Light is produced by a source, strikes the objects around you, and reflects off those objects

Reflection - the bouncing off of light rays as it hits a surface. If the surface is smooth and shiny, like glass,
water or polished metal, the light will reflect at the same angle as it hits the surface

Incident Ray - The ray of light approaching the mirror represented by an arrow approaching an optical
element like mirrors.

Reflected Ray - The ray of light which leaves the mirror and is represented by an arrow pointing away
from the mirror.

Normal Line - An imaginary line that can be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the
point of incidence where the ray strikes the mirror.

Plane Mirror - the common, everyday flat mirror we see everyday consists of a flat, two – dimensional
surface that reflects the light coming from or reflecting off another object

Images formed by plane mirrors are: virtual, upright, left-right reversed, the same distance from the
mirror as the object's distance, and the same size as the object.

Curved Mirror - a reflecting surface in which its surface is a section of sphere.

Kinds of Curved Mirrors – convex mirror and concave mirror

Concave mirror- It is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges away from the light source. It
is called Converging Mirror because the parallel incident rays converge or meet/intersect focal point
after reflection. Images on concave mirrors are: real or virtual enlarged, diminished, or same size,
upright or inverted

The Convex Mirror - It is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges towards the light source.
It is called Diverging Mirror because the parallel incident rays diverge after reflection. When extending
the reflected rays behind the mirror, the rays converge at the focus behind the mirror. Images on
convex mirrors are: always upright, smaller than the objects viewed, virtual.

Parts of A Curved Mirror- V – vertex point of intersection

C – center of curvature

F – principal focus or focal point, midpoint between C and V

R – radius of curvature and it is the distance from C to V

f – focal length – distance from V to F equals to ½ of R

Principal axis – line passing through the center of curvature

Ray Diagramming - a process that enables illustration on the kind and location of image formed in a
curved mirror, involves drawing and measurement in order to show an image formed in a mirror

Refraction - the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another medium

Light travels fast in air and slower in water and slowest in solid.
A lens is an optical device made of glass or plastic that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of
refraction.

Types of Lenses - Converging or convex lens, Concave or diverging lens

Converging or Convex lens- a lens with thick center and thinner at edge

Images in a convex lens – real, inverted, enlarged, diminished, same size

Convex lens – telescope, eye lens, microscope, camera lenses and magnifying glasses.

• Used in Magnifying Glasses- As the light rays enter the convex lens of the magnifying glass, it
becomes focused on a specific focal point in front of the center of the lens. Once the magnifying
glass is at the optimal distance, the focal point will reach the object. Therefore, maximum
magnification of the object will be generated.

• Used in Eyeglasses- A person can become farsighted or nearsighted as the eye lens fails to focus
the light on the retina properly. The lens of a person who is suffering from farsightedness
focuses the image far behind the retina. Therefore, it causes difficulty for the person to focus on
the objects that are close to the eye. When placed in front of the eye, a convex lens bends the
light rays, which shortens the focal point, and the light focuses on the retina properly.

• Uses of Convex lens in Cameras - Convex lenses are used widely in the camera, focusing on an
image and magnifying it. Almost all lenses of cameras consist of a convex lens followed by a
concave lens followed by a second convex lens. The first lens controls the magnification level of
the image by moving away from or towards the object.

• Used in Microscopes- Microscopes use a convex lens to generate extremely magnified images
of very small objects. Simple microscopes mostly consist of three lenses. The lens at the end of
the simple microscope produces an inverted and magnified image.

B. Concave or Diverging Lens - has thinner center and thick edges, Images in a concave Lens:
upright, reduced and virtual. Concave lens – binoculars, telescope, eye glasses and flash light.

• Used in glasses- Concave lenses are most used to correct myopia which is also called near-
sightedness. The eyeball of a person who has myopia is too long, and the images of faraway
objects fall short of the retina. Therefore, concave lenses are used in glasses which correct the
shortfall by spreading out the light rays before it reaches the eyeball. This enables the person to
see far-away objects more clearly.

• Uses of concave lens in lasers- Different types of scanners, medical equipment, and CD and DVD
players use laser beams. As the laser beams are highly focused, they are dispersed so that the
equipment works properly. Small concave lenses are used which widen the laser beam to
sharply access a specific area.

• Use of concave lens in cameras- To improve the quality of photographs, combinations of convex
and concave lenses are widely used by camera manufacturers. When only a convex lens is used
as the primary lens of a camera, it causes distortions in the photos, which are called chromatic
aberrations. Combining both concave and convex lenses eliminated the undesirable effects.
 • Used in flashlights - Concave lenses are also used in flashlights to magnify the light produced by
the source. The light rays fall on the hollowed side of the lens, and the light rays diverge on the
other side. This increases the radius of the light source and thus provides a wider beam.

• Used in peepholes- Peepholes or door viewers are security devices that give a panoramic view
of objects outside walls or doors. A concave lens is used to minimize the proportions of the
objects and gives a wider view of the object or area.

CONCAVE MIRROR -real or virtual enlarged, diminished, or same size and upright or inverted and
converging mirror

CONVEX MIRROR - always upright, smaller than the objects viewed , virtual and diverging mirror

Converging or convex lens - inverted enlarged, diminished, same size

Concave or diverging lens – upright, reduced and virtual

GLOBALISASYON -pagpapalawig, pagpaparami, at pagpapatatag ng mga koneksiyon at interaksyon o

ugnayan ng mga bansa at internasyonal na organisasyon sa aspektong pang-ekonomiya, pampolitika, at
pangkultural.

GLOBALISASYON - tumutukoy rin ito sa mabilisan at malawakang pagdaloy o paggalaw ng mga tao,
bagay, impormasyon, produkto, at serbisyo sa iba’t ibang panig ng mundo.

GLOBALISASYON Sa pagpapakahulugan ni David Held, isang dalubhsang Briton sa agham politika, ang
globalisasyon ay kinapapalooban ng maraming dimension at kinasasangkutan ng maraming aspekto:
pampolitika, pangkultura at pang-ekonomiya.

GLOBALISASYON Sa pahayag ng Levin Institute ng State University of New York, ang globalisasyon ay
proseso ng interaksyon at integrasyon ng mga tao, kompanya, at pamahalaan mula sa iba’t ibang bansa
na pinakikilos ng pandaigdigang kalakalan at pamumuhunan at ginagabayan ng nformation technology;

GLOBALISASYON isang prosesong nakaaapekto sa kalikasan, kultura, mga sistemang pampolitikal,

kaunlarang pang-ekonomiya, at pisikal na kalagayan ng mga mamamayan sa buong daigdig.

GLOBALISASYON sa pananaw ng mga ekonomista at negosyante, ito ay tumutukoy sa paglipana ng mga

Negosyo at pamumuhunan mula sa local at pambanasang pamilihan tungo sa mga pandaigdigang
mercado na nagdudulot ng mas matibay na ugnayan ng iba’t ibang bansa at unternasiyonal na
organisasyon

GLOBALISASYON para sa mga dalubhasa, ito ay isang mahabang siklo (cycle) ng pagbabago. Ito ay
patuloy na nangyayari at hindi na maiiwasan kaya dapat nang tanggapin bilang bahagi ng ating
pamumuhay sa makabagong panahon. Ilan sa mga sanhi ng globalisasyon ay ang sumusunod; pag-aasam
ng kaunlaran , masiglang pkikipagkalakalan at pamumuhunan at industriyalisasyon at modernisasyon.
Kasaysayan ng Globalisasyon - 1. Silk Road isang sinaunang ruta ng kalakalan sa pagitan ng China at
Mediterranean Region (Southern Europe). Nakuha ang pangalan nito mula sa Chinese Silk, isang
napakahalahagang uri ng tela na mulasa silkworm na ikinakalakal gamit ang nasabing ruta

2.Panahon ng Eksplorasyon 3. Industriyal Revolution 4. Kolonyalismo at Imperyalismo 5. Wealth of

the Nations 6. Paghahati ng espesyalisasyon

Yugto ng Globalisasyon

UNANG YUGTO - Age of Discovery

IKALAWANG YUGTO - Industrial Revolution

IKATLONG YUGTO - Ugnayan ng mga bansa

IKAAPAT NA YUGTO - Pagiging magkakatuwang ng mga bansa.

GLOBALISASYON AT POLITIKA - Pagkabuo ng iba’t ibang pandaigdigang organisasyon na na naging

dahilan ng lumalawak na interaksiyon ng mga bansa. Katula ng mga sumusunod; UN, EU, IMF, APEC, WB
at WTO.

GLOBALISASYON AT EKONOMIYA - Pagkabuo ng mga Multinational Companies ito ang pangkalahatang

tawag sa mga namumuhunang kompanya sa ibang bansa kung saan ang mga produkto o serbisyong
ipinagbibili ay hindi nakabatay sa mga local na pangangailangan

GLOBALISASYON AT EKONOMIYA - nabuo ang General Agreeement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) sa
pamamagitan ng 23 bansa noong 1947. Makalipas ang 47 na taon nagpulong ang 128 na bansa upang
pagtibayin ang pagbuo sa World Trade Organization (WTO) na siyang pumalit sa GATT.

Ang General Agreeement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) tratado sa pagitan ng mmga bansa na ang pakay
ay maitaguyod ang pandaigdgang kalakalan sa pamamagitan ng pagbabawas o pagtatanggal ng mga
sagabal kagaya ng taripa at takda

- Ang Free Market System sistemang pang-ekonomiya na nagpapahintulot sa mga nagbebenta at

mamimili na magpasya ng presyo ng mga kalakal at serbisyo batay sa interaksiyon ng suplay at demand
sa pamilihan.

GLOBALISASYON AT LIPUNAN - Ayon kay Anthony Giddens, isang sosyologong Briton, ang globalisasyon
ay hindi lamang penomenong pangekonomiya, ito rin ay isang proseso ng ugnayan ng iba’t ibang
pamayanang kumakatawan sa global na Lipunan.

Nagkaroon ng digital technology mga elektonikong kagamitan, Sistema, aparato, at iba pang
ksangkapang ginagamit sa pagbuo, paglikom, at pagproseso ng datos o impormasyon

FORMULA

CP = CLF + NLF E = CLF – U UR= U/CLFx100

CLF= CP – NLF U = CLF – E LFPR= CLF/CPx100

NLF = CP – CLF ER= E/CPx100