BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 1
Patterns and Numbers in Nature
and the World
“Seeing a New Yet the Same World
Through Mathematics”
 1

Overview

To most of us, the common concept of mathematics is that it is all about

numbers and their operations. The usual reaction is that mathematics is a difficult
subject, disliked, and even hated.
However, that concept is just one aspect of mathematics because it also
pertains to

As we journey in this module, be aware and open

a study of patterns,
a language,
your mind to the different patterns around you.
a set of problem-solving tools,
a process of thinking, and
an art.

Have you ever tried counting the petals of flower blossoms around your
community? How you ever wondered why bees made honeycombs in such shape and
structure? Do you admire the architectural design, the design motifs, or the textiles'
intricate patterns? Was there ever a time when you are amazed and expressed
appreciation for the beauty of things around you, especially in nature?

If not, you are welcome to take a closer look at your surroundings. Discover the
patterns, relationships, and connections explored and studied by mathematicians to
show the roles that mathematics plays in human beings' lives and undertakings.
Let us create a new look and understanding of the world by going through this
module.

Objectives of the Module

At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. identify patterns seen in the environment,
2. distinguish and analyze the different types of patterns, and
3. analyze logic and number patterns.
 2

1. Patterns in Nature
We see a great diversity of living things all around us, from the microscopic to
the gigantic, from the simple to the complex, from bright colors to dull ones. Do you
agree that the most intriguing things we see in nature are patterns? But before
answering that question, let me give you a hint:
The regularities that we see in the forms of the things in the natural world are
considered patterns in nature. 1

The following are some natural patterns that we can observe in our
environment.

Types of Natural Patterns

1. Symmetry. There is symmetry if an imaginary line is drawn across an object,
the resulting parts are mirrors of each other, like the following figures.

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mjUn-SyYEio/TVePvtg-_pI/AAAAAAAAAgo/RpQz3e8GzS4/s1600/symmetry.JPG

2. Spiral. It is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of

circular shapes that revolve around it.2 This is common in plants and some
animals.

3. Meander is a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or windings

in the channel of a river, stream, or other watercourses. It is produced by a
stream or river swinging from side to side as it flows across its floodplain or
shifts its channel within a valley.3

1"Patterns in nature - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature. Accessed 12 Sep.

2020.
2 "Math Patterns in Nature | The Franklin Institute." https://www.fi.edu/math-patterns-nature. Accessed 12 Sep.
2020.
3 "Meander - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meander. Accessed 10 Aug.
2020.
 3

4. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. The pattern
of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. 4
5. Stripe is a strip or band that has a different color from the surface surrounding
it. This may be seen in various living things, especially animals.

Examples: Look at some of the typical examples of natural patterns in the following:
Symmetry
Amazon Lily Pad Butterfly Dragon Fly

https://www.reddit.com/r/oddlysatisfying/comment https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/454582774 https://i.pinimg.com/736x/75/98/f0/7598f

s/a34icr/bottom_of_an_amazon_lily_pad/ 62777265/ 050a5efe4442259c6f53f1a3932--teal-
blue-bokeh.jpg

Spirals
Aloe polyphylla Tendrils Navy red flower

https://bozannical.com/2011/09/20/fibonacci- https://www.pinterest.ph/joannehunt22/te https://tse3.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.za_hi3OxvVUc

fascination/fiboromanesque/ ndrils-and-ferns/ FltuRr4qRQAAAA&pid=Api&P=0&w=198&h=159

Millipede Chameleon’s tail Ram’s horns

https://fineartamerica.com/featured/curled- https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Patterns_in_nature https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/2111131045242170/

millipede-james-l-davidson.html

Meander

https://geography-revision.co.uk/a-level/physical/meander/ https://dissolve.com/stock-photo/Meandering-river-aerial-Tambopata-
National-Reserve-rights-managed-image/102-D1024-58-596

4 "Crack Propagation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics." https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-

planetary-sciences/crack-propagation. Accessed 12 Sep. 2020.
 4

Cracks

https://stockfresh.com/image/5456010/the-cracks-texture https://www.squaretrade.com/en-gb/node/663

Stripes
emperor angelfish zebra tiger heliconius charithonia

https://www.fishkeepingworld.com https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/a http://www.catherinejenkins.com/cre https://www.pikist.com/free-photo-

/wp- rticle-2908552/So-S-zebra-got-stripes- ative-academic-writing-animals- xmvug
content/uploads/2018/04/Emperor Alternating-pattern-absorbs-reflects-heat- different-stripes/
-Angelfish-Three.png create-air-conditioning.html

Notes:
1. Some patterns cannot be seen because they are already parts of human
experience like, for example, the water cycle of evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation. With this knowledge, people were able to understand the world better
and make intuitive decisions to improve the ability to forecast weather, climate, water
resources, and the ecosystem's health.
2. Regardless of the purpose by which natural patterns served, such as for
camouflage, for adaptation to the environment, or they are caused by natural
phenomena, all of them are considered to be closely related to mathematics.

