–103, 106,
jus cogens 37–8 124–5, 129

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Index
art 51 text 41
ceasefires 78
collective 58, 72–4, 145, 157
actual or imminent armed
attack 72
First Gulf War 73–4, 143
regional organisations 160, 163,
165–6, 172, 173, 184–5
victim requests assistance 72–3
customary law see self-defence
under customary
international law
cyberspace see self-defence under
cyber attacks
jus cogens 37
Kellogg–Briand Pact 13–14
necessity 43, 49, 50, 55, 58, 65–8,
71–2
collective self-defence 73
cyber attacks 129, 130, 225
defensive objectives 65
diplomatic and legal options 67
last resort 65
non-State actors 67–8, 220
occupation of territory 67
time frame 66–7, 71–2, 102
peacekeeping operations: use of
force in 136, 193, 194, 195,
204–10
proportionality 43, 53, 55, 58, 65,
68–72, 222
collective self-defence 73
cyber attacks 129, 130, 225
halting, repelling or preventing
69–70
harm beyond what is necessary
71
Security Council see self-defence
under Security Council
State responsibility for
internationally wrongful acts
58
conduct attributable to State
53–4
self-determination 110
self-preservation, duty of 42
sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) 195
Sierra Leone 87–8, 142
Skripal, Sergei 28
Soleimani, Qasem 70
Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925
Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
253
Somalia 57, 186, 209
South Africa 95, 108
South Arabian Federation 99
South Korea 135
South Ossetia 52
South Sudan 203
Southern African Development
Community (SADC) 171, 172–3,
176–7
sovereign equality 7, 14, 116, 213, 214
sovereignty, State 6–8, 14, 22–3, 32, 58,
160, 162, 173, 189, 213, 214, 223
African Union 169
consent to intervention 170–71
cyberspace 114, 115, 116, 129
intervention by invitation 106
pro-democratic intervention 217–18
responsibility to protect 92, 215
Soviet Union 12, 146
Spain 23–4
State responsibility 30, 36, 53–4, 58,
126, 219, 220–21
countermeasures 99, 100
Stoltenberg, Jens 105–6
subsidiarity 153, 155, 176
Sudan 200
Darfur 168, 178, 186, 200
Syria 62–3, 64, 68, 70, 74, 106, 112, 127,
147–8, 216
armed reprisals 103–6
humanitarian intervention 93–6
League of Arab States 164
Tanzania 81, 82
targeted killing of single individuals 24
territorial integrity or political
independence 26–8
terrorism 163, 168, 169, 172, 179, 189,
192, 195, 207
9/11 terrorist attacks 55, 58, 61, 66,
70
armed reprisals 102
EU: solidarity clause 185
future of use of force regime 221–2
intervention by invitation 112
sanctions on individuals 138–9,
183–4
self-defence 54, 57–8, 68, 70, 102,
145
accumulation of events 47
via free access
254 Regulating the use of force in international law

