IMPORTANT PORTIONS FOR UNIV

EXAM
MODULE 3, MODULE 4 and MODULE 5
MODULE 3
 1) Distance Vector Algorithm
1. A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbours in a
routing packet.
2. Each router receives and saves the most recently received
distance vector from each of its neighbours.
3. A router recalculates its distance vector when:
 It receives a distance vector from a neighbour containing
different information than before.
 It discovers that a link to a neighbour has gone down.
 The DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost to each
destination
 In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing
table with its immediate neighbors periodically.
Initialization
 Each node can know only the distance between itself and its immediate
neighbors, those directly connected to it.
 each node can send a message to the immediate neighbors and find the
distance between itself and these neighbors.
 When a node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it needs to
update its routing table. Updating takes three steps:
1.The receiving node needs to add the cost between itself and the
sending node to each value in the second column.
2.The receiving node needs to add the name of the sending node to
each row as the third column if the receiving node uses information
from any row.The sending node is the next node in the route.
 Updating
3.The receiving node needs to compare each row of its old table with
the corresponding row of the modified version of the received table.

a) If the next-node entry is different, the receiving node chooses the row
with the smaller cost. If there is a tie, the old one is kept.
b) If the next-node entry is the same, the receiving node chooses the new
row.

Fig1: Initialization of tables in

distance vector routing
Fig2: Updating in distance vector
routing
 2) Link state Routing
 In link state routing each router must do the following things to make
it work:
 Discover its neighbors and learn their network addresses.
 Set the distance or cost metric to each of its neighbors.
 Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.
 Send this packet to and receive packets from all other routers.
 Compute the shortest path to every other router.
 Then Dijkstra’s algorithm can be run at each router to find the
shortest path to every other router.
Link state Routing
 Learning about the neighbors
 Measuring Line Cost
 Building Link State Packets
 Distributing Link State Packets
 Computing the New Routes
1.Learning about the sent over to neighbors that the
neighbors other side is required to send
 It accomplishes this goal by back immediately.
sending a special HELLO  By measuring the round-trip
packet on each point-to-point time and dividing it by two,
line. the sending router can get a
 The router on the other end is reasonable estimate of the
expected to send back a reply delay.
giving its name.

2.Measuring Line Cost

 A special ECHO packet is
3.Building Link State Packets  If it is new, it is forwarded on all
 The packet starts with the identity oflines except the one it arrived on.
the sender, followed by a sequence  If it is a duplicate, it is discarded.
number and age, and a list of 5.Computing the New Routes
neighbours.  With all routers having full set of
 Once the information for the link state packets, it can
exchange has been collected, the next construct the entire subnet graph.
step is for each router to build a
packet containing all the data.
4.Distributing Link State Packets
 Flooding is used to distribute the
link state packets.

 Routers keep track of all the (source
router, sequence) pairs they see.
 When a new link state packet comes
in, it is checked against the list of
packets already seen.
Fig: Link state knowledge