2. Other Types of Patterns

Aside from the natural patterns, you can also come across four (4) main types
of patterns in which you are also familiar with or if not, now is the time to know them.
 5

2.1 Logical Patterns

Logic reasoning and pattern observing are the first two math standards, which
are the most important measurement of IQ and the core component of many careers. 5
Logical patterns are usually the first to be observed since making categories or
classification comes before numeration. For children, logical patterns include studying
shapes and colors. For older ones, logic tests can be seen on aptitude tests wherein
takers are shown a sequence of pictures and asked to select which figure comes next
among several choices.

To identify logic patterns, you have to look out four (4) things, namely:
(1) rotating shapes
(2) increase and decrease in numbers of shapes or patterns
(3) alternating patterns, colors, and shapes
(4) mirror images or reflections
In solving problems in logical reasoning, you have to look for patterns or rules
and identify which object does follow those patterns or rules.
Here are some examples.
1.) Identify the missing square.

In this item, you have to look for the following:

1. Relative Positional Rule: This is how the black square is positioned
inside each box.

5 "Common Core State Standards for Mathematics." http://www.corestandards.org/wp-

content/uploads/Math_Standards.pdf. Accessed 6 Aug. 2020.
 6

2. Movement Rule: This pertains to how the square moves in each box, in
the clockwise direction.
3. The arrows in the first and third columns are reflections of one another.
Considering the above conditions, C is the missing square in the last
row.6

2.) Which figure completes the sequence?

In this item it is observed that the rectangles are positioned from top to bottom
alternately. The number of squares increase by one in each frame. The correct
answer is A.
3.) Which frame comes next?

In each frame, black and white squares are placed alternately from top to
bottom while the number of squares is increasing by one from the first to the fourth
frame. The answer is A.

4.) Which frame will complete the statement?

Here you have to consider the rotation of the elements. Notice that the elements
rotate in a counterclockwise direction. The answer, therefore, is C.

6 "Logical Reasoning Test ▷ 10 Practice Questions & 5 Key Tips." 27 Jul. 2020,
https://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/aptitude-tests/test-types/logical-reasoning/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020.
 7

5.) Which figure completes the grid?

Notice the following from the given:

● Each column consists of four shapes: circle, diamond, crescent, and
square.
● In each row, a shape is repeated. Take note of the repeated shapes:
square in row 1, diamond in row 2, square in row 4. This leads us to
choices A and B.
● Since the four shapes must be present in each column, therefore the
answer is A.7

Aside from the examples presented above, there are still numerous examples
under the first type of pattern. Can you think of your own example of this type of
pattern?

2.2 Geometric Patterns

A geometric pattern consists of shapes like

polygons and circles that are repeated to
create a design.8 Geometric patterns can be
seen in nature and in different artworks.
Examples of these patterns are also found in
textiles, floor tiles, paintings, and wallpapers.

https://www.skillshare.com/classes/Geometric-Patterns-101-
Triangular-Patterns/2067034929?via=blog-
internal&coupon=blog1month

7 "Abstract Reasoning Tests: 90 Free Questions With ... - WikiJob." 12 Jun. 2020, https
://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/aptitude-tests/test-types/abstract-reasoning/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020.
8 "40 Beautiful Geometric Patterns and How to Apply Them to ...." https://visme.co/blog/geometric-patterns/.
Accessed 5 Aug. 2020.
 8

Presented in the succeeding pages are examples of Geometric Patterns.

Tessellations
A tessellation is a pattern that is formed by repeating polygons to cover a plane
so that there are no gaps or overlaps. Some examples showing tessellations are the
honeycombs made by honey bees and scales of fish.

http://www.slate.com/content/dam/slate/articles/he https://i.pinimg.com/736x/37/ee/55/37ee5583d
alth_and_science/science/2015/07/150721_SCI_H 54187db47e3d7a2aaf592f5.jpg
ex-Honeycomb.jpg.CROP.promo-large.jpg

It may be a regular tessellation (where a regular polygon is repeated) or a semi-

regular tessellation (with two or more regular polygons being repeated).9

https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/tessellation.html

Fractals
A fractal is a never-ending pattern. It can be formed by continuously repeating
something.10 Because of these continuous repetitions, fractals are considered to be
self-similar. Each part of the object is similar to the whole object.
Some famous fractals are the Sierpinski Triangle, Pascal's Triangle, Koch
Snowflake, and Fractal Tree.

Sierpinski Triangle

The Sierpinski triangle is a fractal that is named after the Polish mathematician
Waclaw Franciszek Sierpinski.

9 https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/tessellation.html
10 https://study.com/academy/lesson/fractals-in-math-definition-description.html
 9

To draw the Sierpinski triangle, start with an equilateral triangle. Mark the
midpoint of each side and connect these points. Four triangles are now formed.
Repeat the procedures to each of the triangles formed except for the middle triangle.

https://fractalformulas.wordpress.com/2017/12/18/sierpinski-triangle/

Pascal's Triangle
The Pascal's triangle contains the numerical coefficients of binomial
expansions. The triangle below shows the coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)0 up to (𝑥 + 𝑦)17 .

https://byjus.com/maths/pascals-triangle/
 10

In the Pascal's triangle, the Sierpinski triangle can also be drawn by connecting
or shading the odd numbers.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Sierpinski_Pascal_triangle.svg/220px-Sierpinski_Pascal_triangle.svg.png

Fractal Tree
To construct a fractal tree, start at some point and draw a line segment. From
an endpoint, draw two branches at a certain angle. Repeat the previous step to the
new endpoints and continue the process to make more branches. 11

Bricault, S. (2016). Basic Fractal Tree. Sarah Bricault. Retrieved July 6, 2022, from http://bricault.mit.edu/recursive-
drawing?fbclid=IwAR0a1v_KjUy6xOUiTClSL94PhuruNmqGKO5QHs2Y42ruabVB7UfPZhNqu9Q

11 (2020, March 1). How to Make a Tree With Fractals | WIRED. Retrieved August 6, 2020, from
https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-make-a-tree-with-fractals/
 11

Koch Snowflake
In drawing a Koch Snowflake, one needs to start by drawing an equilateral
triangle. Then, divide each side into three equal parts. After that, draw an equilateral
triangle on each middle part.

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/3b/9d/58/3b9d5827fbc4b0291eca7ec233c42663.jpg

Then divide each outer side into thirds and again, draw an equilateral triangle
on the middle part.

Repeat until you're satisfied with the number of iterations, like the example below.

https://orderinchoas.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/biomimicry-koch-snowflake-537x402.jpg
 12

2.3 Word Patterns

Word patterns can be found in giving the plural of nouns, in forming the past
tense of verbs, and in word analogy. They can also be found in the meters of poetry
and in the rhythm of the words.

These are examples of word patterns.

1.) Plural of Nouns

student-students bench- benches ox - oxen

school- schools goddess- goddesses child - children
subject-subjects match- matches loaf - loaves

2.) Past Tense of Verbs

bake - baked watch - watched write- wrote

fake - faked walk- walked go - went
trade - traded push - pushed seek- sought

3.) An analogy compares two different things, showing the relationship between
them. The colons stand for words; single colon reads as “is to”, double colon
reads “as”.

Analogy How to read

mother is to home as teacher is to

mother: home:: teacher: school
school

entry is to exit as arrival is to

entry: exit:: arrival: departure
departure

obese: fat:: skinny: thin obese is to fat as skinny is to thin

4.) Rhyme Scheme is the rhymes' pattern at the line of a poem or song (often in
nursery rhymes). Can you recall some nursery rhymes? Letters are used to
indicate the lines that rhyme.
 13

A Haiku may be considered as a pattern concerning words. It is a Japanese

poem, typically about nature, with 17 syllables divided into three lines of 5, 7, and 5
syllables. 12

An old silent pond... 5

A frog jumps into the pond, 7
splash! Silence again. 5
— Matsuo Basho

2.4 Number Patterns

A number pattern is a list of numbers that follow a particular sequence or order.

Consider the given sequence of numbers: 23, 30, 37, 44, 51, 58, 65 and 72.
The illustration below will help us see the relationship of the numbers in the sequence.

23 30 37 44 51 58 65 72

+7 +7 +7 +7 +7 +7 +7

For this number pattern, the next number is determined by adding seven to the
previous number. This also shows that the difference between two consecutive
numbers is seven.

In determining the number pattern, it is important to examine the interval or the

difference between the consecutive numbers in the sequence. This will show the rule,
the trend, or the pattern in the sequence.

Other Examples of Number Patterns

1.) What comes next in the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, …?

Solution:
Given sequence: 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, …

+1 +3 +5 +7 +9 +11
1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37

It is observed that the terms in the sequence are found by adding consecutive
odd integers.

12 "Haiku: Definition and Examples | LiteraryTerms.net." https://literaryterms.net/haiku/. Accessed 6 Aug. 2020.

 14

2.) What comes next in the sequence 50, 49, 47, 44, 40, 35, …?
Solution:

Given sequence: 50, 49, 47, 44, 40, 35, …

-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
50, 49, 47, 44, 40, 35, 29
In this example, the terms in the sequence are found by adding consecutive
negative integers.

3.) What is the missing number in the sequence 1, 4, 9, x, 25, 36, …?

Solution:
Given sequence: 1, 4, 9, x, 25, 36, …
In this item we are looking for the fourth term in the sequence.
Since the numbers in the sequence are all perfect squares, then the answer
should be 16.

4.) Determine the value of R and S in the sequence.

90, 86, 82, 78, 74, 70, 66, 62, R, 54, 50, S
Solution:
Given sequence: 90, 86, 82, 78, 74, 70, 66, 62, R, 54, 50, S

You can observe that each number in the sequence is decreasing by 4. Since
the number before R is 62, then R = 62 - 4 = 58. For S, we have S = 50 - 4 = 46.

Example number 4 is an arithmetic sequence, where the difference between

two consecutive terms is called the common difference.

A geometric sequence is a sequence where a term is multiplied by a constant,

called the common ratio, to get the next term.

The following image shows geometric sequences with three (a whole number)
and one-half (a fraction) as common ratios.
 15

There are other types of number patterns aside from arithmetic and geometric
sequences. These other types of number patterns are as follows:

Triangular Numbers: The terms of a triangular sequence are related to the number
of dots needed to create a triangle. Begin forming a triangle with three dots; one on
top and two on the bottom. The next row would have three dots, making a total of six
dots. The next row in the triangle would have four dots, making a total of 10 dots. The
following row would have five dots, for a total of 15 dots. Therefore, a triangular
sequence begins: "1, 3, 6, 10, 15…"

Square Numbers: In a square number sequence, the terms are the squares of their
position in the sequence. A square sequence would begin with "1, 4, 9, 16, 25…"

Cube Numbers: In a cube number sequence, the terms are the cubes of their position
in the sequence. Therefore, a cube sequence starts with "1, 8, 27, 64, 125…" 13

Fibonacci Numbers. (An in-depth lesson for this number pattern is in the next
module.)

13 "Types of Number Patterns in Math - Sciencing." https://sciencing.com/types-number-patterns-math-

8093943.html. Accessed 4 Aug. 2020.
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 2
The Fibonacci Sequence and The
Golden Ratio
“Seeing a New Yet the Same World
Through Mathematics”
 18

The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio

Objectives of the Module

At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. tell the contribution of Fibonacci in mathematics,
2. explain how the Fibonacci sequence came about,
3. find and relate the Fibonacci numbers with things and happenings in the
environment,
4. identify the presence of the Golden Ratio in nature, architecture, and artworks,
and
5. recognize the presence of the Golden Ratio in the human body.
2.1 The Fibonacci Sequence
Who is Fibonacci?
Are you interested to know the person who discovered a sequence of numbers
and why he is differently known from his real name?

Let me introduce him to you. The picture at

the right is Leonardo Pisano or Leonardo of Pisa.
He was born in Pisa, Italy, in 1170. He was
recognized and well known for popularizing the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system or decimal system in
Europe. He advocated the use of the digits 0 to 9
and of the place values.
He is popularly known as Fibonacci, a
shortened word for the Latin term "fillius Bonacci,"
which means "son of Bonacci" because his father
was Guglielmo Bonaccio. He discovered the
famous FIBONACCI SEQUENCE. Fibonacci was http://t1.gstatic.com/licensed-
image?q=tbn:ANd9GcRP5VHvglI8NXAt2RWH3Q
able to find this number sequence while looking at 2fxztPEOzs-
w1ZETJQPZzwKyZLYj6ykVQStLJ7uwxnbaiV
how generations of rabbits breed.