anticipatory and preventive Definition of Aggression

61, 63 Declaration 1974 49,
collective 74 54–5, 134
protection of nationals abroad Friendly Relations Declaration
51–2 1970 20, 24–5, 30, 99
threat to the peace 135 Grenada, invasion of 52
Thirty Years War (1618–1648) 5–6 Internal Affairs of States
threat of force 33–5, 37 Declaration 1981 99
threshold, use of force 22–4, 119–20, 123 Israeli air strike on Iraqi nuclear
treaties, law of 144 reactor 60
Treaty of Westphalia 6 Kampuchea 82
Trudeau, Justin 32 Non-Use of Force Declaration
Trump, Donald 103–5 1987 20
Turkey 57, 58, 68 peacekeeping operations 146,
147, 196–8, 200
Uganda 51–2, 56, 81, 82 responsibility to protect 92
Ukraine 32 Syria 164
Crimea 52–3, 108 use of force: role of 145–8
United Kingdom 80, 105 peacekeeping operations 146, 187,
biological attack against Sergei 207
Skripal 28 Agenda for Peace 193
civil war: negative equality 110, 112 Brahimi Report 194, 205, 210
Corfu Channel 28, 34 Central African Republic 204
cyber attacks 122 Congo 147, 196, 203, 208–9
Falkland Islands 35, 50 Cruz Report 205–6
humanitarian intervention 84, 85–7, Darfur 178
89, 93–4, 95–6, 97, 104, 214 definition 192
Iraq, 2003 action against 143–4 Egypt: UNEF I 147, 196,
League of Nations 12 199–200, 202, 204–5
peacekeeping operations HIPPO Report 194–5, 205, 210
stabilisation 203–4 legal basis 196–8
self-defence Mali 179–80, 208
armed attacks by non-State South Sudan 203
actors 57 regional organisations and 152–5,
collective 74 169, 189–90
drone strike in Syria 64 European Union 183–4, 186–8
imminence 64 Kosovo: UNMIK 168
proportionality 71 Mali 179–80
protection of nationals abroad UN–AU partnership 178
51 Secretary-General 154, 193, 196
threats to security 59, 64 preventive self-defence 61–2
United Nations 14–15, 85, 212 responsibility to protect (R2P)
‘A More Secure World’ Report 91–2
(2004) 91, 150, 154, 219, Security Council see separate entry
222–3 United States 12, 80, 155, 209
Bangladesh 83 9/11 terrorist attacks 55, 58, 61, 66,
General Assembly 132, 154, 223 70, 166, 219–20
armed reprisals 99 armed reprisals 102, 103–5, 106,
cyberspace 115–17, 121, 123 124–5
Bryan treaties 9

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Index 255

Cuba 29, 161 substantial involvement of State

cyber attacks 118, 122, 123, 124–5 in armed attack 55
defend forward 128–9 threats to security 59, 61, 64
Grenada, invasion of 29, 52, 109, warship shooting down Iranian
217 civilian airliner 31–2
humanitarian intervention 85–7,
95–6 Vattel, E. de 7, 213, 214
intervention by invitation 109, 112 Venezuela 162
Iraq, 2003 action against 61–2, Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
143–4 Relations 32
League of Nations 11 Vienna Convention on the Law of
NATO: US aircraft bombed China’s Treaties 36
Embassy in Belgrade 32 Vietnam 81–2
Nicaragua: support to Contras 24–5,
84 war
Pakistan: air strikes against Kellogg–Briand Pact: law against
suspected terrorists 27–8 12–14
self-defence 102 League of Nations 10–11
9/11 terrorist attacks 55, 58, 61, war crimes 93, 179
66, 70, 166, 219–20
armed attack 44, 46, 47–8, 55,
57, 58, 123, 125 Yanukovych, Viktor 108
collective 73–4, 166 Yemen 99, 111–12
imminent threats 64 Yugoslavia 31
necessity 66 ICTY 54, 136, 148
non-State actors 55, 57, 58, 68, and seceding republics 31, 185, 209
219–20 Kosovo 27, 32, 88–90, 95,
preventive 61–2 141–2, 147–8, 166, 168,
proportionality 70 186, 214–15
sanctions 137

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925
Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 ‘Professors Buchan and Tsagourias have produced an exceptional explo-
ration of how the international legal system regulates force. They expertly
consider the subject from historical, contemporary and future perspectives.
Students, scholars and practitioners alike will benefit from this full-spectrum
study of how the UN Charter framework interacts and evolves with custom-
ary and other supplemental legal sources. They adroitly integrate political
and moral considerations without compromising the rigour of their legal
work to produce a formidable and lasting contribution to this challenging
field of law.’
Professor Sean Watts, United States Military Academy at West Point, USA
‘A compelling review and reassessment of the jus ad bellum, which fully takes
account of the dramatically changing landscape of international relations,
the erosion of state sovereignty and the emergence of new technologies.’
Professor Nigel D. White, University of Nottingham, UK
‘This is a lively, readable and concise account of the regulation of the use of
force, bursting with contemporary examples. The use of force is perhaps the
most contentious area of international law, its terms being loaded with pre-
suppositions about law, politics and social relations. The authors present the
material clearly for our assessment, while their present voice reminds us that
there can be no finite answers to these difficult questions.’
Professor Pål Wrange, Stockholm Centre for International Law and Justice,
Stockholm University, Sweden

Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925

Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access
 Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias - 9781786439925
Downloaded from https://www.elgaronline.com/ at 02/25/2024 07:43:01PM
via free access