(a) A subnet. (b) The

link state packets for this
subnet.
 3) Multicast Routing
 A method to broadcast packets to well-defined groups
 Hosts can join multicast groups.
 They inform their routers
 Routers send group information throughout the subnet
 Each router computes a spanning tree for each group. The
spanning tree includes all the routers needed to broadcast
data to the group
Spanning Trees for Multicast Routing
 4) ROUTING FOR MOBILE HOST
 The basic idea used for mobile routing in the Internet and
cellular networks is
 for the mobile host to tell a host at the home location where it
is now. (cellular network or mobile network is a
communication network where the last link is wireless)
 This host, which acts on behalf of the mobile host, is called the
home agent.
 Once it knows where the mobile host is currently located, it can
forward packets so that they are delivered.
WORKING
1. The sender sends a data packet to the mobile host using its permanent address.
2. This packet is routed by the network to the host home location because the home
addresses belong there. It encapsulates the packet with a new header and sends this
bundle to the care-of address.
3. When the encapsulated packet arrives at the care-of address, the mobile host unwraps
it and retrieves the packet from the sender.
4. The overall route is called triangle routing because it way is circuitous if the remote
location is far from the home location.
5. As part of the step, 4 senders learns the current care-of address.
6. Subsequent packets can be routed directly to the mobile host by tunneling them to the
care-of address (step 5) bypassing the home location.
7. If connectivity lost for any reason as the mobile moves, the home address can always
be used to reach the mobile.
Fig : Packet routing for mobile users.
 5) Congestion Control in Virtual-Circuit Subnets
• One technique that is widely used to keep congestion that has
already started from getting worse is admission control.
• once congestion has been signalled, no more virtual circuits are
set up until the problem has gone away.
• An alternative approach is to allow new virtual circuits but
carefully route all new virtual circuits around problem areas.
• Suppose that a host attached to router A wants to set up a
connection to a host attached to router B.
• Normally, this connection would pass through one of the
congested routers.

18
 Form a new virtual circuit that omit congested routers and
all their lines.
 Negotiate an agreement between host and subnet while
forming a virtual circuit and reserve all required resources to
prevent congestion in future.

(a) A congested subnet. (b) A redrawn subnet, eliminates congestion and a virtual circuit from A to B.
 Congestion control in Datagram
subnets
1.The Warning Bit
• The warning state is set as a special bit in the packet’s header.
• As long as the router was in the warning state, it continued to set
the warning bit, which meant that the source continued to get
acknowledgements with it set.
2.Choke Packets
• The router sends a choke packet back to the source host.
• When the source host gets the choke packet. It reduce the
traffic by x%. It ignore choke packets referring to the
destination for a fixed time interval, and check again if there
is still the choke packets sent back.

20
3.Hop-by-Hop Choke Packets
•A choke packet that affects each hop it
passes through. More buffer request for
router F at this moment.
4.Load shedding

• When buffers become full, routers simply discard packets.

• Which packet is chosen to be the victim depends on the
application and on the error strategy used in the data link layer.

5.Random Early Detection

• RED monitors the average queue size and drops packets based
on statistical probabilities.
• This is a proactive approach in which the router discards one
or more packets before the buffer becomes completely full.
21 • Each time a packet arrives, the RED algorithm computes the
average queue length, avg.
 6.Jitter Control
• The variation (i.e., standard deviation) in the packet arrival times is called
jitter.
• High jitter, for example, having some packets taking 20 msec and others
taking 30 msec to arrive will give an uneven quality to the sound or movie.

23
(a) High jitter. (b) Low jitter.
6) Techniques for Achieving Good Quality of Service
Overprovisioning
• An easy solution is to provide so much router capacity, buffer space, and bandwidth that
the packets just fly through easily.
• The trouble with this solution is that it is expensive.
 Buffering
 Flows can be buffered on the receiving side before being delivered.
 Buffering them does not affect the reliability or bandwidth, and increases the
delay, but it smooths out the jitter.
Traffic Shaping
 Traffic shaping is about regulating the average rate (and burstiness) of data
transmission.
 Monitoring a traffic flow is called traffic policing.
24
 Techniques for Achieving Good Quality of Service
leaky bucket algorithm
• A leaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed-rate traffic by averaging
the data rate.
• It may drop the packets if the bucket is full.

The Token Bucket Algorithm

• In this algorithm, the leaky bucket holds tokens, generated by a clock at the rate of one token
every T sec.
25• For a packet to be transmitted, it must capture and destroy one token.
 Packet Scheduling
• Packets from different flows arrive at a switch or
router for processing.
• A good scheduling technique treats the different
flows in a fair and appropriate manner.
• Several scheduling techniques are designed to
improve the quality of service.
• Three of them here:
1. FIFO queuing,
2. priority queuing,
3. and weighted fair queuing.