The breeding of rabbits led to his discovery of the numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence. Let us try to discover it too. However, certain conditions are to be observed
as follows:
1. Start with a baby male and a baby female rabbit (Generation 0 or G0).
2. This pair will mature in Generation 1 (G1) and can reproduce a pair in
Generation 2 (G2).
3. This sequence continues, as in the illustration that follows.
Note: It is to be assumed that no rabbit is to die in the process.
 19

Legends:

𝑟𝑚 = baby male rabbit

𝑟𝑓 = baby female rabbit

𝑅𝑚 = matured male rabbit

𝑅𝑓 = matured female rabbit

Generation Illustration No. of Pairs

0 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 1

1 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 1

2 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 2

3 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 3

4 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 5

5 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 𝑟𝑚 𝑟𝑓 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑓 8

Listing the number of pairs in a sequence, we have

1+1 1+2 2+3 3+5 5+8 8+13 13+21 21+34

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, …

Can you now derive the Fibonacci sequence with 30 numbers in the sequence?
Do it here:
___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___,
___, ___, ___, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, _____

Have you written the sequence correctly? I hope you did. CONGRATULATIONS!

Where Can You Find the Fibonacci Sequence?

The Fibonacci sequence application can be seen in nature, on phenomena,
on the human body, and in photographs.
 20

A. Fibonacci Numbers in Nature

1. In the number of petals of flowers

Many flowers follow the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence about the number
of petals they possess naturally. These are some examples:
calla lily euphorbia milii trillium hibiscus cosmos
with 1 petal with 2 petals with 3 petals with 5 petals with 8 petals

with 1 petal

http://fineartamerica.co http://www.photos-public- https://c.pxhere.com/ph https://www.publicdomain https://pixnio.com/free-

m/images/artworkimag domain.com/wp- otos/92/6e/flower_trilliu pictures.net/pictures/1100 images/flora-
es/medium/1/white-alla- content/uploads/2011/03/pink- m_woodland_forest- 00/velka/pink-hibiscus- plants/flowers/dark-pink-
lily-christine-till.jpg flowers-on-crown-of-thorns- 816382.jpg!d flower- cosmos-flower.jpg
thumbnail-190x190.jpg 1413634461uMB.jpg

2. In the number of sections in fruits

When we observe fruits, we may notice that the number of sections they have
is in the Fibonacci sequence.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptY7JqfjT6Q

B. The Fibonacci Spiral

Using the first ten (10) numbers in the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, 55 as dimensions of adjacent squares, you can create a Fibonacci spiral.
When arranged in a certain way, the Fibonacci sequence creates a special spiral
pattern. 1

1 "(PDF) The Fibonacci Sequence: Nature's Little Secret."

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275994357_The_Fibonacci_Sequence_Nature's_Little_Secret.
Accessed 6 Aug. 2020.
 21

How to create a Fibonacci spiral

1. In creating a Fibonacci spiral, begin by drawing

two 1 x 1 squares. Draw a 2 x 2 square using the
sides of the rectangle formed by the first two
squares. Draw a 3 x 3 square using the sides of
the second rectangle formed. You will notice that
the sides of the squares are Fibonacci numbers.
Continue drawing squares using the Fibonacci
numbers as sides of the squares.

2. In creating a spiral-like shape, draw curves in

the squares beginning with the 1 x 1 squares.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275994357_The_Fib
onacci_Sequence_Nature's_Little_Secret

Can you make your Fibonacci spiral using the first ten numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence differently from the example?

The Fibonacci spiral is seen in the

nautilus shell as shown in the picture.

https://format-magazine-production-
res.cloudinary.com/image/upload/c_limit,w_1200,h_1600,f_jpg
,f_auto/mollusc-mother-of-pearl-nautilus-33234
 22

The Fibonacci spiral can be

observed in photographs of storms,
specifically hurricanes, and tornadoes.

https://i.pinimg.com/736x/7d/24/91/7d249115076c1c9342b10646c011b983--
hurricane-sandy-fibonacci-number.jpg

We can see the Fibonacci spiral in the

arrangement of the sunflower seeds.

https://i.pinimg.com/236x/bc/17/b6/bc17b61ef58ef3be55
338eb3fc29d0d9--fibonacci-number-fibonacci-in-
nature.jpg

Fibonacci spirals also appear on the skin of pineapples and pinecones. The
number of spirals found in them belongs to the Fibonacci sequence.

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/594756694526229319/? https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/pictures/310000/vel
nic_v2=1a2T6TQ1I ka/pine-cone-on-a-branch-15731202767Ic.jpg
 23

There are some parts in

the body where the
Fibonacci spiral is evident.

http://www.creomedia.ie/wp- https://www.goldennumber.net/wp-
content/uploads/2016/05/MathsOfDesignIm content/uploads/finger-golden-spiral.png
age3.jpg

2.2 The Golden Ratio

The symbol of the golden ratio is the Greek letter "phi" – Ф (uppercase letter)
or φ (lowercase letter). It is named after the Greek sculptor Phidias. It is an irrational
number equal to 1.61803398874989484820... (approximately equal to 1.618). The
Golden Ratio is also equal to

√𝟓+𝟏
φ= and φ = 𝟐(𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟒°). 2
𝟐

The Golden Ratio is also known as Divine Ratio or Divine Proportion.

The Golden Ratio in the Fibonacci Sequence

Using a line segment, divide it into two parts in such a way that the ratio of the
longer part to the shorter part is equal to the ratio of the whole segment to the longer
part.

https://byjus.com/maths/golden-ratio/

2
https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/golden-ratio.html
 24

Surprisingly, we can see the relationship between the Golden Ratio and the
Fibonacci sequence when we divide a Fibonacci number by the Fibonacci number
before it. Let us consider the first eleven (11) numbers in the sequence.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th

Then find the ratio of the next number and the preceding as shown in the table.

Ratio Quotient
2𝑛𝑑 1
1
1𝑠𝑡 1
3𝑟𝑑 2
2
2𝑛𝑑 1
4𝑡ℎ 3
1.5
3𝑟𝑑 2
5𝑡ℎ 5
1.666666…
4𝑡ℎ 3
6𝑡ℎ 8
1.6
5𝑡ℎ 5
7𝑡ℎ 13
1.625
6𝑡ℎ 8
8𝑡ℎ 21
1.61538462
7𝑡ℎ 13
9𝑡ℎ 34
21
1.61904762
8𝑡ℎ
10𝑡ℎ 55
1.61764706
9𝑡ℎ 34
11𝑡ℎ 89
1.6181818…
10𝑡ℎ 55

You will notice that the bigger Fibonacci numbers you use as a ratio, the closer
you get to the approximate value of φ (1.61803398874989484820...).

Continue the table using up to the 15th number in the sequence.

 25

Application

Many artists and architects apply the Golden Ratio in their artworks and creative
designs, believing that their works would be more pleasing and beautiful.

1. The Golden Spiral

The Fibonacci spiral, as mentioned

in the previous lesson, is constructed using
the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. The
Fibonacci spiral is also known as the
Golden Spiral.

https://pixabay.com/vectors/fibonacci-spiral-science-golden-
1601158/?fbclid=IwAR2D6Lr7UjLcZD8gmwxmwVYA9lLCPulqi1cjX
H9103GVbOYycYLVg7DwmGs

Many artists who lived after Phidias

have used the Golden Rectangle and the
Golden Ratio like Leonardo Da Vinci in his
painting "Mona Lisa."

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/78/0d/70/780d70cee
ad6fd4550b0d5dbe137f157.jpg
 26

2. The Golden Rectangle is a rectangle whose sides are in the proportion of the
Golden Ratio. This may be observed in notable architectural structures dating back
to ancient times as well as art.

Temples like the Parthenon

in Greece are believed to have
the Golden Ratio in them.

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-
RL5ZXm0fPiY/TZ4PKWJcvUI/AAAAAAAAAFk/wJIO2cjskro/s640/pa
rthenongoldenratio.png

3. Proportions of the human body, such as the face, follows the Divine Proportion.
The closer the body parts' proportion is to the Golden Ratio, the more aesthetic
and beautiful the body is.

https://www.deviantart.com/lighthouse-beacon/art/The-Golden- https://sriyantraresearch.com/Article/GoldenRati
Ratio-and-Body-Proportions-289022375 o/face1.jpg
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 3
The Language of Mathematics
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of
Mathematics”
 29

The Language of Mathematics

Objectives of the Module
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. identify and use mathematical symbols correctly, and
2. translate English expressions/sentences to mathematical
expressions/sentences and vice-versa.

Have you gone to a place where the people speak a different language or
dialect? How would you communicate with them? Would you use sign language? We
need language to communicate with others. It helps us express our ideas and relate
to what other people think. Whatever the language is, that language bridges the gap
between and among individuals. Sign language makes use of the movements of the
hands, the head, and other parts of the body while the letters of the alphabet are used
to form words in conveying ideas. In mathematics, numerals and other symbols are
used to express mathematical ideas. Mathematics as a language makes things clearer
and easier to understand. Long sentences or phrases can be translated into
mathematical sentences or expressions. An expression like “the sum of the squares
of two numbers decreased by four” can simply be written as 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4. With the help
of mathematical language, patterns are discovered, problems are solved, and new
discoveries are made to benefit mankind.

The language of mathematics was designed so that we can write about things
(like numbers, sets, …) and what we do with those things (add, subtract, multiply,
divide, …).

1. Mathematical Symbols and Conventions in the Language

Symbols

Mathematics uses symbols instead of words.

There are ten digits. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
There are symbols for operations. +, −,×,/, …
Symbols that "stand-in" for values a, b, c, …
Relation/special symbols =, <, ≤, 𝜋, …
Grouping symbols ( ), [ ], and { }
Other symbols Σ the sum of
∃ there exists
∀ for every (for any)
∞ infinity

Note: You may come across some other symbols as you travel through the learning
roadmap of this module.
 30

LETTER CONVENTIONS
Examples What they usually mean
Start of the alphabet a, b, c, … Constants (with fixed values)
From i to n i, j, k, l, m, n Positive integers (for counting)
End of the alphabet …, x, y, z Variables (unknowns)

Note: These are not rules, but they are often used that way.
UPPERCASE vs. lower case

It is also common to use

• Lowercase for variables (like x or y) or counting values (like m or n) and
• UPPERCASE for sets (like X or Y) and formulas.

2. The English Language and the Language of Mathematics

Do you know that there is a connection between the English language and the
language of Mathematics?
Let's see how the language of mathematics and the English language are
similar. The table that follows shows how.

Language of
English Language Examples
Mathematics
Nouns (objects, fixed things) Numbers 1
15, , 42
2
Connectives/associations Operational symbols/ +, −,∗ ,÷, 2(𝑥 2 − 6𝑦)
grouping symbols
Verbs (to show comparison) Relation symbols =, <, >
Pronouns Variables (letters 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
representing quantities)

Expression vs. Sentence in the Language of Mathematics

A mathematical expression is an expression with a correct arrangement of

mathematical symbols but does not express a complete thought while a mathematical
sentence is one that expresses a complete thought. In a mathematical sentence, it
makes sense to ask if the sentence is TRUE or FALSE.

Mathematical Expressions Mathematical Sentences

Examples: Examples:
18 6 + 3 = √81 TRUE
-22 20 ÷ 5 > 4 FALSE
52 (10 − 7) + 11 5x – 2y = -8, if x = -3 and y = 4. FALSE
3𝑥 7∈ 𝑁 TRUE
(6𝑥 2 − 𝑧)3
𝑦
 31

Translating English Expressions to Mathematical Expressions

Knowing how to translate English expressions to mathematical expressions is

essential in problem-solving. The first step in any problem-solving situation in
mathematics is always to read and understand the problem. Translating the words
into mathematical symbols is next.

The following information may help you.

A. The symbol of operations and relations with their corresponding meanings

Symbol Meanings
plus, sum, total, increased by, more, more than, add, added
+ to, added by, added with, in addition to, combined with, put
together, augmented
minus, less, less than, difference, decreased by, diminished
- by, subtracted from, subtracted by, exceeds by, lowered by,
reduced by, loss, fewer, exceeds
· (raised dot) or times, the product of, multiplied by, multiplied to, multiplied
any grouping symbol with, twice, doubled, thrice, tripled, squared, cubed
÷ ratio, quotient, divided by, half of, average, per, over, all over
= equals, is equal to, is the same as, is similar to, results in,
produces, represents, is equivalent to, is, are, was, were, will
be

Note: The operation between letters or between a number and a letter is understood
to be multiplication.

Let us continue our translation.

Any variable can be used to represent an unknown number. But for the sake of
uniformity, let
x be the 1st unknown number,
y be the 2nd unknown number, and
z be the 3rd unknown number.
Mathematical
English Expression/Sentence
Expression/Sentence
the sum of a number and seventeen 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟕
twenty added to a certain number 𝒙 + 𝟐𝟎
a number augmented by 3 𝒙+𝟑
the difference of a number and ten 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎
ten less than a number 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎
ten subtracted from a number 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎
a number less than 10 𝟏𝟎 − 𝒙
seven less than the product of a number and six 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟕
twice a number 𝟐𝒙
cube of a number 𝒙𝟑
 32

the product of a number and four increased by 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟗

nine
the product of eight and a number less five times a 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚
second number
the product of eight and a number less than five
times a second number 𝟓𝒚 − 𝟖𝒙

The ratio of a number and nine 𝒙

𝒙÷𝟗 ;
𝟗
𝒙
The quotient of a number and twelve 𝒙 ÷ 𝟏𝟐 ;
𝟏𝟐
𝟑
The ratio of 3, and six decreased by a number
𝟔−𝒙
𝟏 𝒙
𝒙
The quotient of half a number and eleven 𝟏
𝒙 ÷ 𝟏𝟏 or 𝟐
or 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏

The average of three numbers 𝒙+𝒚+𝒛

𝟑
The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 1. 𝟏
𝒙+ =𝟏
𝒙
Thrice the difference of a number and four equals
twenty-four. 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟒) = 𝟐𝟒

