Important Concepts in Soil Mechanics

Shear strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the magnitude of the shear stress that a soil can sustain.
The shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of particles, and possibly cementation or bonding at
particle contacts. Due to interlocking, particulate material may expand or contract in volume as it is subject to shear
strains. If soil expands its volume, the density of particles will decrease and the strength will decrease; in this case,
the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear stress. The stress-strain relationship levels off when the
material stops expanding or contracting, and when inter-particle bonds are broken. The theoretical state at which
the shear stress and density remain constant while the shear strain increases may be called the critical state, steady
state, or residual strength.

The volume change behavior and inter-particle friction depend on the density of the particles, the inter-granular
contact forces, and to a somewhat lesser extent, other factors such as the rate of shearing and the direction of the
shear stress. The average normal inter-granular contact force per unit area is called the effective stress.

If water is not allowed to flow in or out of the soil, the stress path is called an undrained stress path. During
undrained shear, if the particles are surrounded by a nearly incompressible fluid such as water, then the density of
the particles cannot change without drainage, but the water pressure and effective stress will change. On the other
hand, if the fluids are allowed to freely drain out of the pores, then the pore pressures will remain constant and the
test path is called a drained stress path. The soil is free to dilate or contract during shear if the soil is drained. In
reality, soil is partially drained, somewhere between the perfectly undrained and drained idealized conditions. The
shear strength of soil depends on the effective stress, the drainage conditions, the density of the particles, the rate
of strain, and the direction of the strain.

Cohesion (Internal Shear Strength)

Cohesion (in Latin cohaerere "stick or stay together") or cohesive attraction or cohesive force is the action or
property of like molecules sticking together, being mutually attractive. This is an intrinsic property of a substance
that is caused by the shape and structure of its molecules which makes the distribution of orbiting electrons irregular
when molecules get close to one another, creating electrical attraction that can maintain a macroscopic structure
such as a water drop. Cohesive soils are clay type soils. Cohesion is the force that holds together molecules or like
particles within a soil. Cohesion, c, is usually determined in the laboratory from the Direct Shear Test. Unconfined
Compressive Strength, UCS, can be determined in the laboratory using the Triaxial Test or the Unconfined
Compressive Strength Test. There are also correlations for UCS with shear strength as estimated from the field using
Vane Shear Tests. With a conversion of 1 kips/ft2 = 47.88 kN/m2.

Adhesion (External Shear Strength)

Adhesion is any attraction process between dissimilar molecular species that can potentially bring them in close
contact. By contrast, cohesion takes place between similar molecules.

Adhesion is the tendency of dissimilar particles and/or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the
tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and
cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of
stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion.