MIDTERMS TYPES OF AIR INLET DUCTS – POSITION

SECTIONS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE 1. ENGINE MOUNTED – A combination of

wig mounted and vertical stabilizer
1. AIR INLET mounted engines are used
2. COMPRESSOR SECTION (e.g. DC-10 and L-1011)
3. COMBUSTION SECTION 2. WINGS MOUNTED – Some aircraft with
4. TURBINE engines mounted inside the wings
5. EXHAUST SECTION feature air inlet ducts in the wing’s
TURBINE ENGINE HOT SECTION PARTS leading edge.
(e.g. Havilland Comet, De Havilland
1. COMBUSTION Vampire)
2. TURBINE 3. FUSELAGE MOUNTED – Engines mounted
3. EXHAUST inside a fuselage typically use air inlet
ducts located near the front of the
TURBINE ENGINE COLD SECTION PARTS fuselage.
1. AIR INLET DUCT (e.g. Dassault Super Mystere)
2. COMPRESSOR SECTION TYPES OF AIR INLET DUCTS – SPEED
AIR INLET 1. SUBSONIC INLET – Consists of a fixed
• It is one of the cold sections of turbine geometry duct whose diameter
engine progressively increases from front to
• Built into the airframe or the forward part back. This divergent shape works like a
of the nacelle installation venturi in that as the intake air spreads
• Designed to provide a relatively out, the velocity of the air decreases and
turbulent free supply of air to the face of the pressure increases. This added
the low-pressure compressor or fan. pressure contributes significantly to
engine efficiency once the aircraft
The design of the intake duct is vital to the reaches its design cruising speed.
performance of the engine under all airspeeds or 2. SUPERSONIC INLET – On supersonic
angles of attack to avoid compressor stall. aircraft a typical air inlet duct has either
a fixed or variable geometry whose
FUNCTIONS: diameter progressively decreases, then
RAM RECOVER/PRESSURE RECOVERY – Recover increases from front to back. This
as much of the total pressure of the free convergent-divergent shape is used to
airstream as possible and deliver this pressure to slow the incoming airflow to subsonic
the compressor. speed before it reaches the compressor.
The supersonic diffuser gradually
• Many inlets are shaped to raise the air decreases in area from front to rear
pressure above atmospheric pressure which has the effect of reducing the air
• Provide a uniform supply of air to the velocity down to below Mach 1. Further
compressor so the compressor can reduction of velocity is achieved by a
operate efficiently. subsonic diffuser which increases in area
towards the compressor face. The
control of shock waves that form on the
air inlet is also important to correctly
decelerate the air through the shock
waves. The use of variable geometry
intakes allow the correct control of
intake shocks and may also comprise spill
doors to allow excess air to be spilled
from the inlet without having its velocity
changed.
 3. BELLMOUTH INLETS – These have a
convergent profile that is designed
specifically for obtaining very high
aerodynamic efficiency when stationary
or in slow flight. Therefore, bellmouth
inlets are typically used on helicopters,
some slow moving aircraft, and on
engines being run in ground test stands.
A typical bellmouth inlet is short in length
and has rounded shoulders offering very
little air resistance.
COMPRESSOR SECTION
• The second major section and also a
part of the cold section of a gas turbine
engine
• It is the component that forces air into
the engine.
• Its main objective is to supply
compressed air for combustion in the
combustion chamber
COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO – The outlet
pressure divided by the inlet pressure
THE AMOUNT OF AIR PASSING THROUGH THE
ENGINE IS DEPENDENT UPON THREE FACTORS:
1. The compressor speed (rpm)
2. The forward speed of the aircraft
3. The density of the ambient (surrounding)
air
To be effective, a modern compressor must
increase the intake air pressure 20 to 30 times
above the ambient air pressure and move the air
at a velocity of 400 to 500 feet per second.
FUNCTIONS:
• to supply air in sufficient quantity to
satisfy the requirements of the
combustion burners
• supply bleed air/customer bleed air for
various purposes in the engine and
aircraft
• The bleed-air is taken from any of the
various pressure stages of the
compressor. Bleeding air from the
compressor does cause a small but
noticeable drop in engine power.
Sometimes power loss can be detected
by observing the engine pressure ratio
(EPR) indicator
Bleed air is utilized in a wide variety of ways.
Some of the current applications of bleed air are:
1. Cabin pressurization, heating, and
cooling
2. De-icing and anti-icing equipment
3. Pneumatic starting of engines
TYPES OF COMPRESSOR SECTION
1. CENTRIFUGAL FLOW
• Also called as radial outflow
compressor
• One of the earliest compressor
designs and is still used today in
some smaller engines and
auxiliary power units
CONSISTS OF:
• An impeller/rotor
• Diffuser
• Manifold
Centrifugal compressors have a high
pressure rise per stage that can be
around 8:1. Generally centrifugal
compressors are limited to two stages
due to efficiency
PARTS
IMPELLER/ROTOR – consists of a forged disk with
integral blades fastened by a splined coupling to
a common power shaft. Its function is to take air
in and accelerate it outward by centrifugal
force. Compressors having only one impeller are
referred to as single-stage compressors while
compressors having two impellers are referred to
as double stage compressors
TYPES OF IMPELLER
1. TWO-STAGE IMPELLER – Used to obtain
higher compressor pressure ratio
2. SINGLE-STAGE DUAL-SIDED IMPELLER –
Enables a small diameter engine to
produce a high mass airflow
3. DOUBLE SIDED, DOUBLE ENTRY IMPELLER –
When two impellers are mounted back-
to-back, a double-sided or double-entry
impeller is created. A single-stage,
double-sided impeller allows a higher
mass airflow than that of a similar sized
single-stage, single-sided impeller.
Therefore, engines “with double sided
impellers typically has a smaller overall
diameter.
ADVANTAGES:
• Simplicity in manufacture
• Relatively low cost
• Low Weight
• Low Starting Power Requirements
• Operating efficiency over a wide range
of rotational speed
DISADVANTAGES:
• Large frontal area required for a given
airflow increases aerodynamic drag
• Practical limits on the number of stages
restrict its usefulness when designing
larger and more powerful engines
2. AXIAL FLOW – In an axial flow
compressor, the airflow is along the
horizontal axis of the compressor. An
axial flow compressor has two main
elements, a rotor and a stator. The task
of an axial compressor is to raise air
pressure rather than air velocity.
BASIC TYPE OF TURBINE BLADE ROOT
1. BULB ROOT
2. FIT-TREE ROOT
• The rotor blades used in an axial flow
compressor have an airfoil cross section
with a varying angle of incidence, or
twist. This twist compensates for the
blade velocity variation caused by its
radius.
• The stator vanes, on the other hand, are
arranged in fixed rows between the rows
of rotor blades and act as diffusers at
each stage, decreasing air velocity and
raising pressure. Like rotor blades, stator
vanes have an airfoil shape. In addition,
 the angle of attack of stator vanes can
be fixed or variable
• The set of stator vanes immediately in
front of the first stage rotor blades are
called inlet guide vanes. These vanes
direct the airflow into the first stage rotor
blades at the best angle while imparting
a swirling motion in the direction of
engine rotation. This action improves the
aerodynamics of the compressor by
reducing the drag on the first stage rotor
blades.
• Stator vanes are normally constructed
out of steel or nickel because those
metals have high fatigue strength.
• Stator vanes are often shrouded at their
tips to minimize vibration tendencies
• Some axial compressors with high
compressor pressure ratios utilize variable
inlet guide vanes plus several stages of
variable stator vanes.
• These variable inlet guide vanes and
stators automatically reposition
themselves to maintain proper airflow
through the engine under varying
operating conditions
• The last set of vanes the compressor air
passes through is the outlet vane
assembly. These vanes straighten the
airflow and eliminate any swirling motion
• The air velocity of the compressed air
must be slowed before it enters the
combustion chamber. The divergent
shape of a diffuser slows compressor
discharge while, at the same time,
increasing air pressure to its highest value
in the engine
PRESSURE STAGE
• Each consecutive row of rotor blades
and stator vanes constitutes a pressure
stage.
• The number of stages is determined by
the amount of air and total pressure rise
required.
• A single stage in an axial flow
compressor is capable of producing a
compressor pressure ratio of only 1.25:1.
• Therefore, high compressor pressure
ratios are obtained by adding more
compressor stages. In order to add more
compressor stages, multi-spool
compressors are created.
PROCESS OF COMPRESSION
• The air from the air inlet is guided by the
inlet guide vanes to the rotors and stators
• Each compressor stage raises the
pressure of the incoming air while the
air's velocity is alternately increased then
decreased as airflow proceeds through
the compressor
• The rotor blades slightly accelerate the
airflow then the stator vanes diffuse the
air, slowing it and increasing the pressure
• The overall result is increased air pressure
and relatively constant air velocity from
compressor inlet to outlet.
• The outlet guide vanes will now guide
the compressed air into the diffuser to
prepare the air mass for combustion
• his process will repeat depending on the
number of spools the compressor have
TYPES OF SPOOL – COMPRESSOR SECTION
1. MULTI SPOOL COMPRESSOR
• Engine designers devised a way
to overcome the limitations of
single-spool compressors by
splitting the compressor into two
or three sections.
• Each section is connected to a
portion of the turbine section by
shafts that run coaxially, one
within the other
2. DUAL SPOOL COMPRESSOR
• The front section of a dual- spool
compressor is called the low
pressure, low speed, or N1
compressor. This low pressure
compressor is typically driven by
a two-stage turbine at the rear
of the turbine section.
• The front section of a dual- spool
compressor is called the low
pressure, low speed, or N1
compressor. This low pressure
compressor is typically driven by
a two-stage turbine at the rear
of the turbine section
 3. TRIPLE SPOOL COMPRESSOR COMBUSTION SECTION
• In this arrangement the fan is referred
to as the low speed, or N1 compressor.
The compressor next in line is called
the intermediate, or N2 compressor,
The innermost compressor is the high
pressure, or N3 compressor

ADVANTAGES:

• High speak efficiencies

• Small frontal area
• Straight through flow, allowing high
ram efficiency
• Increased pressure rise by increasing
number of stages, with negligible loses

DISADVANTAGES:

• Good efficiencies over only narrow

rotational speed range
• Difficulty of manufacture and high cost
• Relatively high weight
• High starting power requirements
COMPRESSOR STALL – Occurs when the
compressor blades' angle of attack exceeds the
critical angle of attack. It can be described as
an imbalance between the two vector
quantities, inlet velocity, and compressor
rotational speed
CAUSES OF COMPRESSOR STALL
• Compressor stalls typically occur when
the engine inlet air becomes turbulent or
disrupted when an aircraft flies in severe
turbulence or performs abrupt flight
maneuvers.
• Excessive fuel flow produced by a
sudden engine acceleration,
accompanied by incompatible engine
rpm and airflow combinations.
• Contamination or damage to
compressor blades, stator vanes, or
turbine components can also cause a
compressor stall.
HUNG STALLS – are severe stalls that can
significantly impair engine performance, cause
loss of power, and can damage the engine
A combustion section is typically located directly
between the compressor diffuser and turbine
section.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMBUSTION SECTION
• One or more combustion chambers
(combustors)
• Fuel injection system
• Ignition source
• Fuel drainage system
The primary function of the combustion section is
to burn the fuel/air mixture, thereby adding heat
energy to the air.
1. FUEL INJECTION SECTION – The fuel
injection system meters the appropriate
amount of fuel through the fuel nozzles
into the combustors. Fuel nozzles are
located in the combustion chamber
case. Fuel is delivered through the
nozzles into the liners in a finely atomized
spray to ensure thorough mixing with the
incoming air
2. IGNITION SOURCE – A typical ignition
source for gas turbine engines is the
highenergy capacitor discharge
system, consisting of an exciter unit, two
high-tension cables, and two spark
igniters. This ignition system produces 60
to 100 sparks per minute, resulting in a
ball of fire at the igniter electrodes
 3. FUEL DRAINAGE SYSTEM – A fuel drainage
system accomplishes the important task
of draining the unburned fuel after
engine shutdown. In addition, draining
the unburned fuel helps to prevent gum
deposits in the fuel manifold, nozzles, and
combustion chambers which are caused
by fuel residue.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD COMBUSTION
CHAMBER:
• Mix fuel and air effectively in the best
ratio for good combustion.
• Burn the mixture as efficiently as
possible
• Cool the hot combustion gases to a
temperature the turbine blades can
tolerate.
• Distribute hot gases evenly to the
turbine section
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AIR
• In order to allow the combustion section
to mix the incoming fuel and air, ignite
the mixture, and cool the combustion
gases, airflow through a combustor is
divided into primary and secondary
paths.
• Approximately 25 to 35 percent of the
incoming air is designated as primary
while 65 to 75 percent becomes
secondary
• Primary, or combustion air, is directed
inside the liner in the front end of a
combustor. It is used to support the
combustion
• The secondary airflow in the combustion
section forms a cooling air blanket on
both sides of the liner and centers the
combustion flames so they do not
contact the liner. It also cools the hot
gases before they enter the turbine
section.
COMBUSTION PROCESS
• Air from the engine compressor
enters the combustion chamber
at a velocity up to 500 feet per
second, which is then diffused
(decelerate velocity) and raised
its static pressure
• To attain the proper ratio of fuel
and air, a flame tube
(combustion liner) that has
various devices for metering the
airflow distribution along the
chamber is utilized. In normal
operation, the overall air/fuel
ratio of a combustion chamber
can vary between 45:1 and
130:1
• Approximately 20 per cent of the
air mass flow is taken in by the
snout or entry section.
Immediately downstream of the
snout are swirl vanes and a
perforated flare, through which
air passes into the primary
combustion zone. The air not
picked up by the snout flows into
the annular space between the
flame tube and the air casing
• Selected number of secondary
holes through which a further 20
per cent of the main flow of air
passes into the primary zone. The
air from the swirl vanes and that
from the secondary air holes
interacts and creates a region of
low velocity recirculation
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (COMBUSTORS) – The
combustor chambers in a turbine engine are
where the fuel and air are mixed and burned.
Combustors may vary depending on its type
COMBUSTION SECTION TYPE
1. MULTIPLE CAN TYPE/TUBULAR – The
multiple-can type combustion chamber
consists of a series of individual
combustor cans which act as individual
burner units. It is well suited to centrifugal
compressor engines because of the way
compressor discharge air is equally
divided at the diffuser
2. ANNULAR TYPE/BASKET TYPE COMBUSTOR
• An annular combustion
chamber consists of a housing
and perforated inner liner, or
basket. Annular combustors are
commonly used in both small
and large engines.
• Normally, the ignition source
consists of two spark igniters
similar to the type found in
multiple-can combustors. In a
conventional annular
combustor, airflow enters at the
front and is discharged at the
rear with primary and secondary
airflow much the same as in the
multiple-can design.
3. CAN-ANNULAR TYPE
COMBUSTOR/TUBUANNULAR
• Can-annular combustion
sections represent a
combination of the multiple-can
combustor and the annular type
combustor. It was invented by
Pratt & Whitney and consists of a
removable steel shroud that
encircles the entire combustion
section.
• An individual can and liner is
removed and installed as one
unit for maintenance. This design
combines the ease of overhaul
and testing of the multiple-can
arrangement with the
compactness of the annular
combustor
TURBINE SECTION
• A turbine transforms a portion of the
kinetic energy in the hot exhaust gases
into mechanical energy to drive the
compressor and accessories.
• The turbine section of a turbojet engine is
located downstream of the combustion
section and consists of four basic
elements; a case, a stator, a shroud, and
a rotor
TURBINE PARTS
1. CASE – The turbine casing encloses the
turbine rotor and stator assembly, giving
either direct or indirect sup-port to the
stator elements. A typical case has
flanges on both ends that provide a
means of attaching the turbine section
to the combustion section and the
exhaust assembly
2. TURBINE STATOR
• A stator element is most commonly
referred to as the turbine nozzle,
turbine guide vanes, or the nozzle
diaphragm. The turbine nozzle is
located directly aft of the
combustion section and immediately
forward of the turbine wheel. It is
typically exposed to the highest
temperatures.
• Collects the high energy airflow from
the combustors and direct the flow
to strike the turbine rotor at the
appropriate angle. The vanes of a
turbine nozzle are set at such an
angle that they form a number of
converging nozzles that convert
some of the exhaust gases' pressure
energy to velocity energy. The nozzle
vanes must be constructed to allow
for thermal expansion
3. SHROUD – The turbine nozzle assembly
consists of an inner and outer shroud that
retains and surrounds the nozzle vanes.
The nozzle vanes are rigidly welded or
riveted into the inner and outer shrouds.
To allow for expansion, the inner or outer
shroud ring is cut into segments
4. TURBINE ROTOR – The rotating elements
of a turbine section consist of a shaft and
a turbine rotor (wheel)
• TURBINE WHEEL – a dynamically
balanced unit consisting of
blades attached to a rotating
disk.
• TURBINE DISK – the anchoring
component for the turbine
blades and is bolted or welded
to the main shaft
As the high velocity gases pass through the
turbine nozzle and impact the turbine blades, the
turbine wheel rotates. Many engines use multiple
turbine stages, each stage consisting of a turbine
nozzle and wheel.
5. GROWTH/CREEP – It is a phenomena in
which extreme stress on turbine blades
may cause the turbine blades to grow in
length due to severe centrifugal loads
imposed by high rotational speeds
6. TURBINE BLADES
• Turbine blades are airfoil shaped
components designed to extract
the maximum amount of energy
from the flow of hot gases.
Turbine blades fit loosely into a
turbine disk when an engine is
cold, but expand to fit tightly at
normal operating temperatures
• The most commonly used
method for attaching turbine
blades is by fir tree slots cut into
the turbine disk rim and
matching bases cast or
machined into the turbine blade
base. It can be classified as
impulse blades, reaction blades
and impulse-reaction blades.
TYPES OF TURBINE BLADES COMPONENTS OF EXHAUST SECTION

1. IMPULSE TURBINE BLADES – the blades 1. EXHAUST CONE

merely change the direction of airflow 2. EXHAUST DUCT/TAILPIPE
coming from the turbine nozzle and 3. EXHAUST NOZZLE
cause relatively no change in gas
pressure or velocity.
2. REACTION TURINE BLADES – produce a
turning force based on an aerodynamic
action. To do this, the turbine blades
form a series of converging ducts that
increase gas velocity and reduce
pressure
3. IMPULSE-REACTION TURBINE BLADES – a
combination of impulse and reaction
blades, the workload along the length of
the blade is evenly distributed. The blade
1. EXHAUST CONE – A typical exhaust cone
base is impulse shaped while the blade
assembly consists of an outer duct, or
tip is reaction shaped. Made to evenly
shell, an inner cone, or tail cone, three or
distribute the workload along the length
more radial hollow struts, and a group of
of the blade
tie rods. Its purpose is to channel and
4. SHROUDED TURBINE BLADES – Turbine
collect turbine discharge gases into a
blades can be open or shrouded at their
single jet
ends. Shroud is attached to the tips of
2. EXHAUST DUCT/TAILPIPE – A tailpipe is an
the turbine blades to reduce vibration
extension of the exhaust section that
COOLING OF THE TURBINE SECTION directs exhaust gases safely from the
exhaust cone to the exhaust, or jet
ENGINE BLEED AIR – most common way of nozzle. It is used almost exclusively with
cooling the components in the turbine section engines that are installed within an
aircraft's fuselage to protect the
TWO TYPES OF BLADE COOLING
surrounding airframe
1. CONVECTION COOLING/FILM COOLING 3. EXHAUST NOZZLE – An exhaust, or jet
– compressor bleed air is typically nozzle, provides the exhaust gases with a
directed in through the hollow blades final boost in velocity. The two types of
and out through holes in the tip, leading exhaust nozzle designs used on aircraft
edge, and trailing edge. are the converging design, and the
2. TRANSPIRATION COOLING – only used on converging-diverging design
stationary nozzle vanes, bleed air is
CONVERGING EXHAUST NOZZLE – the
ducted into the vanes and exits through
convergent shape produces a venturi
the porous material
that accelerates the exhaust gases and
EXHAUST SECTION increases engine thrust

• A typical exhaust section extends from

the rear of the turbine section to the
point where the exhaust gases leave the
engine. It must direct the flow of hot
gases rearward in such a manner as to
prevent turbulence and, at the same
time, impart a high final or exit velocity to
the gases.
CONVERGING-DIVERGING NOZZLE – the
converging portion of the exhaust nozzle
accelerates the turbine exhaust gases to
supersonic speed at the narrowest part
of the duct, then, they are accelerated
further in the nozzle's divergent portion,
so the exhaust gases exit the nozzle well
above the speed of sound
MIXER UNIT/EXHAUST NOZZLE – On fan or
bypass type engines, there are two gas
streams venting to the atmosphere; high
temperature gases are discharged by
the turbine and cool air mass moved
rearward by the fan section. In a low by-
pass engine, the flow of cool and hot air
are combined in a mixer unit that ensures
mixing of the two streams prior to exiting
the engine
VARIABLE GEOMETRY NOZZLE – An
exhaust nozzle opening can have either
a fixed or variable area. A variable
geometry nozzle is sometimes necessary
on engines that utilize an afterburner. It is
operated with pneumatic, hydraulic, or
electric controls
AFTERBURNER
• used to accelerate the exhaust gases,
which in turn, increases thrust
• Injects fuel directly into the exhaust
stream and burn it using this remaining
oxygen. This heats and expands the
exhaust gases further, and can increase
the thrust of a jet engine by 50% or more
COMPONENTS OF AFTERBURNER
1. FUEL MANIFOLD
2. IGNITION SOURCE
3. FLAME HOLDER
THRUST REVERSERS – Most turbojet and turbofan
powered aircraft are fitted with thrust reversers to
assist in braking. Thrust reversers redirect the flow
of exhaust gases to provide thrust in the opposite
direction
NOISE SUPPRESSORS – Noise suppressors used on
the ground include portable devices which can
be positioned near the rear of an engine
whenever prolonged ground operation is
anticipated. Internal noise due to fan,
compressor, turbine blades is also suppressed by
the design of the compressor and turbine blades
- appropriate spacing between the blades and
vanes to reduce wake and turbulences.
ACCESSORY SECTION
AUXILLIARY POWER UNIT
• is a constant speed gas turbine engine.
The APU is a self-contained unit, which
enables the aircraft to be independent
of external pneumatic and electrical
power sources.
• To meet the demands for ground power
when the aircraft engines are not
running, for example, large amounts of
electrical power for passenger amenities
such as lighting, entertainment, and food
preparation; most large turbine aircraft
are equipped with auxiliary power units,
or APUs
• Electrical power for the aircraft systems
• Bleed air for engine starting and air
conditioning on the ground
• Bleed air for air conditioning /
pressurization and wing anti-ice in flight