Cable Course Notes 2017

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‘Cable Technology’
BSc Electrical Engineering
ELE3113 ‘ Power System Theory’
1. INTRODUCTION
In the UK, electricity is usually generated at power stations at voltages of 25kV. It is

then fed into the national grid and transmitted across the country at voltages of either
400kV or 275kV to the large cities and industrial areas and conurbations. Electricity is
bought by the regional electricity companies at a voltage of 132kV and is stepped
down for distribution at voltages of 33kV and 11kV (also 6.6kV and 3.3kV in older
networks). It is then locally stepped down to 400V (230V L-G) for the general
customer.
This is the general picture of the electricity transmission and distribution networks,
and is far from complete, as the network is also constantly looking into the
transmission of electricity at even higher voltages, and the use of DC transmission
systems. In general, the voltage levels for power networks are selected in
accordance to both the level of power, which is to be transmitted / distributed and the
length of the network. This is an economic compromise between losses in the
distribution / transmission systems, the cost of using larger conductors to supply the
demand and the cost of the insulation systems required for higher voltages. Network
planning must also consider the total cost of the network and how power may be
supplied from more than one source in the event of faults on lines.
At transmission voltages, electricity is predominantly supplied by overhead line

networks, due to the much higher comparative costs associated with using
underground cable networks (between 10:1 and 23:1 dependent on the voltages
used). At distribution voltages, particularly at 11kV this is not typically the case as the
use of overhead lines in built up conurbations is undesirable for both aesthetic and
health and safety reasons.
As mentioned previously the selection of the voltage level of the network is

dependent on the power to be transmitted and the maximum length of the network.
Table 1.1 shows typical values for three phase cable systems.
Voltage Power To Be Transmitted / Distributed

LV 1MVA
11kV 7MVA
33kV 25 MVA 3 Core solid
170 MVA 3 Core (oil filled)
132 kV
450 MVA 1 Core
400 kV 1200 MVA 1 Core (oil filled)
Table 1.1 Typical electricity transmission / distribution voltages, with the associated
power delivery capability
Page 1 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

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In recent years, however, increasing pressure from environmental groups means that
permission to build large overhead line circuits is becoming more difficult to obtain.
This, along with the advancement of power cable technology, means that the use of
power cables at transmission level will undoubtedly rise within the next decade.
The advantages and disadvantages of power cables (mainly in relation to overhead

lines) can be summarised in table 1.2
Disadvantages Advantages
More expensive than an equivalent No visual impact except that which
overhead line circuit (especially at EHV occurs during installation
levels)
The time to repair a cable fault is Provide relatively reliable circuits as they
generally longer than the time to repair an are not exposed to lightning or affected
overhead line fault (fault location, by wind borne debris
excavation and jointing can take time)
Difficulty relating to installation in already Protected from vandalism
crowded rights of way
Table 1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of cables over overhead lines
2. POWER CABLE COMPONENTS
Before any of the cable classes are talked about in any depth, it is first important to
highlight the components within a ‘typical’ cable and their functions. Figure 2.1 shows
a generic representation of the components of single core cable,.
Figure 2.1 Generic Cable Representation
These components will now be discussed individually.

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2.1 Conductor
2.1.1 Properties of good conductors
For a good conductor in a cable, the metallic material must have an appropriate
range of both mechanical and electrical properties. Commonly used conductors
include copper and aluminium. In the choice of selection of conductor materials, the
following factors must be considered.
 Current carrying capability: As this is the primary function of the cable, the
conductor must be able to carry the required load current and the rated fault
current which will apply significant mechanical forces to the cable conductors.
 Required voltage regulation: The choice of conductor material and design will
influence the voltage drop along the cable during current flow. This must be kept
within acceptable limits.
 Required conductor losses: The presence of insulation layers and oversheaths
with relatively high thermal resistivities mean that the thermal resistance between
the conductor and the ground surrounding a cable is relatively high. The passage
of electrical current through the cable will cause losses and will therefore result in
temperature rise. Minimising the conductor losses by choosing a low resistivity
material for the conductor will allow the cable to conduct a higher load current.
 Bending radius, flexibility and weight: A cable will be required to bend when it
is stored on the cable drum and must also bend around corners when it is
installed. While the radius of bends are normally constrained by the insulation
system (i.e. the movement of papers or the deformation of insulation due to the
mechanical forces), the conductor must nevertheless allow a certain degree of
flexibility. Other mechanical handling properties such as the cable weight and
overall dimensions should also be considered especially with regards transport.
 Jointing : For jointing purposes, the material must also be easily worked and be
easy to connect together via soldering, welding or mechanical methods.
 Cost: Clearly, a copper cable with the same cross-sectional area as an
aluminium cable will cost more as the raw material price is higher. The choice of
material is a balance of cost and the other factors described above.
2.1.2 Conductor DC resistance calculations
In terms of the electrical properties of conductors, the material must have a high
electrical conductivity (or a low electrical resistivity). It must also have a low
temperature coefficient of resistivity so at elevated temperature, which cables
obviously operate at, the resistance does not drift excessively. The DC resistance of
a conductor can be calculated as in Eqn 2.1 and the resistance of a conductor at
elevated temperatures can be calculated as in Eqn 2.2:
L
R Eqn 2.1
A
R  R20 [1   (  20)] Eqn 2.2
Where R - DC resistance of conductor

ρ - Volume resistivity of conductor material
L - Length of conductor
A - Cross sectional area of conductor
Rθ - DC resistance of the conductor at θºC
R20 - DC resistance of the conductor at 20ºC
θ - Temperature of the conductor
α - Temperature coefficient of resistance

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2.1.3 Solid / stranded conductors

Conductors may be solid or stranded, the latter type of conductors are more flexible.
The point at which stranding is required depends on the conductor material. A
stranded conductor with a cross-sectional area equivalent to a solid conductor will
occupy a wider area (hence more wasted space). A stranded conductor does,
however, help alleviate some of the problems associated with the skin effect
phenomena found in cables (if the strands can be arranged in such a way that there
is no electrical contact). Examples of different conductor arrangements are shown in
table 2.1.
Solid Circular Compacted
Stranded
Sectorial
Solid Uncompacted
Sectorial Stranded
Eliptical
Uncompacted Compacted
Stranded Stranded
Circular Eliptical
Compacted Ducted
Stranded
Circular
Uncompacted Milliken
Stranded
Sectorial
Table 2.1 Conductor Formations
Solid conductors tend to be used in low voltage cables or in cables where the
conductor size is relatively small. When solid conductors are used in a multi-core
cable they will normally be shaped to minimise the wasted area that would otherwise
be produced within the power cable if circular conductors were used. The decrease
in cable flexibility that results from the use of a solid conductor generally prevents
usage above a size of approximately 16mm2 for copper and 300mm2 for aluminium.
If the conductor is a stranded conductor, as in the majority of cables, the conductor

strands will be arranged either as a helically wound formation or as a compacted
formation. The higher the number of strands in the conductor formation, the higher
the flexibility for a given cross sectional area. Due to the wound arrangement of the
strands in a helically wound conductor formation, the length of the strands is then
greater than the per unit length of the cable. As such, this leads to a greater
resistance per unit length than that which is calculated in Eqn 2.1.
A reduction in conductor size of around 10% can be achieved by compaction.

Compaction often has other benefits in terms of reduced voltage stresses at the
conductor / insulation boundary, this is particularly true should the conductor be
compacted into a given shape.

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2.1.4 AC Resistance – Skin and Proximity Effects
When cables are used in AC circuits, skin effects and proximity effects must also be
taken account of when evaluating the AC resistance of the conductor.
Skin effects are usually associated with radio frequency circuits, however they do
have some significance when dealing with high currents at 50Hz. Through skin
effects the current density in the conductors is more concentrated at the outside of
the conductor than at the inside of the conductor, which leads the conductor to have
higher resistances than those which were calculated in Eqn 2.1. Skin effects are not
generally significant in economic terms until the conductor diameter exceeds
900mm2 In order to address the increased resistance of conductors, the Milliken
conductor was developed, as shown in figure 2.2, which has a insulated segments in
it’s construction to prevent skin effects.
Figure 2.2 400kV cable with Milliken conductor (to avoid the skin effects)
Proximity effects are due to inductive flux coupling between adjacent conductors
which, in effect, increase the load on the circuit. These effects are related to the
spacing and arrangement of the cores in the cable formation. In a flat single core
cable formation, the proximity effects are most significant, as the centre core is
influenced by both of the adjacent phases, which subsequently induces a greater
load in the central core, than in the other two cores. As the conductor spacing is
increased, the influence of proximity effects on the AC resistance of the conductor is
reduced.
To take into account these effects, a preferred method of calculating the effective AC
resistance of a cable is as defined in IEC 228, as shown in Eqn 2.3:
4 Eqn 2.3
R k1k 2 k3
nd 2
Where R - Conductor resistance (/km)
ρ - Volume resistivity of conductor material
d - Nominal diameter of conductor strands
n - Number of strands in conductor
k1 - Variable dependant on strand diameter with compaction
k2 - Variable dependent on strand length per unit length of cable
k3 - Variable dependent on the core arrangement

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2.2 Insulation
Traditionally, cables have employed paper insulation (impregnated with a range of

oils) as the dielectric or insulating media. In more recent years, the utility industry has
had a slow progression over to polymeric insulated systems, due to cheaper
manufacturing processes. In either case, requirements for good insulation systems
include the following factors:
 Sufficient electrical strength for a given insulation size

 Thin and flexible
 Free of voids
 Low dielectric losses
 Thermal, Mechanical and Electrical stability under cable operating conditions
 Low cost including ease of manufacture
 Ability to perform under steady state conditions, temporary overvoltages and
transient voltages
 Long operating life
These forms of insulation are now considered in greater depth.
2.2.1 Paper Insulation Systems

Paper insulated cables were the first type of power cable to be used in substantial
quantity for transmission and distribution of electrical energy and have been used
since the 1890’s. Many companies still use power cables made with paper insulation
although the number purchased every year is declining.
The paper used for cable making is a high grade felted mat consisting of long
cellulose fibres, the papers are normally 2-ply but 3-ply is occasionally used at higher
voltages. The thickness of a single paper is normally between 65 and 190m but the
material density is actually relatively low. That of the fibres is around 1500kgm-3 while
that of the finished paper is only around 650 to 1000kgm-3. This implies that there is a
lot of ‘empty’ space within the fibres and this is generally filled with impregnating
compound. The paper must be selected for a range of qualities, these should include
the ability to obtain a good cable bending performance (allowing layers to slide), the
porosity of the paper and the ability to withstand a given tensile strength.
The insulation on a paper cable consists of helically applied paper tapes. The paper
tapes are laid up so there is a small gap (known as a butt gap) between turns. The
exact lay up of tapes in relation to each other is important as the maximum dielectric
strength must be preserved across the insulation layer. It is also important that the
insulation must not weaken significantly when the cable bends.
Figure 2.3 - Methods of laying-up paper insulation, 50/50 applied tapes are shown on
the left picture and 35/65 applied tapes are shown on the right picture

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Figure 2.3 shows two possible methods of laying up paper around a power cable
conductor. A ‘50-50’ registration is shown to provide insulation with a lower dielectric
strength than paper with a ‘35-65’ registration. Other lay-ups such as ‘20-80’ would
give a better dielectric strength in theory but tolerances in the manufacturing process
may lead to this lay-up coming close to a ‘0-100’ registration.
Figure 2.4 – Paper laying machine

Figure 2.4 shows a machine used to lay-up papers around a power cable conductor.
It is extremely important that this machine keeps the tension of the papers to the set
level. If the papers are too loose then they will be able to move excessively within the
cable, if they are too tight it will restrict the bending of the cable and the papers could
possibly tear.
Once the paper lapping process has been completed, the cable is wound onto drums
and is then placed into an oven for drying. This drying process is necessary to extract
the moisture from the papers prior to impregnation and is carried out by using a high
temperature (105 to 130) in conjunction with a vacuum. The drying process will be
maintained for between 20 to 50 hours.
Finally, the impregnation process is carried out where the impregnant is admitted
under vacuum and then under pressure. The impregnant compounds acts to fill in all
the voids between the paper fibres, the paper layers and in the butt-gaps between
the individual laps of paper. As the paper insulation is ‘hygroscopic’ in nature (i.e. it
absorbs water vapour from the atmosphere) the impregnate also acts to prevent this
moisture absorption.
Figure 2.5 - Cable being lowered into oven for drying and impregnation

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The exact nature of the impregnant depends on the cable itself. Cables used up to a
voltage of approximately 33kV are referred to as solid types and are intended to
operate without internal or external pressure. The ‘MIND’ mass-impregnated non-
draining type of cable uses a mineral oil based impregnant that has been doped with
waxes and a number of other materials. This form of impregnant is fluid at the
impregnating temperature and can therefore flow through the cable filling gaps and
voids. At lower temperatures, the impregnant is more solid although it still allows
cables to bend as it is plastic in behaviour. The benefit of this more solid impregnant
in comparison to a more fluid type, also made of thickened mineral oil, is that it will
not flow along cables placed on a gradient. With the more fluid type impregnant, it
can flow along cables placed on a gradient and un-impregnated areas of cable will
therefore develop leading to a greater chance of failure. If MIND impregnant is not
used, the insulation system may need a higher thickness
At higher voltages, the impregnant is not sufficient to provide sufficient dielectric

strength in all areas of the paper insulation and ionisation takes place in voids that
will invariably remain in a solid type cable. In these cases it is necessary to maintain
the impregnant under pressure during the cable operation. In a self-contained fluid
filled cable, there is full impregnation of the paper insulation by low viscosity fluid
under a positive pressure (produced by oil tanks placed at the ends of the cable).
Gas insulated cables can use gas to prevent ionisation within the impregnated paper
itself or can use gas to merely maintain the dielectric in the impregnated state (i.e.
prevent impregnation movement) and prevent the formation of voids.
Paper insulation has an extremely well-proven track record but for reasons of
electrical performance and the alleviation of the need for fluid/gas systems with the
cable, polymeric insulation is now widely used at all voltage levels.
2.2.2 Polymeric Insulation Systems
Since the advent of polymeric insulation, it has been used in power cables. As is
normal with the use of new materials, polymeric insulation was introduced into lower
voltage cables initially. The prime material for distribution class cables in the past
was polyethylene (PE) although this was subsequently replaced by cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) in the 1980’s. At low voltages polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is also
used widely. At transmission levels, XLPE insulation is becoming more widely used
and is common at 132kV. At 275kV and 400kV, companies are still slightly cautious
in allowing the use of XLPE as it is relatively unproven in comparison to paper
insulation.
PVC power cables are only used at low voltages, for example in factories or other
industrial locations, for two reasons. Firstly, PVC has a low maximum operating
temperature of 70C. To ensure the cable temperature does not exceed this value,
overcurrent protection must be given careful consideration. Secondly, the losses in a
PVC cable are higher than those in an identical XLPE cable. Typical values of
relative permittivity (proportional to cable capacitance) and tan (Ctan proportional
to dielectric losses) are as show in table 2.2, paper insulation is also shown for
comparison:
PVC XLPE PAPER
Relative permittivity (at 50Hz) 6-8 2.3 2.2 – 3.8
Tan 0.08 0.0003 0.001 – 0.004
Table 2.2 – Relative Permittivity and Loss Tangent Values For A Range of Cable
Dielectrics

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XLPE is a form of polyethylene that is cross-linked. The process of cross-linking

improves the temperature limit to 90C but has no significant negative effect on the
electrical characteristics. XLPE is used, in various forms, in most modern high
voltage power cables although filled EPRs are also used in some geographic areas.
The process of manufacturing XLPE requires strict cleanliness and quality control.
For continued service reliability of XLPE power cables it is also necessary to ensure
that the insulation remains dry throughout the lifetime of the cable to prevent water
trees that may lead to failure of the power cable insulation. Cables made with
polymeric insulation are produced using an extrusion process. In the case of XLPE,
PE is extruded onto a conductor and then enters an area, often a long catenary line,
where the PE is cross-linked by the use of high pressure and high temperature. A
vertical extrusion tower and catenary line are shown in figure 2.6
(a.) Vertical extrusion tower (b) Catenary extrusion process
(a) Vertical lines assist in keeping symmetry of extruded product for large cables
(b) Caternary lines are usedfor meium voltage cables
Figure 2.6 Manufacture of XLPE Insulated Cables
Owing to concerns of electricity companies about the reliability of polymeric cables in

the long term, particularly at higher voltages, a hybrid type of insulation was also
been introduced. PPL insulation involves the placement of a layer of polymer,
polypropylene, between two layers of paper. The introduction of the polypropylene
laminate decreases the dielectric constant to a value close to that of XLPE. The
dielectric loss of the insulation and the thermal resistivity are also reduced. By using
this form of insulation, the end user benefits from the confidence in the reliability in
paper insulation while also gaining the benefits of polymerics, namely the reduction in
dielectric losses and better heat transfer capability.

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2.3 Conductor and Insulation Shields
In both paper and polymeric cables, shields (also referred to as screens or semicon
layers) are required at both the interface between the phase conductor and the
insulation (conductor shield), and on the outer surface of the insulation (insulation
shield). These are conductive (or semiconductive) material layers and their purpose
is to provide a smooth equipotential profile at the insulation surface.
The surfaces of the conductors are often uneven, due to conductor stranding and the
construction of the cable sheath / earth wires. Without the screen layer, therefore, an
uneven surface would be offered to the insulation, which in high voltage cables would
generate significant non-uniform electrical stresses leading to breakdown of the
insulation through partial discharge activity. This is especially true with XLPE cables,
which are very susceptible to partial discharge and long term aging mechanisms. As
such, inner screen layers have to be present even on solid conductors, in polymeric
cables
The screen layers are generally made from either or a combination of; carbon filled
paper, metallised paper (Höchstädter Folie), thin metallic foils or carbon filled
polymers, depending on the type of insulation used in the cable. Even in the use of
metallic foil screens, the purpose of the screen is only to provide an equipotential
voltage to the insulation and is not designed to carry any fault current, if present.
For polymeric insulation, the shields come in either the form of a bonded layer or a
cold strippable layer, which are extruded onto the polymeric insulation in the same
manufacturing operation as the insulation extrusion. For the removal of screens in
the application of terminations and joints, care must be taken not to damage the
polymeric insulation as small indentations and longitudinal gouges can lead to failure,
due to voids being present between the cable insulation and the accessory. For the
purposes of joints and terminations, the outer screen is the most significant layer, as
this is the layer which must be stripped back a distance away from the end of the
cable and stress controlling techniques must be applied. The significance of stress
controlling techniques in cable jointing are discussed later in the course.
The different arrangements of shields lends itself to two families of cables; namely
belted and screened cables. These are discussed later in this course.
2.4 Earth Sheath / Screen Tapes / Wires
The primary purpose of an earth sheath or metallic earth wires / tapes is to provide
an earth path for fault currents, circulating currents and dielectric charging currents in
the cable. In addition to this, especially in paper cables, it must present the primary
barrier to moisture to exclude it from the insulation. Further requirements of earth
sheaths and earth wires are corrosion resistance, as the earth path must be
maintained with moderate exposure to the atmosphere and mechanical flexibility, to
allow cables to be rolled on drums.
Because paper cables generally use different systems to polymeric cables, these are
now considered separately.

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2.4.1 Earth Sheaths In Oil Impregnated Paper Cables
Paper cables require a full metallic sheath due to the problems associated with water
absorption with the most common forms of sheaths being made from either lead, as
on a PILS (paper insulated, lead sheath (aka PILC)) cables or corrugated aluminium,
as on a PICAS (paper insulated, corrugated aluminium sheath) cables.
The original earth sheaths in paper cables have been made from lead, which is still in
use today, albeit in a variety of different alloys. Lead is a good material for the sheath
as it provides; a watertight seal to the cable, is corrosion resistant, is relatively
economical, is non ferrous and has a high resistance to circulating currents. Most
importantly for jointing, it is easily worked and can be easily plumbed for bitumen
filled joints. Its main disadvantages are due to its density, mechanical strength and
low melting points. The high density of lead makes PILS cables very heavy in
comparison to PICAS cables and as such increases installation costs. Its low
mechanical strength presents problems with mechanical fatigue, due to vibrations,
creep and internal pressures from the cable. It also means that armour must also
often be used to increase its tensile strength for installation. Its low melting
temperature presents problems with its limited short circuit performance, and again
the sheath is often used in conjunction with the armour to increase its performance.
Corrugated aluminium has been in use as a sheath material since the 1950’s and
today is popularly used in cables in the utility industries. The corrugations in the
aluminium sheath are primarily required to increase the flexibility of the cable;
however they also offer a barrier to longitudinal water transition over the surface of
the cable, which is a benefit if the sheath is locally punctured. The main advantages
of aluminium over lead are its lower density, higher mechanical strength and higher
temperature ratings. The increased mechanical strength has allowed the omission of
the armour in the cables construction, which has led to lower manufacturing costs as
well as lowered installation costs. The use of aluminium does have disadvantages as
it is more susceptible to corrosion and presents a higher resistive path for circulating
currents. The benefits created by the increase in mechanical strength also have their
downside as they increase the rigidity of their cable and reduce their adaptiveness to
thermo-mechanical forces.
In filling a cable with impregnation compound it is important to control the amount of

compound in the cable due to these thermo-mechanical forces. If too much
compound is present, then this could allow the sheath to be ruptured due to high
internal pressures being generated at the operating temperature of the conductor. If
too little compound is present, then this can promote partial discharge within the
insulation and the papers susceptibility to moisture absorption. Similar thermo-
mechanical problems exist in the installation of bitumen plumbed joints, however
these have been overcome with modern cold pour resin filled jointing systems.

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2.4.2 Earth Sheaths and Earth Wires / Tapes in Polymeric Cables

Generally, MV polymeric cables do not require the use of a full metallic sheath, as in
paper cables, although variants on lead and corrugated aluminium screened
conductors utilising XLPE insulation do exist at 33kV and above or for specialist
applications. In comparison to paper cables, where the sheath is to provide an
environmental barrier, the earth conductors in polymeric materials, which consist of
either copper wires or thick copper tapes, are only designed to carry fault, circulating
and charging currents.
Copper wires are generally used in single core designs which haven’t got an
excessively high fault level, with screen wire conductor sizes in the range of 16mm2
to 50mm2. For networks with higher fault levels or where increased mechanical
support is required, copper or aluminium tapes are used in conjunction with
aluminium armour wires. Constructions with increased water resilience are also
found embedding the screen wires in butyl rubber or swellable water barrier tapes.
In three-core cable arrangements, the most popular screening arrangements consists
of copper tape wrapped around each of the cores over the extruded semicon layers,
with steel wire or steel tape armour around all three cores. Alternative designs solely
utilising a copper wire screen around all three cores are also popular as this is seen
as more cost effective, however, this has to be compromised with reduced earth fault
levels.
2.4.3 Other Earth Sheaths

Steel wire is also used as material for cable sheaths but this must be combined with
a highly effective moisture resistance layer. For submarine cables, lead sheaths are
used due to the high resistance to corrosion but they are reinforced with bronze,
copper alloy or non-magnetic steel tapes as the lead sheath would otherwise deform
due to the loads imposed on it.
2.5 Armour
The primary function of armour in a cable is to provide an increased mechanical
tensile strength to the cable, which is particularly needed in the cable laying process.
As often considered, the armour does not provide much or any mechanical impact
resilience to the cable. Armour can also be used in conjunction with the cable sheath
or screen wires/ tape in order to increase the fault level current rating of the cable. To
achieve this, the armour must be correctly bonded to the earth sheath, screen wires
or tapes at cable joints. It is important that the armour is not exposed to the
environment, since it is often constructed from corrodible materials. Corrosion of the
armour would then lead to a reduction in the earth fault carrying capacity of the cable.
Materials used in armour are generally; steel tape armours - used on 3 core LV
systems, steel wire armour – used on MV 3 core systems and aluminium wire armour
- used on single core MV systems. It must be borne in mind that that steel armours
must never be used on single phase cables, due to their promotion of induced
circulating currents.
In paper cables, armour is particularly necessary in PILS (paper insulated lead

screened) cables, due to the low mechanical strength and low fault current carrying
capacity of the lead sheath. In PICAS cables, armour is not required due to the
mechanical strength of the sheath. In polymeric cables, the use of armour depends
on the fault level requirements of the conductor or the mechanical strength required
from the conductor.

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2.6 Cable Jacket / Oversheath

The purpose of the oversheath is to provide protection to the armour, sheath or
screen wires and ultimately provide the final barrier of the cable to the environment.
In addition to this environmental barrier, the oversheath also acts as an insulant to
the earth sheath for the purposes of cross bonding in single core cables. (see later
section).
The material used must be resistant to moisture ingress and should also be resilient
against damage during installation and during operation. There are cases where
damage to the oversheath of a cable then results in corrosion of a lead sheath or
reinforcing tapes that then allows water ingress into the insulation system or
alternatively allows failure of the sheath and leakage of fluid/gas from the cable.
There are several types of oversheaths used, which are mainly dependent on the
type of earth sheath / wire / tape system used. These are considered below in more
detail
2.6.1 Bitumen / Hessian Taped Oversheaths
These consist of bitumen impregnated hessian tapes and are applied over the
outside sheaths of lead sheathed cables. They have a relatively high water
permeability in comparison to the other oversheaths, which brings a further
requirement of that the armour wires must be galvanised to prevent corrosion. This
high water permeability does have some uses, however, as it allows a reduction in
the earth impedance to the metallic sheath of the cable.
2.6.2 Bitumen / PVC Oversheaths

Bitumen / PVC oversheaths consist of an extruded PVC layer over a thick underlying
layer of bitumen and are used on corrugated aluminium sheathed cables. These
oversheaths present a very low water permeability, which is required due to the
corrodible nature of aluminium. As such bitumen/ hessian taped oversheaths would
not provide a great enough water barrier. The use of PVC oversheaths however does
have its disadvantages including; low abrasion resistance, high frictional effects in
cable installation and the fact it contains halogens, which are highly noxious when
burnt.
2.6.3 Medium Density Polyethylene Oversheaths
MDPE oversheaths are used extensively in XLPE, insulated cables and consist of a
single non bonding layer, which is extruded over the earth wires or armour. These
oversheaths have also been used in conjunction with lead sheaths and a bitumen
under layer as an alternative to bitumen / hessian oversheaths. Like PVC, these
oversheaths have a very low water permeability, which is required as this is the
primary moisture barrier in these cables. MDPE is a highly mechanical resistant
material, which can withstand the abrasive forces encountered in cable installations
and as such makes it an ideal material. One downside to its use however is its
combustibility and once ignited readily burns in air, this being a limiting factor in some
hung cable installations.

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3. Cable Assemblies and Examples of Power Cable Designs
3.1 Screened and Belted Cable Constructions
For 3 core cables, the arrangement of the insulation shields / screens can define two
families of cables, namely belted cables and screened (or h-type) cables.
For a belted cable formation, each core has a layer of paper insulation surrounding
each core, with a belted insulation layer around all three cores. There is only one
screen in a belted cable, which surrounds all three of the cable cores. This then
presents a complex, non radial, electrical stress distribution between the cores. In
these forms of cables, less insulation is required per core, due to adjacent core
insulation layers sharing the field distribution. As such, the insulation around each
conductor must be rated for half of the phase to phase voltage which is equal to 3/2
of the phase to earth voltage. The extra belt of insulation around the conductors adds
the extra insulation required between the phases and earth. A construction of an
11kV oil impregnated belted cable is shown in figure 3.1.
In a screened cable, each core is independently insulated and separately screened

from each adjacent core. This design was first suggested in 1914 by Martin
Hochstadter and is often referred to as an ‘H-Type’ cable in his honour. This type of
cable was introduced to overcome problems encountered with electrical breakdown
in cables, when system voltages were increased to 33kV. A construction of an 11kV
oil impregnated belted cable is shown in figure 3.2.
Use of belted cables were limited to voltages of 15kV due to the breakdown in
regions of electric field that are tangential to the insulation surface, as shown in figure
3.3. The electric strength of paper is lower in the tangential direction and the electric
field caused ionisation and localised breakdowns along the papers. This in time could
eventually leak to the formation of carbon paths on the papers and eventually
breakdown. The fillers placed between the phases are also weak and may
breakdown due to the high electric fields.
The advantages and disadvantages of belted cables compared with screened cables
are as shown in table 3.1
Advantages Disadvantages
Generally more economical Can be used only up to 15kV
Cheaper manufacturing costs
Less insulation per core
Increased heat dissipation
More flexible
Table 3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Belted Cables
Both paper insulated and polymeric insulated low voltage cables, which can come in
3 / 4 core assemblies depending on the earthing system used, are all arranged in a
belted formation. In terms of electrical stresses in these cables, individual core
screening is not required as electrical stresses in the dielectric are not sufficient
enough to cause any aging phenomena.
All polymeric insulated cables at 6kV or above are arranged in a screened

arrangement. Core screening in MV polymeric cables is required due to the
susceptibility of polymeric insulation to partial discharge activity. Unlike in paper
insulated cables a quasi-liquid impregnation compound is not present to fill voids
between the adjacent cores.

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It is only at medium voltages of 11kV where both screened and belted cable
formations of oil impregnated paper insulated cables co-exist. Historically, these
cables are popular due to the utilisation of cables in the distribution network.
Lead / Corrugated Aluminium Sheath
Filler
Belt Insulation
Oversheath
Bitumen
Conductor Shield / Screen
Core Insulation
Armour
Belt Shield / Screen

Armour Bedding
Figure 3.1 11kV Belted Oil Impregnated Paper Cable Design
Lead / Corrugated Aluminium Sheath
Filler
Oversheath
Bitumen
Core Inner Semicon
Core Insulation
Armour
Core Insulation Shield / Screen

Armour Bedding
Figure 3.2 11kV Screened Oil Impregnated Paper Cable Design
Figure 3.3 – Electric field distribution in a paper insulated belted cable when the top
conductor is at its peak potential

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3.2 Low Voltage Cable Designs
Figure 3.4 600/1000V 4-core copper conductor, PVC insulated SWA cable with
extruded bedding
Figure 3.4 shows a four core (three phase and neutral) low voltage cable. As well as
the four cores, the outer sheath/ screen wires provide an earth path. As such, these
cables are known as separate neutral earth (SNE) cables. Stresses in low voltage
cables are low and as such the cable cores are arranged in a belted formation. The
conductors are also shaped to minimise wasted shape between the cores. Figure
3.5 Shows a similar paper insulated cable
Figure 3.5 4 core 70mm2, 600/1000V paper insulated lead sheathed cable with steel
tape armour and bituminous finish
Figure 3.6 600V/1000V 3-core solid sectorial aluminium conductor, PVC insulated,
copper wire screen, unarmoured CNE waveform cable
Modern low voltage cables, as shown in figure 3.6 do not carry a neutral but instead
use a combined neutral-earth (CNE) connection. Here, the copper wire screen acts
as both the neutral and the earth. This cable is one of the most common low voltage
cables used in the distribution industry and is called ‘Waveform’ due to the
arrangement of the copper wire screen.

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3.3 Medium Voltage Cable Designs
3.3.1 Paper insulated cables
Figure 3.7- 3-core 11kV belted PICAS cable with a corrugated aluminium sheath
Figure 3.7 shows a typical Paper Insulated Corrugated Aluminium Sheath (PICAS)
power cable. This uses a corrugated aluminium sheath, which offers a cheaper and
lighter cable construction, without the need for additional armour. The outer sheath
consists of PVC on a bed of bitumen. Figure 3.7 shows a PICAS cable in a belted,
however this cable is also popular in a screened formation
Figure 3.8 - 3-core 150mm2 6.35/11kV screened paper insulated lead sheathed cable
with a PVC oversheath
Figure 3.8 shows a typical Paper Insulated Lead Sheath cable (PILS (also referred to
as PILC)). PILS cables are the oldest and probably still the most commonly found
paper insulated cable design. Figure 6.8 shows a PILS cable in a screened
formation, however this cable is also popular in a belted formation.

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3.3.2 Polymeric insulated cables
In comparison to paper insulated cables, polymeric cables are a lot cleaner and
easier to prepare and joint, however addition care is needed in their preparation due
to the significance of partial discharge.
Figure 3.9 3-core 6.35/11kV XLPE insulated collective copper wire screen cable
(each phase relies on one semi-conductive layer) 1=conductor, 2=conductor shield,
3=insulation, 4=insulation shield, 5=fillers, 6=semiconducting tape, 7=collective wire
sheath/ screen
Figure 3.9 shows an 11kV 3-core polymeric cable. All polymeric cables at voltages of
6kV and above are in a screened formation The white fillers, shown as ‘5’ in the
picture below are usually hygroscopic in nature to retain any moisture that may
penetrate into the power cable.
Figure 3.10 single core 6.35/11kV XLPE insulated collective copper tape screen
cable
Figure 3.10 shows a typical copper tape screened single core XLPE insulated
polymeric cable. Single core polymeric cables are by far more popular than three
core polymeric cables, as there is little savings in cost and the use of single core
cables allows simpler jointing and installation.

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4. GIL, GAS INSULTATED LINES
At high operating voltages, gas insulated systems may become economically

attractive. The advent of SF6 as an insulation medium has increased the uptake of
this technology. Figure 4.1 below shows the construction of one such flexible cable.
Most cables of this sort are rigid and bulky. Table 4.1 gives some of GIL’s
advantages and disadvantages. Such cables are usually used in short segments
close to generation or switching pant in which SF6 is already used.
Figure 4.1 Design of a gas insulated SF6 cable with a corrugated sheath
Advantages Disadvantages
 Large cross-section possible allow  Larger external diameter
high transmission powers  Only rigid pipes possible so on-site
 Large diameter means good heat construction required
dissipation  On-site construction means high
 High overload capacity risks of impurities in gas system
 Not easily flammable  Compensation required for axial
 Minimal dielectric losses thermal expansion of pipes
 Low current dependant losses  Bend components in system
expensive if path not straight
 Low operational capacitance, low
charging power and no reactive  SF6 is not environmentally friendly
power comensation required  Gas needs monitoring
 Easy transition to SF6 switchgear  Costs are higher
Table 4.1 A summary of advantages and disadvantages of SF6 tubular

conductors compared with XLPE

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5. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER CABLES
The electrical characteristics of a power cable must be known if it is to be used on a

power system. The electrical characteristics must also be known to ensure that the
thermal limits of the cable are not exceeded. The thermal characteristics of a power
cable are dealt with in the next section.
5.1 Conductor Resistance and Power Dissipation
See Section 2.1.2 for DC resistance calculations
See Section 2.1.4 for AC resistance calculations
In calculating the power losses (and hence heat dissipation) in a conductor used in
an AC transmission / distribution system, AC resistance values of the conductor
should be used. The heat production per metre of cable can then be derived using
eqn 5.1
Wconductor  I conductor
2
 Rconductor W/m Eqn 5.1
-
Where Wconductor Power dissipation per phase per meter
I - Current per phase
Rconductor - Resistance of the conductor per meter
This loss is obviously proportional to the conductor resistance. If copper conductor is

used, the losses will be lower compared to a conductor of identical cross-section that
has been made from aluminium
5.2 Conductor Inductance
The inductance of an arrangement (trefoil or flat) of single core cables, or of a 3 core

cable is complex to calculate. However the inductance of a single core cable is
relatively simple to calculate as will be explained in this section.
The inductance associated with a cable is made up from two parts; firstly the self
inductance due to the flux generated from the current carrying conductor and
secondly the mutual inductance which is due to the flux linkage between the
conductor and the sheath.
The total cable inductance in a single core arrangement can be calculated from eqn
5.2:
 2S  6
Ltot   K  0.2 ln   10 H/m Eqn 5.2
 d 
Self Mutual
Inductance Inductance
Where L – inductance of the cable per meter

K – constant depending on conductor construction
S – Axial spacing between conductors within cable
Or – Axial spacing between conductors of a trefoil group
d – Conductor diameter
For circular conductors K can be derived to equal 0.05

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5.3 Conductor to Sheath Capacitance and Power Dissipation in Dielectric
As with calculations for inductance, the capacitance of a 3 core cable (in a belted
formation) is complex to derive, especially when considering shaped conductors, and
would require the use of finite element software. For a single core circular conductor
cable and for 3 core screened cable arrangements, the capacitance can be
calculated, as for a co-axial cable geometry, as in eqn 5.3.
2 o  r
C F/m Eqn 5.3
ln( R r )
Where C - Capacitance per meter

ε0 - Permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)
εr - Permittivity of cable dielectric
R - Radius of conductor and insulation
r - radius of conductor
The current flowing through the dielectric is given by dividing the phase to earth
voltage of the power cable by the impedance formed by the dielectric as in eqn 5.4
I  EC Eqn 5.4
Where  - 2π x frequency,
I - Current through dielectric
E - Phase to ground voltage
C - Capacitance of cable
No dielectric is perfect and part of this current creates resistive (i.e. heating) losses.
The resistive portion of this current can be found by multiplying the above by the
dielectric loss angle, tan. In other-words, the resistive component of the charging
current is given by eqn 5.5:
I R  EC tan  Eqn 5.5

IR - Active current component flowing through dielectric
C - Capacitance of cable per meter
Tanδ - loss tangent of dielectric
Typical Tan δ values are shown in table 5.1
Material Tanx103 r
Impregnated paper 2–3 7 – 10
Polyethylene 0.2 – 0.4 2.3
XLPE 0.3 – 0.5 2.3
EPR 1.8 – 3 2.8-3.5
Impregnated PPL 0.5 – 0.6 2.7
Table 5.1 Dissipation factor and permittivity for various materials

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The power dissipated in the dielectric can then be calculated as in eqn 5.6
Wdielectric  E 2C tan  W/m Eqn 5.6
Where  - 2π x frequency
Wdielectric - Power dissipated per meter in cable dielectric
C - Capacitance of cable per meter
Tanδ - loss tangent of dielectric
In the equation above, the capacitance per metre is used so the dielectric loss per
metre of cable can be found.
In three-core belted cables, where each phase conductor is not individually screened,
capacitive currents flow between the phase conductors and earth as well as between
individual phase conductors. This capacitive current will also cause dielectric losses.
The dielectric losses are the only loss in the power cable that occur at no-load. They
therefore define the maximum useful length of a power cable. An extremely long
power cable energised at a high voltage will consume a substantial capacitive current
and the flow of this through the power cable conductor and dielectric will produce
losses sufficient to heat the power cable to its maximum operating temperature.
Cable lengths must, therefore, be kept to a specific length or operated at lower
voltages.
5.4 Insulation Resistance
For a single core circular cable, the insulation resistance per meter can be derived as
in equation 5.7:
 R
R ln Ω/m Eqn 5.7
2 r
Where ρ – resistivity of dielectric
R – Radius of conductor and insulation
r – radius of conductor
A correction for temperature may have to be made according to the Eqn 5.8
 t   20  exp(t ) Ωm Eqn 5.8
Where t - resistivity of insulation at temperature t

20 - resistivity of insulation at 20C
 - temperature coefficient of resistivity at 20C
t - temperature (C)

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5.5 Electric Field Stress Across Insulation
For a single core cable, the electric field stress across the insulation can be derived
as follows:
Electrical Stress (kV/mm)

R
r
x
Distance across insulation (mm)

Figure 5.1 Electric Field Distribution in a Coaxial Cable Arrangement
Consider a unit length of a single core cable with a conductor radius r and an
insulation radius of R. Assume that the conductor carries a charge of q coulomb/m.
There is a flux density, at a distance x from the conductor, of:
q
Dx 
2x
The electric field at a distance x from the conductor is, therefore:
Dx q
Ex   Eqn 5.9
 o r 2x o  r
The electric field implies that there is a voltage drop across the elemental section x.
The voltage drop across the elemental section is shown below. Using integration, the
elemental voltages across the insulation can be summed to find the voltage between
the conductor and the cable sheath.
dV   E x dx
r
V  
R
E x dx
q  R 
V  ln   Eqn 5.10
2  o  r  r 
Substituting eqn 5.10 into eqn 5.9 results in the eqn 5.11:
V
Ex 
x ln R r 
Eqn 5.11
The electric field is at a maximum at the outside of the conductor and at a minimum
at the inner surface of the auxiliary shield / sheath. Local fields at the surface will be
higher if no conductor shield is used.

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5.6 Induced Sheath Voltages and Power Dissipated in the Sheath / Armour
N.B. Currents in the sheath / armour of a THREE CORE cable will normally be
minimal as the induced sheath current should be approximately zero for a balanced
three phase system.
As such losses due to induced voltage and currents in cable sheaths / armour are
only a consideration in SINGLE CORE cables layed up in a trefoil or a flat formation
Depending on the method of bonding (connection of the sheath to earth), a high

voltage can build up between the sheath and the earth or a current can circulate
through the sheath. Cable circuits at lower voltages (33kV and downwards) normally
have the ends of the cable sheaths solidly bonded to earth resulting in circulating
currents. As current flows through the conductor of a power cable, a voltage will be
induced on the power cable sheath. If the sheath is solidly bonded at both ends of
the cable, a current will flow through the cable.
The voltage induced in the sheath Es s:
E S  IX m V/m Eqn 5.12
Where I – Current flowing through phase conductor

Xm - Mutual inductance between the cable conductor and sheath.
Xm can be calculated from eqn 5.13:
X m  2fM /m Eqn 5.13
Where M was previously derived in equation 5.2 as in eqn 5.14
M  0.2 ln 2 S  H/m Eqn 5.14

 dm 
The current flowing through the sheath is therefore given by eqn 5.15
Es IX m
Is   Eqn 5.15
Rs2  X m2 Rs2  X m2
Although sheath losses can be calculated from eqn 5.15, if the resistance of the
sheath is known, sheath losses are often described using a ratio, 1, which is the
ratio of sheath to conductor losses. The ratio of sheath to conductor losses for a
particular power cable design and layout can be derived from eqn 5.15 (from IEC
287) as shown in eqn 5.16.
RS 1
1  Eqn 5.16
R  R 
2
1   s 
 Xm 
Where Rs - Resistance of sheath per metre
R - Resistance of conductor per metre
X - reactance of sheath per metre

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In the case of the cables laid in trefoil formation Xm can be calculated to be as in eqn
5.17
 2s 
X m  2 10 7 ln  Eqn 5.17
d 
s - distance between conductor axes,
d - diameter of sheath.
For cables laid in a flat formation, Xm can be calculated to be as in eqn 5.18
 s
X m  2 10 7 ln 23 2  Eqn 5.18
 d
In the same way that current flowing through the power cable conductor can produce
circulating currents in a fully bonded sheath, current flowing through a sheath can
produce circulating currents in fully bonded armour. Losses in armour or a sheath
made from a metallic material would be so high that aluminium, bronze, copper or
lead is usually used. Armour losses are also described as a ratio, 2, of the conductor
losses.

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6. THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER CABLES
The thermal performance of a power cable determines the maximum rating of a

power cable. The maximum operating temperature will depend on the type of cable
insulation. This temperature will be reached when a certain current flows through a
power cable. The heat losses in a power cable therefore have a negative impact on
the current carrying capability of the power cable as well as being the cause of
economic loss.
6.1 Sources of Heat and Heat flow
Heat is produced in a power cable in the following locations:
 Conductor losses (I2R losses due to the flow of current through the cable
conductor)
 Dielectric losses (cause by the flow of capacitive current through the cable
insulation)
 Sheath losses (I2R losses and possibly eddy current losses due to the flow of
current through the cable sheath)
 Armour losses (I2R and possibly eddy current losses due to the flow of current
through the cable armour)
Derivation of each of these losses was as explained in part 5 of this course
In thermal calculations, heat flow or power loss (W) can be considered analogous to
electrical current, temperature difference () to voltage and thermal resistance (T)
to resistance. These three quantities are related as in eqn 6.1:
  T  W Eqn 6.1
Heat flow or power loss is measured in Watts, temperature difference in Kelvin and
thermal resistance in Kelvin/Watt. Sometimes the thermal resistance per metre of the
cable is referred to and this expressed with the units Km/W.
Thermal resistance is related to the thermal resistivity of a material. A similar

relationship between resistivity and resistance exists in thermal and electrical
calculations.
T l
T Eqn 6.2
A
Where T - Thermal resistivity of a material,

L - Length of the material
A - Cross sectional area.

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6.2 Thermal Resistances Of A Power Cable
The current carrying capability of a power cable depends both on the rate of heat
production in the power cable and the thermal resistance of the power cable
materials. When heat flows through a thermal resistance, a temperature drop will
occur. In the case of a power cable, the conductor temperature must not exceed the
maximum power cable operating temperature (this normally depending on the main
insulation). A number of thermal resistances are defined for power cables as shown
in table 6.1:
Thermal Definition
Resistance
T1 Thermal resistance per unit length between conductor and sheath
T2 Thermal resistance per unit length between sheath and armour
T3 Thermal resistance per unit length of the external cable serving
T4 Thermal resistance per unit length between cable surface and the
surrounding medium
Table 6.1 Power Cable Thermal Resistances
The definition of these thermal resistances is not always straightforward as it

depends on the cable design and the geometrical layout of single core cables used in
a three phase circuit
Typical formulae for thermal resistances in single core cables are given in the
following equations
Thermal Resistance Per Unit Length Between Conductor And Sheath (T1)
 T  2t1 
T1  ln 1   Eqn 6.3
2  d c 
Where T - Thermal resistivity of the material,

t1 - Thickness of the insulation between the conductor and sheath
dc - conductor diameter.
Thermal Resistance Per Unit Length Between Sheath and Armour (T2)
 T  2t 2 
T2  ln 1   Eqn 6.4
2  d s 

t2 - Thickness of the material between the sheath and the armour
ds - External diameter of the sheath.
This equation is applicable for single core cables and three core cables with a
combined sheath.

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Thermal resistance Per Unit Length of the External Cable Serving / Oversheath
 T  2t 3 
T3  ln 1   Eqn 6.5
2  d a 

t3 - Thickness of the material between the outer metallic layer (i.e. the
armour or the sheath in unarmoured power cables) and the ground
da - External diameter of outer metallic layer.
Thermal Resistance of the Ground
T4 is the thermal resistance between the power cable (or group of power cables) and
the surrounding ground. Cables laid in trefoil formation and carrying balanced
currents can be considered to rise to the same temperature during normal power
system operation. Cables laid in a flat formation will not all operate at the same
temperature and in this case the thermal resistance, T4, applies to the hottest power
cable.
Three single core cables laid in a flat formation and equally spaced
 2    2L  2 
 2L  2L 
T4  T ln   
   1  ln 1     Eqn 6.6
2  de  de     s  
 
Three single core cables laid in a flat formation and touching
4L
T4   T (0.475 ln( )  0.346) Eqn 6.7
de
Three single core cables laid in a trefoil formation
1 .5  T  4L 
T4  ln( )  0.630 Eqn 6.8
2  de 
In the above equations, t is the resistivity of the ground, L is the distance from the
surface of the ground to the cables (or the centre of a trefoil group), de is the external
diameter of one cable and s is the separation between two cables.
It is more difficult to derive the thermal resistances for three-phase cables. Generally,
the formulae above are multiplied by a geometric factor ‘G’ which is in turn derived
through more complex calculations. For example, the thermal resistance between the
conductor and sheath in a three phase screened cable is given by eqn 6.9
T
T1  G Eqn 6.9
2

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Typical Thermal Resistivities
Typical thermal resistivities for a range of materials (and for ground in a range of
countries) are given below:
Material Thermal Resistivity (Km/W)

Paper 5.0 – 6.0
XLPE 3.5
PVC 5.0 – 6.0
Jute / similar fibrous 6.0
materials
Polyethylene 3.5
Concrete 1.0
Soil (UK) 1.2
Soil (USA) 0.9
Soil (Very dry conditions) 3.0
Table 6.2 Thermal resistivities of a range of materials
6.3 Calculating The Maximum Steady State Power Cable Current
The temperature rise of a power cable results from the flow of heat through the
materials of the cable. 1W of heat produced in the conductor results in a higher
temperature rise than 1W of heat produced in the cable sheath as it has to pass
through more thermal resistance.
Location of heat Thermal resistances this heat must pass

production
Conductor Insulation, bedding between sheath and armour, oversheath /
external serving and ground (T1, T2, T3 & T4)
Dielectric Bedding between sheath and armour, oversheath / external
serving and ground (T2, T3 & T4)
Sheath Bedding between sheath and armour, oversheath / external
serving and ground (T2, T3 & T4)
Armour Oversheath / external serving and ground (T3 & T4)
Table 6.3 Thermal Resistances To Heat Sources
The temperature of the power cable conductor must be kept below the rated
temperature of the power cable insulation. The temperature rise of the power cable
conductor can be considered by visualising the power cable thermal resistances and
the heat flow through them, as illustrated in figure 6.1

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CONDUCTOR
I2R losses in conductor
T1 (Insulation)
Dielectric losses
SHEATH
T2 (Bedding btwn. sheath and armour) Sheath losses
ARMOUR
T3 (Oversheath / external serving) Armour losses
OVERSHEATH /
EXTERNAL SERVING T4 (Ground)
GROUND
Figure 6.1 A Model of Thermal Heat Sources And Thermal Resistances
The component of the temperature rise given by the conductor I2R losses is given by
eqn 6.10:
I 2 R(T1  T2  T3  T4 ) Eqn 6.10
The dielectric losses are formed within a thermal resistance. While all of the dielectric
losses pass through the thermal resistances T2, T3 and T4, the calculation of the
temperature rise due to the movement of the dielectric losses through T1 is less
straightforward. The temperature rise due to the movement of dielectric losses
through the power cable is given by eqn 6.11:
Wd (0.5T1  T2  T3 T 4) Eqn 6.11
Sheath losses are described as a ratio of the conductor I2R losses and the
temperature rise due to the passage of these through the power cable is given by
eqn 6.12:
1 I 2 R(T2  T3 T 4) Eqn 6.12
Armour losses are also described as a ratio of the conductor I2R losses and the
temperature rise due to the passage of these through the power cable is given by
eqn 6.13:
2 I 2 R(T3 T 4) Eqn 6.9

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Summing all of these losses and manipulating the resulting equation leads to eqn
6.10 that describes the temperature rise of a power cable:
   
  ( I 2 R  0.5Wd )T1  I 2 R(1  1 )  Wd nT2  I 2 R(1  1   2 )  Wd n(T3  T4 )
Eqn 6.10
In this equation, n is used to represent the number of current carrying conductors in

the power cable.  is the temperature difference between the power cable
conductor and the surrounding ground, conductor - ground. Obviously, the hotter the
ground surrounding the power cable, the lower the current that can be passed
through the power cable.
The equation describing the temperature rise of the power cable can be rearranged
to give the maximum power cable current. This is given in Eqn 6.11
   Wd 0.5T1  n(T2  T3  T4 ) 
I   Eqn 6.11
 RT1  nR(1  1 )T2  nR(1  1   2 )(T3  T4 ) 
6.4 Methods for increasing current carrying capability
To increase the current carrying capability of a power cable, it is possible to use one
or more methods:
 Reduce losses (conductor, dielectric, armour and sheath)

 Decrease thermal resistances
 Place cable in an area with a lower ambient temperature
Conductor losses can be reduced by using a conductor with a larger cross-sectional

area and/or a lower resistivity. Dielectric losses can be reduced by using dielectric
materials with a low loss angle and/or a low permittivity. As dielectric losses are
usually low in comparison to conductor and sheath losses, these can often be
neglected.
6.4.1Cable Earth Bonding
As stated in section 5.6 power losses in cable sheaths / armour are only significant in
single core cables layed up in a trefoil or a flat formation, since the magnitude of
circulating currents in a three core cable are minimal.
Reducing power cable sheath losses can obviously be achieved by the use of higher
cross-sectional area sheaths and/or sheaths of lower resistivity. In addition, various
special bonding techniques can substantially reduce the magnitude of current flowing
through a sheath:
The bonding arrangement of the earth conductors has to be taken into consideration.
to reduce the induced voltages and circulating currents within the cables’ earth
conductors. Bonding is usually done at the cables terminations, or at the position
along a cable where a joint is installed. The various techniques used in bonding are
now discussed.

__________________________________________________________________________
i.) How not to do it
Whether in a trefoil arrangement or an in line arrangement the bonding arrangement,

shown in figure 6.2 should not be used. This is considered first, as it is probably the
most obvious arrangement which would be considered by an engineer, however this
results in huge circulating currents, which significantly effect the current rating of the
phase conductors.
Red Core Earth

Red Core Phase
Blue Core Earth
Blue Core Phase
Yellow Core Earth
Yellow Core Phase
Mutual Earth
Earth Bond
Cable Joint
Figure 6.2 Bad Earth Bonding
ii.) Single Point End Bonding
This form of bonding can be used in low current circuits for short cable lengths in a
trefoil or flat arrangement. In this type of system, the sheaths of power cables are
earthed at one end only. The other end of the sheaths are insulated from the ground.
In this bonding formation, no circulating currents are present in the earth conductors,
however standing voltages at the unbonded end limit the permissible length of the
cable. The standing voltages are proportional to the currents through the phase
conductor. It is generally considered that this bonding formation is acceptable as long
as the induced voltage is less than 50 V, with the metal work of the opposite end of
the cable being insulated. In reality, this is accomplished by limiting the cable length
to which end point bonding is applied. A separate path for earth fault current must be
provided if the cable sheaths are not bonded for power system protection purposes.
As the voltage between the cable sheath and earth will rise to a high level under fault
conditions, sheath voltage limiters (a type of surge arrester) are normally fitted
between the end of the sheath and the earth. No current circulates through the
sheath when this type of bonding is used. This form of bonding is shown in figure 6.3
.
Figure 6.3 Single Point Earth Bonding

__________________________________________________________________________
iii.) Mid Point Bonding
This bonding formation allows approximately twice the length of cable to be used in
comparison to the single point bonding and again can be used in trefoil or flat cable
arrangements. The cable sheaths are bonded to earth at the mid point of the power
cable. At the end of the power cable, sheath voltage limiters are fitted to the sheath
which is otherwise insulated from earth This formation again induces a voltage at the
unbonded ends of the cable and does not allow the circulation of currents. This
bonding formation is shown in figure 6.4
Figure 6.4 Mid Point Earth Bonding
iv.) Cross Bonding
a.) Earth Cross Bonding
Earth cross bonding is commonly used in trefoil cable formations, where the other
two bonding techniques are unsuitable, due to cable length, core separation or the
need for high currents. This formation relies on cancelling out fluxes from adjacent
cores due to the 120º phase difference. This then reduces the magnitude of induced
standing voltages along the earth path and limits circulating currents flowing in the
earth conductors. As such, the trefoil arrangement of the cores in the cable formation
must be fairly uniform to maximise the flux cancellation. This form of bonding is
shown in figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 Earth Cross Bonding

.

__________________________________________________________________________
b.) Phase Cross Bonding
Phase cross bonding works along the same lines as earth cross bonding, however
this is used in inline cable formations. In an inline cable formation, the impedance of
the centre conductor is different to that of the other two conductors, due to inductive
effects and as such does not carry the same amount of current as the other two
phases. To correct this the phases are transposed to try and balance out the
impedances. In a similar way to as in earth cross bonding, the earth conductors are
then switch between conductors to cancel out the induced fluxes. This type of cross
bonding is shown in figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6 Phase Cross Bonding
Figure 6.7 shows how cross bonding is implemented in practice. At each minor
section, the sheaths of the power cables are transposed. At the major sections, the
sheaths are solidly bonded to earth.
Figure 6.7 Cross-bonding to reduce power cable sheath losses

__________________________________________________________________________
6.4.2 Cable Burial Considerations
Figure 6.8 Graph illustrating the effect of burial and special bonding
The thermal resistance of the medium surrounding the cable can be reduced to
increase the rating of a power cable. Special backfills can be used to reduce the
thermal resistivity of the medium surrounding the cable (Figure 6.8). Backfills may be
used when a cable is not laid directly in soil but is placed in ducts (used in railway /
river crossings etc). A cable placed in a duct with no backfill will have a significantly
lower current rating in comparison to a cable placed in free-air. Similarly, the use of
materials with lower thermal resistances in the power cable can lead to an increased
power cable rating. Water pipes can be placed in cable trenches and cold water can
be passed through them. This can have a significant impact on the load that a cable
is able to carry. Similarly, cooling pipes can be placed within a cable itself as shown
in figure 6.9
Figure 6.9 Cable with cooling duct
The rate of temperature rise of a power cable when operated from cold is relatively
slow. The maximum operating temperature may not be reached for a period of over
24 hours. Allowance can therefore be made to run the cable at an increased rating
for a short period of time. The so called ‘cyclic rating’ of the power cable can be

__________________________________________________________________________
calculated if typical load profiles of the cable under normal operating conditions are
known.
Cables placed in tunnels are a special case with regards cooling. The use of cable
tunnels is becoming more popular due to the difficulty in obtaining suitable rights of
way through city centres. While tunnels can be more expensive, they protect a cable
from accidental damage and allow the cable to run at a higher load should forced air
ventilation be used within the tunnel.
Figure 6.10 Cables Within a Tunnel
6.5 Short Circuit Ratings
While the conductor size of a power cable partly determines the power cable rating,
the conductor size itself is often actually determined by the required short circuit
rating. During a short circuit fault there is a sudden rush of current through the power
cable followed by a steadier flow until the power system protection operates. A short
circuit current may twenty times the level of load current and a cable may be at the
maximum operating temperature during a short circuit fault. It is therefore important
to ensure that a short circuit fault will not increase the cable temperature above the
maximum value.
A short circuit current produces a rapid temperature rise of the power cable
conductor (and possibly the sheath / armour). This is followed by a rapid cooling
period when the power cable conductor will return to a lower temperature. The cable
insulation can temporarily withstand a higher temperature than the sustained
maximum temperature. Typical short circuit temperature limits are shown in the table
below.
Material Temperature / C
Paper 250
PVC 150
XLPE 250
Table 6.4 Cable Insulation Short Circuit Temperature Ratings
The maximum temperature rise of the power cable during a short circuit fault is equal
to the short circuit temperature limit minus the steady state temperature limit (i.e. for
XLPE with a steady state temperature limit of 120C and a short circuit temperature
limit of 250C, the maximum temperature rise during a short circuit fault is 130C).
The ability of a cable to carry short circuit current can be crudely written as:
S
I SC 
T

__________________________________________________________________________
7 CABLE ACCESSORIES
When a cable circuit is installed, cable accessories are required to either join up the
individual sections of power cables (cable joints) or to connect cables to plant, such
as switchgear or transformers (cable terminations). Both joints and terminations have
a variety of components, which must:
 Maintain the electrical conductivity of the system, both in the phase

conductors and in the earth path, without imposing excessive heating due to
poor connections
 Provide an insulating media and control the electrical stresses in the cable
and jointing/ termination system
 Keep the moisture out of the cable and accessory system
To maintain the reliability of the cable system, the cable accessories must be at least
as reliable as the cable. Both cables and cable accessories are manufactured in
factories under controlled conditions, in which quality systems may be used to assure
their performance. This is not true when the cable accessories are installed on the
cable systems, as the jointing process is prone to error, both in the preparation of the
cable for jointing and in the application of the accessory. The quality of the jointing
process is therefore very hard to control, which therefore lends itself to a high degree
of skill. The design of a joint or other accessory must therefore make the job of the
jointer as easy as possible. Designs of modern accessories have therefore been
concentrated at taking the skill away from the jointer to make the application of the
jointing process more easy to control.
A further complication in the jointing process is the conditions joints must be installed
in. Figure 7.1 shows a typical unclean muddy cable trench in which a joint may be
installed. Contamination from such conditions can obviously influence the
performance of the accessory. This may also highlight the difficulties in assessing the
long term performance of accessory systems from factory-based design and type-
tests, due to the difference in conditions encountered between the laboratory and the
in field assemblies.
Figure 7.1 Example of location where a joint may have to be installed

__________________________________________________________________________
7.1 Cable Joint and Termination Assemblies
As with cable systems, there is a huge number of different types of joints and
termination systems at each voltage level. The purposes of this section is to give a
generalised view of the construction of joints and terminations
7.1.1 Cable Terminations
Figure 7.2 shows a typical cable termination used on a single core medium voltage
cable distribution network. These forms of terminations come as either heat shrink or
cold shrink tubes. Similar terminations are also available for use on three-core and
paper insulated cables. The various component parts of the termination are now
discussed.
Connection between the core conductor and

the plant, which the termination is attached to
Cable Lug is through the cable lug. These are either
mechanically crimped or fastened to the
conductor. It must be ensured that a low
contact resistance is present between the lug
and the cable conductor to prevent excessive
Anti tracking heating from this area
The outer polymeric material of the

termination is composed from an anti-tracking
insulating layer. In outdoor terminations
rainsheds are also fitted. The anti-tracking
material prevents the formation of a
conductive path being formed between the
core conductor and the earth screen due to
moisture on the surface of the termination
The stress controlling void filler is a high

permittivity mastic, with two functions. Firstly
it controls high electrical stresses emanating
from the screen cut region (see later section).
Secondly, as it is a soft mastic material it also
acts to exclude voids from the termination
when it is retracted over the cable. This is
placed at the interface between the cable
dielectric and the semicon layer
The sealant tape prevents moisture from

migrating from outside the cable to the cable
dielectric
The earth screen of the cable is also

terminated at the cable termination. This must
be appropriately bonded to ensure excessive
Cable Earth Screen
induced voltages \ currents are not present in
the earth path
Figure 7.2 Typical cable termination used on a medium voltage cable distribution
network
__________________________________________________________________________
Figure 7.3 shows a 300kV polymeric cable

termination. This form of termination would be
used in an outdoor substation or at a location
where a cable is joined to an overhead line. The
cable enters the termination through the base
insulator and is supported within the termination
at a point where the sheath is still intact. A rubber
stress cone is placed around the area where the
sheath has been stripped away from the
conductor to reduce the electrical stress. In this
case, a porcelain insulator is placed around the
insulation to provide protection from the
environment. It has a number of sheds to
increase the leakage path across the insulator
surface and arcing horns to protect the insulator
and the cable within from the effect of transient
voltages.
Figure 7.3 – Outdoor 300kV polymeric termination
Figure 7.4 Shows the installation of such a termination
Figure 7.4- Installation of an outdoor cable termination

__________________________________________________________________________
7.1.2 Cable Joints
Figure 7.5 shows a typical single core jointing system used in a medium voltage
network.
Figure 7.5 A Typical single core MV cable jointing system
As can be seen there is a vast amount of similarities between the cable termination
system presented previously and this cable jointing system. The need for electrical
stress control is still apparent at the screen cut region of the cable, again in this
jointing system using a high permittivity mastic. Connection between the core
conductors is made through a mechanically crimped ferrule or a mechanical
connector. The joint is also sealed from the environment and water ingress through
barrier mastics and a waterproof jacket.
Inside the joint, the profile of the connector can present high electrical stresses due
to the crimping or fastening process. In this jointing system, the connector is lapped
with a high permittivity mastic tape to smooth out the stress distribution incident to
the insulating layers inside the joint. It is also common in other jointing systems for
the joint to have a semiconductive polymeric layer moulded inside the joint body to
smooth out stress distributions in this area.
Plumbed Oil Rosin Filled Cast Iron Jointing Systems
Traditional jointing systems, used on PILS cables consisted of lead plumbed oil rosin
/ bitumen filled cast iron jointing systems. These jointing systems can be used on the
whole range of single core and three core jointing arrangements. They are still in use
today, in the minority of PILS cable installations and have a superb track record in
their performance. They are, however complex to install and require the skills of
highly trained jointers in their application.
The jointing system consists of two chambers. The inner chamber consists of a lead
sleeve, which is used to provide the earth screen for the joint and an outer cast iron
chamber, which is used to carry fault and circulating currents, as well as to house the
joint from the environment. The conductors are joined together via sweat soldered
ferrules and the cores are separated via an oil impregnated spreader. Surrounding
each of the connectors is an oil impregnated cotton tape and similarly a cotton tape
binder is wrapped around all three cores. The chambers are filled with hot (150C) oil
rosin / bitumen jointing compound The use of a hot jointing compound allows both air
and water vapour to be driven from the joint on application and provides an
environmental seal.

__________________________________________________________________________
Figure 7.6 Plumbed Oil Rosin Filled Cast Iron Jointing Systems
Figure 7.6 shows the layout of a plumbed oil rosin filled cast iron jointing system used
on an 11kV cable system; jointing a screened and a belted cable system. In the
screened cable system, stress control where the cable screen is terminated, is
achieved through the use of paper stress cones. See following section for methods of
electrical stress relief in cable joints.
Complex Hybrid Jointing Systems
Where more complex joints are required, such as where a three core cable system
feeds two separate three core cables as in a breech joint depicted in figure 7.7,
hybrid jointing systems are often required.
In a hybrid joint, the cable cores are separated and then jointed separately, using a
variety of tubes similar to that as in a single core jointing system. The entire jointing
system is then surrounded by an earth screen and then encapsulated in a cold
setting resin system to seal it from the environment.
Figure 7.7 11kV Hybrid 3 Core Paper Insulated Cable Breech Joint

__________________________________________________________________________
7.2 Electrical Stresses in Cable Joints and Terminations
7.2.1 Tangential Electrical Stresses at the Cable Screen Cut and Stress Control
For the installation of a joint, or termination, the insulation and earth screens of the
main cable have to be prepared as shown in figure 7.8
Figure 7.8 Cable Prepared For The Application of an Accessory

As has already been hinted at in this section, at the screen cut interface with the
dielectric an appropriate method of electrical stress control must be employed in a
cable joint or termination. As illustrated from the equipotential lines in figure 7.9, if a
cable is energised without appropriate stress control, areas of high tangential
stresses are evolved. These stresses are due to the field lines looping back from the
exposed conductor to the screen, through the insulation. In figure 7.9 the profile of
the voltage equipotential is normal to the electrical flux lines.
Figure 7.9 Electrical Stress Distribution in a Cable End
If uncontrolled, these tangential stresses, which are much higher than the radial
stresses, can lead to the occurrence of partial discharge and ultimately treeing
through the cable insulation. This partial discharge will mainly originate from the air
adjacent to where the screen is terminated. When considering the application of
joints and terminations, a similar air gap in this region created through a poorly
applied accessory can also be problematic once the joint or termination has been
applied, despite the tangential stresses being controlled.

__________________________________________________________________________
7.2.1.1 Geometric Electrical Stress Control and Stress Cones
The first method to cope with these tangential stresses is through the use of a stress
cone at the screen cut, as depicted in figure 7.10. These were traditionally used in
plumbed joints and terminations for older PILC cables and are still used today in
some of the pre-moulded polymeric joint bodies and terminations. By widening the
profile of the electrical screen at the screen termination, the electrical flux lines are
then less congested, resulting in a wider spacing between the bands of electrical
equipotential and hence the magnitude of the electrical stress. The most ideal profile
for the stress cone is a hyperbolic curve, however for the majority of accessories, this
can be simplified to a straight line. The pitch of the cone must be as such to reduce
the magnitude of the tangential stresses to an acceptable level, without making the
accessory excessively long.
Figure 7.10 Electrical Stress Distribution in a Stress Cone
7.2.1.2 High Permittivity / Conductivity Stress Control Layers
Another, more modern method used to control high stresses at the screen cut is use
of a high permittivity material over the screen cut. This method relies on the electrical
field lines being refracted, due to the change in permittivity of the media, as illustrated
in figure 7.11. This refraction effect is similar to how light becomes refracted when
passing from glass to air.
1 r1
21 r2
Figure 7.11 High Permittivity Material Refraction of Electrical Field Lines

__________________________________________________________________________
In this relationship, the material with the higher permittivity refracts the electric field
further towards the axial direction. The refraction of the field lines follows the
relationship of Eqn 7.1
tan 1  r1
 Eqn 7.1
tan  2  r2
In a joint or termination, this has the net effect of spreading the bands of voltage
equipotential, hence lowering the stresses, as demonstrated in figure 7.12
Figure 7.12 Electrical Stress Distribution in a High Permittivity Stress Control Material
Layer
7.2.2 Electrical Stresses around Mechanical Connectors, Ferrules and Lugs

High electrical stresses emerge from cable ferrules and connectors, due to their
rough profile, which is usually attributed to their means of application. Ferules were
traditionally sweat soldered to conductors, using specialist solders and fluxes, which
could even be used on aluminium conductors. These are now a thing of the past as
they were often complex to install. Following sweat soldered ferrules came
compression ferrules, which used a rounded die in a 10 tonne compression tool.
After compression, the ferrules were then filed to remove burrs, which emerged
during the compression. More modern means of joining the conductors is through the
use of mechanical connectors. Medium voltage mechanical connectors consist of a
smooth profiled body, with a central bore which the cable is fed into. Mechanical
shear bolts are then used to secure the conductor in place. Mechanical connectors
are favourable to ferrules as they are range taking, with a number of conductor sizes.
The connector is adapted to a range of conductor sizes, either by use of an inner
range taking sleeve or by the use of multi shear bolts.
Although having a relatively smooth profile, both connectors and ferrules are
commonly used in conjunction with either conductive layers in the joint (Faraday
cage) or by high permittivity mastics to smooth out the stress profile.
The profile of the ferrule or connector will influence the direction of the field lines
emerging from the device and hence the proportion of radial to tangential stresses. In
older jointing technologies, such as in the oil rosin filled cast iron joints, used on
paper cables, the profile of the ferrule was designed to have a pitch of 10, in order to
limit the tangential stresses to approximately 17% of the radial stresses. This was
required as the tangential breakdown strength of laminated paper insulation is
approximately 10% of the radial breakdown strength. If the ferrule was to set the ratio
of these stresses to 10%, then the ferrule would need a pitch in the region of 6%,
making it excessively long.

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__________________________________________________________________________

In the UK, electricity is usually generated at power stations at voltages of 25kV. It is

At transmission voltages, electricity is predominantly supplied by overhead line

As mentioned previously the selection of the voltage level of the network is

Voltage Power To Be Transmitted / Distributed

Page 1 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

The advantages and disadvantages of power cables (mainly in relation to overhead

Table 1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of cables over overhead lines

2. POWER CABLE COMPONENTS

Figure 2.1 Generic Cable Representation

These components will now be discussed individually.

Page 2 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

Where R - DC resistance of conductor

Page 3 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

2.1.3 Solid / stranded conductors

Table 2.1 Conductor Formations

If the conductor is a stranded conductor, as in the majority of cables, the conductor

A reduction in conductor size of around 10% can be achieved by compaction.

Page 4 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

2.1.4 AC Resistance – Skin and Proximity Effects

Page 5 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

Traditionally, cables have employed paper insulation (impregnated with a range of

 Sufficient electrical strength for a given insulation size

These forms of insulation are now considered in greater depth.

2.2.1 Paper Insulation Systems

Page 6 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

Figure 2.4 – Paper laying machine

Page 7 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

At higher voltages, the impregnant is not sufficient to provide sufficient dielectric

2.2.2 Polymeric Insulation Systems

Page 8 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

XLPE is a form of polyethylene that is cross-linked. The process of cross-linking

(a.) Vertical extrusion tower (b) Catenary extrusion process

Owing to concerns of electricity companies about the reliability of polymeric cables in

Page 9 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

2.3 Conductor and Insulation Shields

2.4 Earth Sheath / Screen Tapes / Wires

Page 10 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

2.4.1 Earth Sheaths In Oil Impregnated Paper Cables

In filling a cable with impregnation compound it is important to control the amount of

Page 11 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

2.4.2 Earth Sheaths and Earth Wires / Tapes in Polymeric Cables

2.4.3 Other Earth Sheaths

In paper cables, armour is particularly necessary in PILS (paper insulated lead

Page 12 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

2.6 Cable Jacket / Oversheath

2.6.2 Bitumen / PVC Oversheaths

Page 13 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

3. Cable Assemblies and Examples of Power Cable Designs

3.1 Screened and Belted Cable Constructions

In a screened cable, each core is independently insulated and separately screened

All polymeric insulated cables at 6kV or above are arranged in a screened

Page 14 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

Lead / Corrugated Aluminium Sheath

Conductor Shield / Screen

Belt Shield / Screen

Figure 3.1 11kV Belted Oil Impregnated Paper Cable Design

Lead / Corrugated Aluminium Sheath

Core Inner Semicon

Core Insulation Shield / Screen

Figure 3.2 11kV Screened Oil Impregnated Paper Cable Design

Page 15 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’

3.2 Low Voltage Cable Designs

Page 16 of 44 – ‘Cable Technology’