26
MODULE 4
1) IPV4 protocol
The IP Protocol
 Version field
 Version is a 4 bit field that indicates the IP version used.
 IHL field
 Header length is a 4 bit field that contains the length of the IP header.
 The initial 5 rows of the IP header are always used.
 So, minimum length of IP header = 5 x 4 bytes = 20 bytes.
 The size of the 6th row representing the Options field vary from 0-40 bytes.
 So, maximum length of IP header = 20 bytes + 40 bytes = 60 bytes.
 Type of service field.
 to distinguish between different classes of service
 6-bit field contained a three-bit Precedence field and three flags, D, T,
and R. {Delay,Throughput, Reliability}
The IP Protocol
 Total length field
 Total length is a 16 bit field that contains the total length of the datagram (in bytes).
Total length = Header length + Payload length
 Identification field
 Identification is a 16 bit field.
 use to identify fragments of the same frame, Useful in re assembly of fragmented
datagrams.
DF stands for Don’t Fragment. It is an order to the routers not to fragment the packet.
if we don’t want the packet to be fragmented then DF is set i.e. DF = 1.
MF stands for More Fragments. All fragments except the last one have this bit set.
if MF = 1, more fragments are ahead of this fragment and if MF = 0, it is the last fragment.
Fragment offset
use to identify the sequence of fragments in the frame. It generally indicates a number of
data bytes preceding or ahead of the fragment.
TheTtL (Time to live)
 It indicates the maximum number of hops a datagram can take to reach
the destination.
 It prevent the IP datagrams from looping around forever in a routing
loop.
Protocol field
 It tells the network layer at the destination host to which protocol the IP
datagram belongs to.
 Protocol number of ICMP is 1, IGMP is 2, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
Header Checksum
 It contains the checksum value of the entire header.
 The checksum value is used for error checking of the header.
The IP Protocol
 Source address and Destination address
 indicate the network number and host number.
 logical address of the sender and receiver of the datagram.
Options field
 options is a field whose size vary from 0 bytes to 40 bytes.
This field is used for several purposes such as-
 Record route
 Source routing
 Padding
ARP / RARP / ICMP / BOOTP / DHCP /BGP /
Internet multicasting
RIP/OSPF

STUDY AS IN MOD 4 PPT – IT IS ALREADY

SHORT
IPv6 Header

The IPv6 fixed header (required).

IPv6 Header
 Version field is always 6 for IPv6 (4 for IPv4 )
 Traffic class field
 used to distinguish between packets with different real-time delivery
requirements.
 Flow label field
 used to allow a source and destination to set up a pseudo-connection
with particular properties and requirements (delay and bandwidth).
 Flow can be set up in advance according to requirements of source and
destination processes.
 Payload length field
 tells how many bytes follow the 40-byte main header
 the 40 header bytes are no longer counted as part of the length


IPv6
 Next header field
 there can be additional (optional) extension headers.
 This field tells which of the (currently) six extension headers follow this
one.
 If this header is the last IP header, the Next header field tells which
transport protocol handler (e.g.,TCP, UDP) to pass the packet to.
 Hop limit field
 used to keep packets from living forever.
 same as the Time to live field in IPv4, namely, a field that is
decremented on each hop.
 Source address and Destination address fields
 16-byte addresses written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits
with colons between the groups
8000:0000:0000:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF
IPV4 and IPV6
MODULE 5
1) Transmission control protocol (TCP)
 TCP provides a connection oriented, reliable, byte stream service.
 It is a full duplex protocol,
 TCP includes a flow-control mechanism
 TCP also implements a congestion-control mechanism.
• Two processes communicating via TCP sockets.
• Each side of a TCP connection has a socket which can be identified
by the pair < IP_address, port_number >.
• Two processes communicating over TCP form a logical connection
that is uniquely identifiable by the two sockets involved, that is by
the combination < local_IP_address, local_port, remote_IP_address,
remote_port>
TCP Header
1. Source port number (16 bits)
 identifies the TCP process which sent the datagram.
2. Destination port number (16 bits)
 identifies the TCP process which is receiving the datagram.
3. Sequence number (32 bits)
 identifies the first byte of the outgoing data.
4. Acknowledgement number (32 bits) :Contains the next sequence number that the
sender of the acknowledgement expects to receive, which is the sequence number plus 1
5. Header Length
 The length of the header can be between 20 and 60 bytes.
6. Reserved – This is a 6-bit field reserved for future use
13.Window Size(16 bit)
identifies how much buffer space is available for incoming data.

14.Checksum(16 bit)
 field contains a simple checksum over the TCP segment header and data.
15.Urgent Pointer (16 bit)
 valid only if the urgent flag is set, is used when the segment contains urgent data.
16.Options
 There can be up to 40 bytes of optional information in theTCP header.
17.Data
 This can be of variable size.
 which can be up to 65535 – 20 = 65515 bytes.
 TCP Connection establishment &release
In TCP connection-oriented transmission requires two phases:
• Connection establishment and Data transfer
• Connection termination
The three steps in this phase are as follows:

1. The client sends the first segment, a SYN segment, in which only the SYN flag is set.
2. The server sends the second segment, a SYN + ACK segment, with 2 flag bits set: SYN and
ACK.
3.The client sends the third segment.
This is just an ACK segment.
It acknowledges the receipt of the second segment with the ACK flag and
acknowledgment number field.
 Connection establishment using three-way handshaking

24.4
DataTransfer
•After connection is established, bidirectional data transfer can take place.
•The client and server can both send data and acknowledgements.
Connection Release/Termination
•The initiator sends a FIN with the current sequence and
acknowledgement number.
• The responder on receiving this informs the application program
that it will receive no more data and
 sends an acknowledgement of the packet.
•The connection is now closed from one side.
• Now the responder will follow similar steps to close the connection
from its side.
•Once this is done the connection will be fully closed.
 Data transfer

24.4
Connection termination using three-way handshaking

24.4
2) UDP Frame Format - UDP length = IP length – IP Header’s length
Header Source port:
• UDP port of sending host.
• The sending port value is optional. If not used,
it is set to zero.
• Needed to send reply to source
Destination port:
• UDP port of destination host.
• This provides an endpoint for communications.
Length:
• the size of the UDP message. The minimum
UDP packet contains only the header
information (8 bytes).
Checksum:
• verifies that the header is not corrupted.
• The checksum value is optional, If not used, it
is set to zero.
• If an error is detected, the entire UDP segment
TCP UDP
3) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - Connections
 FTP is an application layer protocol which moves files between local
and remote file systems or copying a file from one computer to
another.
 It runs on the top of TCP.
FTP : Data connection
 For sending the actual file, FTP makes use of data connection.
 A data connection is initiated on port number 20.

FTP: Control connection

For sending control information like
 user identification,
 password,
 commands to change the remote directory,
 commands to retrieve and store files, etc., FTP makes use of control
connection.
The control connection is initiated on port number 21.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - Working
 The client has three components:
 the user interface,
 the client control process, and
 the client data transfer process.
 The server has two components:
 the server control process and
 the server data transfer process.
 The control connection is made between the control processes.
 The data connection is made between the data transfer processes.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 The control connection
 remains open during the entire interactive FTP session.
 Port number is well-known port 21.
 The data connection
 is opened and then closed for each file transferred.
 It opens each time commands that involve transferring files are
used, and it closes after the file is transferred.
 Data connection uses well-known port 20 at the server site.
Figure 26.21 FTP

26.56
 FTP – File Transfer
 To transfer files through the data connection,The client must define
 the type of file to be transferred,
 the structure of the data, and
 the transmission mode.
 FTP can transfer one of the following file types across the data connection:
 an ASCII file
 EBCDIC file or image file
FTP : Data Structures
FTP allows three types of data structures :
 File Structure
 In file-structure there is no internal structure and
 the file is considered to be a continuous sequence or stream of data bytes.
 Record Structure
 In record-structure the file is divided into records.
 This can be used only with text files.
 the file is made up of sequential records.
 Page Structure
 the file is divided into pages, with each page having a page number and a page header
 In page-structure the file is made up of independent indexed pages.
 The pages can be stored and accessed randomly or sequentially.
FTP : Transmission modes
 FTP can transfer a file across the data connection by using one of the
following three transmission modes:
stream mode
 Data are delivered from FTP to TCP as a continuous stream of bytes.
Block mode
 Data can be delivered from FTP to TCP in blocks.

 In this case, each block is preceded by a 3-byte header.

 The first byte is called the block descriptor;

 the next 2 bytes define the size of the block in bytes.
Compressed mode: If the file is big, the data can be compressed.
 The compression method normally used is run-length encoding.
 In this method, consecutive appearances of a data unit are replaced by one
occurrence and the number of repetitions.
FTP – Working with commands
1.After the control connection to port 21 is created,
 the FTP server sends the 220 (service ready) response on the control
connection.
2.The client sends the USER command.
3.The server responds with 331 ( u s e r n a m e i s O K , p a s s w o r d i s
required).
4. The client sends the PASS command.
5.The server responds with 230 (user login is OK)

6. The client issues a passive open on an ephemeral port for the data connection
and sends the PORT command (over the control connection) to give this port
number to the server.
7. The server does not open the connection at this time,
 but it prepares itself for issuing an active open on the data connection
between port 20 (server side) and the ephemeral port received from the
client.
It sends response 150 (data connection will open shortly).

8.The client sends the LIST

9. Now the server responds with 125 and opens the data connection.

10. The server then sends the list of the files or directories (as a file) on the data
connection.
 When the whole list (file) is sent, the server responds with 226 (closing data
connection) over the control connection.
11. The client now has two choices.
 It can use the QUIT command to request the closing of the control connection
 or it can send another command to start another activity (and eventually open
another data connection). In our example, the client sends a QUIT command.
12.After receiving the QUIT command, the server Responds with 221 (service
closing) and then closes the control connection.

61
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Each internet host is assigned a host name and IP address
 Host name are structured character strings eg.www.google.com.
 IP addresses are 32- bit integers eg. 139.130.4.5.
 DNS is the naming service of the internet that resolve host names to IP
addresses.
 DNS allows users of internet application to refer to remote hosts by name
rather than by address.
 The Domain Name System (DNS) translates Internet domain and host names
to IP addresses and vice versa.
 The names assigned to machines must be unique because the addresses are unique.
 A name space that maps each address to a unique name can be organized in two ways:
 Flat Name Space
 Hierarchical Name Space
Domain Name Space
 The domain name space is hierarchical in
design.
 The names are defined in an inverted-tree
structure with the root at the top.
 The tree can have 128 levels: level 0 (root)
to level 127.
 Conceptually, the Internet is divided into
over 200 top-level domains, where each
domain covers many hosts.
 Each domain is partitioned into
subdomains, and these are further
partitioned, and so on.
 All these domains can be represented by a
tree,
 The leaves of the tree represent domains
that have no subdomains.
Fully Qualified Domain Name (or • Here the resolver can supply the
absolute domain name): missing part, called the suffix, to
• If a label is terminated by a null create an FQDN.
string, it is called a fully qualified •
domain name (FQDN).
• An FQDN is a domain name that
contains the full name of a host.
• It contains all labels,
Partially Qualified Domain Name
(or relative domain name):
• If a label is not terminated by a null
string, it is called a partially
qualified domain name (PQDN).
• A PQDN starts from a node, but it
does not reach the root.
 Name Servers
DNS servers called a zone file and keeps all the
 Divide the whole space into information for every node under
many domains based on the first that domain.
level.  The information about the nodes
 let the root stand alone and create in the subdomains is stored in
as many domains (subtrees) as the servers at the lower levels.
there are first-level nodes.
 DNS allows domains to be
divided further into smaller
domains (subdomains).
Zone : It can be defined as a
contiguous part of the entire
tree.
 The server makes a database
Root Server
 A root server is a server whose zone consists of the whole tree.
 DNS defines two types of servers:
 primary - server that stores a file about the zone for which it is an
authority.
 Secondary - server that transfers the complete information about a
zone from another server (primary or secondary) and stores the file on
its local disk
DNS – TYPES OF DOMAINS
 In the Internet, the domain name space (tree) is divided into three
different sections:
 generic domains - define registered hosts according to their
generic behaviour
 country domains - two-character country abbreviations (e.g., us for
United States).
 inverse domain - used to map an address to a name.
Resource Records
 Every domain can have a set of resource records associated with it.
 the primary function of DNS is to map domain names onto resource records.
 A resource record is a five-tuple

Domain_name Time_to_live Class Type Value

The Domain_name tells the domain to which this record applies.

-The Time_to_live field gives an indication of how stable the record in.

-The third field of every resource record is the Class. For Internet information, it is
always IN.

- The Type field tells what kind of record this is.

- Value field. This field can be a number, a domain name, or an ASCII string.
 Figure1. The principal DNS resource record types for IPv4.

-SOA record provides the name of the primary source of information about the name
server's zone (described below), the e-mail address of its administrator, a unique serial
number, and various flags and timeouts.

- A (Address) record holds a 32-bit IP address for some host. Every Internet host must
have at least one IP address so that other machines can communicate with it.

- CNAME records allow aliases to be created.

- PTR points to another name
- HINFO records allow people to find out what kind of machine and operating system a
domain corresponds to.
-TXT records allow domains to identify themselves in arbitrary ways. Both of these
record types are for user convenience.
 WORKING OF DNS
 Mapping a name to an address or an address to a name is called name-
address resolution.
 A host that needs to map an address to a name or a name to an address calls a
DNS client called a resolver.
 The resolver accesses the closest DNS server with a mapping request.
 If the server has the information, it satisfies the resolver;
 otherwise,
 it either refers the resolver to other servers
 or asks other servers to provide the information.
 After the resolver receives the mapping,
 it interprets the response to see if it is a real resolution or an error,
 and finally delivers the result to the process that requested it.
DNS MESSAGES TYPES
 DNS has two types of messages: query and response.
 Both types have the same format.
 The query message consists of
 a header and question records;
 the response message consists of
 a header,
 question records,
 answer records, Header
 authoritative records, format
 and additional records.
ELECTRONIC MAIL
 One of the most popular Internet services is electronic mail (e-mail).

Email messages are comprised

of three components:
 Message envelop:
Describes the email’s
electronic format
 Message header:
Includes
sender/recipient
information and email
subject line
 Message body:
Include text, image
and file attachments
Basic email functions
Composition
 refers to the process of creating messages and answers.
 Although any text editor can be used for the body of the message, the system
itself can provide assistance with addressing and the numerous header fields
attached to each message.
 For example, when answering a message, the e-mail system can extract the
originator's address from the incoming e-mail and automatically insert it into
the proper place in the reply.
Transfer
 refers to moving messages from the originator to the recipient.
 In large part, this requires establishing a connection to the destination or
some intermediate machine, outputting the message, and releasing the
connection.
 The e-mail system should do this automatically, without bothering the user.
Basic email functions
Reporting
 has to do with telling the originator what happened to the message.
 Was it delivered? Was it rejected? Was it lost? Numerous applications exist in which
confirmation of delivery is important and may even have legal significance
Displaying
 incoming messages is needed so people can read their e-mail.
 Sometimes conversion is required or a special viewer must be invoked, for example,
if the message is a PostScript file or digitized voice.
 Simple conversions and formatting are sometimes attempted as well.
Disposition
 is the final step and concerns what the recipient does with the message after receiving
it.
 Possibilities include throwing it away before reading, throwing it away after reading,
saving it, and so on.
 It should also be possible to retrieve and reread saved messages, forward them, or
process them in other ways.
Architecture and services
 The sending of electronic mail in the Internet requires these
components:
 user agents (UAs),
 mail transfer agents (MTAs), and
 the protocol that controls mail delivery
Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
 The actual mail transfer requires a mail transfer agent (MTA).
 To send mail, a system must have a client MTA, and to receive mail,
a system must have a server MTA.
 The client MTA is installed on the user’s computer.
 The client and the server MTA are installed on a computer that is
used as the mail server.
User agent (UA) :
 a program that accepts a variety of commands for composing, receiving, and replying to
messages, as well as for manipulating mailboxes.
 The user agent is not responsible for sending or receiving email.
 There are two types of user agents: command-driven and GUI-based

Composing Messages
A user agent helps the user compose the e-mail message to be sent out.
Most user agents provide a template on the screen to be filled in by the user.

Reading Messages
The second duty of the user agent is to read the incoming messages.
When a user invokes a user agent, it first checks the mail in the incoming mailbox.
Most user agents show a one-line summary of each received mail.
 Replying to Messages
 After reading a message, a user can use the user agent to reply to a message.
 A user agent usually allows the user to reply to the original sender or to
reply to all recipients of the message.
 The reply message may contain the original message and the new message.
Forwarding Messages
 Replying is defined as sending a message to the sender or recipients of the
copy.
 Forwarding is defined as sending the message to a third party.
Handling Mailbox

A user agent normally creates two mailboxes: an inbox and an outbox.

Each box is a file with a special format that can be handled by the user
agent.
ARCHITECTURE
Email -Message Formats – header
 SMTP-Simple mail Transfer Protocol
 It used to deliver mails to particular destination over internet

 SMTP is referred to transporting outgoing emails to particular destination.

 The actual mail transfer requires message/mail transfer agents (MTAs).

 It is responsible for transferring and outgoing an email message from the

sender’s computer to the recipient’s computer.

 The protocol that defines the MTA client and server in the Internet is called
Simple MailTransfer Protocol (SMTP).
 IMAP and POP being two other important protocols for retrieving mail messages.
MIME -Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions – Need and Importance
 MIME is an extension of the original Email
protocol SMTP. SMTP is a protocol used to send and receive
Emails.
Limitations of SMTP
 SMTP can only send ASCII test (plain text characters)
 SMTP can’t transmit video/audio/graphic/executable files
 SMTP servers may reject messages bigger than certain size
 SMTP can’t transmit various national language characters other
than English
MIME -Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions – Need and Importance
 MIME is intended to solve these problems. MIME was defined in 1992 by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

 MIME standard helps extend the limited capabilities of email by allowing insertion
of images, sounds, video and animations in a message.
Features offered by MIME

 Support for multiple attachments in a single message

 Support for non-ASCII characters
 Support for layouts, fonts and colors which are categorized as rich text
(FORMATTING)
 Support for attachments which may contain executables, audio, images and video
files, etc.
 Support for unlimited message length
MIME message headers
 RFC 822 headers added by MIME
MIME File Types
 In addition to e-mail applications, Web browsers also support
various MIME types. This enables the browser to display files
that are not in HTML format.
 There are many, many different MIME types. On the web the
most common ones are used with multimedia such as
audio files and video files. It is also possible to define
your own MIME types. Here are some examples of common
mime file types seen on the web:
 SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol) –
Role of SNMP
 SNMP is a frame work for managing devices in an internet using
TCP/IP suite.
 The protocol is designed at the application level so that it can
monitor devices made by different manufacturers and installed on
different physical networks.
 Can be used in heterogeneous networks.
 It provides fundamental operations
 for monitoring and maintaining an internet.
 SNMP uses the concept of
 Manager
 Agent
Fig: Interactions in SNMP
SNMP Concept
 SNMP has two components Manager and
agent.
 The manager is a host that controls and
monitors a set of agents such as routers.
 It is an application layer protocol in which a
few manager stations can handle a set of
agents.
 The protocol designed at the application level
can monitor the devices made by different
manufacturers and installed on different
physical networks.
 It is used in a heterogeneous network made
of different LANs and WANs connected by
routers or gateways.
Figure. SNMP concept
SNMP - Components:
– SNMP agent

– SNMP manager

– Management Information Bases (MIBs)

– SNMP protocol itself

• SNMP agent is software that runs on a piece of network
equipment (host, router, printer, or others) and that
maintains information about its configuration and current
state in a database.

• Information in the database is described by Management

Information Bases (MIBs)

• An SNMP manager is an application program that contacts

an SNMP agent to query or modify the database at the
agent.

• SNMP protocol is the application layer protocol used by

SNMP agents and managers to send and receive data.
SNMP - Message Types
SNMP defines five types of messages:
 GetRequest:The GetRequest message is sent from a manager (client)
to the agent (server) to retrieve the value of a variable.
 GetNextRequest:The GetNextRequest message is sent from the
manager to agent to retrieve the value of a variable.
 GetResponse:The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the
manager in response to the GetRequest and GetNextRequest message.
 SetRequest:The SetRequest message is sent from a manager to the
agent to set a value in a variable.
 Trap:The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report
an event.
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 WWW-WORLD WIDE WEB
 A technical definition of the World Wide Web is :
 all the resources and users on the Internet that are using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
 www is the universe of network-accessible information, an
embodiment of human knowledge.
 The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information between
computers on the Internet, tying them together into a vast
collection of interactive multimedia resources.
 Created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN in Geneva.
Client (Browser)
 Web browser is a program, which is used to communicate with web server on
the Internet.
 Each browser consists of three parts: a controller, client protocol and
interpreter.
 The controller receives input from input device and use the programs to
access the documents.
 After accessing the document, the controller uses one of the interpreters to
display the document on the screen.
 Server
 A computer which is available for the network resources and provides
service to the other computer on request is known as server.
 The web pages are stored at the server.
 Server accepts a TCP connection from a client browser.
 It gets the name of the file required.
 Server gets the stored file. Returns the file to the client and releases
the top connection.
Uniform Resource Locator
 The URL is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the Internet.
 The URL consists of four parts: protocol, host computer, port and path.
 The protocol is the client or server program which is used to retrieve the
document or file. The protocol can be ftp or http.
 The host is the name of computer on which the information is located.
 The URL can optionally contain the port number and it is separated from the
host name by a colon.
 Path is the pathname of the file where the file is stored.
• The WWW today is a distributed client-server service, in which a
client using a browser can access a service using a server.
• However, the service provided is distributed over many locations
called sites.
• Each site holds one or more documents, referred to as Web pages.
• Each Web page can contain a link to other pages in the same site or at other
sites.
• The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers.
WWW - Working
 The client needs to see some information that it knows belongs to site A.
 It sends a request through its browser, a program that is designed to fetchWeb documents.
 The request, among other information, includes the address of the site and the Web page, called the
URL.
 The server at site A finds the document and sends it to the client.
 When the user views the document, she finds some references to other documents, including a Web
page at site B.
 The reference has the URL for the new site.
 The user is also interested in seeing this document.
 The client sends another request to the new site, and the new page is retrieved.
WWW Operation
1.User enters the URL (say, http://www.tutorialspoint.com) of the web page in the address bar
of web browser.
2.Then browser requests the Domain Name Server(DNS) for the IP address corresponding to
www.tutorialspoint.com.
3.After receiving IP address, browser sends the request for web page to the web server using
HTTP protocol which specifies the way the browser and web server communicates.
4.Then web server receives request using HTTP protocol and checks its search for the requested
web page. If found it returns it back to the web browser and close the HTTP connection.
5.Now the web browser receives the web page, It interprets it and display the contents of web
page in web browser’s window.