The sum of two numbers over a third number is 𝒙+𝒚

= 𝟏𝟎
the same as ten. 𝒛

The ratio of four more than twice a number, and 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒

=𝟐
thrice the same number is two. 𝟑𝒙
The sum of the squares of two numbers 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
The square of the sum of two numbers (𝒙 + 𝒚)𝟐
The cube of a number decreased by the square of 𝒙 𝟑 − 𝒚𝟐
another number
The ratio of the cube of a number and six, less the 𝒙𝟑
square of another number − 𝒚𝟐
𝟔

B. Other Useful Translations

1. Representation of the statement "The sum of two numbers is 12."

One unknown Two unknowns

x = the first number x = first number
12 - x = the second number y = second number
 33

2. Representation of consecutive integers

Consecutive Integers Consecutive

x = first integer
x+1 = second integer
x+2 = third integer
and so forth
Odd/Even Integers
x = first integer
x+2 = second integer
x+4 = third integer
and so forth

3. Representation of ages
The following phrases simply mean the subtraction of the past number
of years from the present age:

years ago
years back
was at that time
during or in the last ___ years

The following phrases mean the addition of the future number of years
to the present age:

years from now

years hence
years after or in __ more years

Present Age Past Age Future Age

Carlo’s age now Carlo's age ten years Carlo's age three
ago years from now
x x – 10 x +3
Bernard’s age now Bernard’s age 5 Bernard's age 8
years back years hence
x x-5 x +8

4. Representation of a two-digit and a three-digit number

Let h = first digit or hundreds digit,

t = second digit or tens digit, and
u = third digit or unit digit.

For a 2-digit number For a 3-digit number

t +u = sum of the digits h+ t + u = sum of the digits
10t + u = the number 100h + 10t + u = the number
10u + t = the number in 100u + 10t + h = the number in
reverse reverse
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 4
The Language of Sets
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of
Mathematics”
 36

The Language of Sets

Objectives of the Module

At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. define and give examples of sets,
2. write sets using the roster and the rule method,
3. identify and differentiate the kinds of sets, and
4. perform operations on sets.

Sets become a powerful building block of mathematics when applied to different

situations. Some of the higher mathematics disciplines whose common denominator
is set are the following: Graph Theory, Abstract Algebra, Real Analysis, Complex
Analysis, Linear Algebra, and Number Theory.

Set and Set Notations

The idea of a set in Mathematics is not different from how we think of it in

everyday living. Words such as collection, group, batch, class, and bundle all convey
the idea of a set.

However, mathematically speaking, a set is a collection of distinct objects. The

objects must be well-defined, which means that we can tell whether any given object
is or is not in the set. Distinct means no duplication of the object in the set (it is listed
only once).

Consider these examples to distinguish well-defined sets.

Well-defined Sets Not Well-defined Sets

1. The set of female presidents of
the Philippines
2. The set of quadrilaterals
3. The set of rainbow colors
4. The set of even numbers less
than 80
5. The set of ASEAN Member
countries
1. The set of good Filipino writers
2. The set of best books in the library
3. The set of difficult subjects in SHS
4. The set of delicious smoothies
5. The set of smart people in the
meeting

In writing sets, you need to follow these rules:

1. Name the set using a capital letter of the English alphabet (A, B, C, …, X, Y,
Z).
2. The objects in the set are known as elements. We write them in small letters
(a, b, c, …, x, y, z).
3. The elements are separated by commas and are written inside the braces { }.
 37

For example, Set A has as its elements the letters in the word freshmen. Writing
the set, we have A = {𝑓, 𝑟, 𝑒, 𝑠, ℎ, 𝑚, 𝑛}.

Note: The letter 𝑒 must be written only once.

Another thing, if an object is an element of the set, use the symbol ∈.

In the above example, 𝑓 is an element of set A or 𝑓 is a member of set A or 𝑓 is

in A, or 𝑓 belongs to A. We write𝑓 ∈ 𝐴 .

On the other hand, if an object is not an element of the set, we use the symbol
∉ as in 𝑎 is not an element of set A, 𝑎 ∉ 𝐴.

Before moving further, to help you understand some concepts/examples in this

lesson, a review of the set of real numbers is given in the table that follows.

The Set of Real Numbers

Symbol Name Description Examples

Natural Counting numbers (also called

N 1, 2, 3, . . .
Numbers positive integers)

Naturals numbers, their …, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,

Z Integers
negatives and 0 3, 4, ...

Numbers that can be

-15, -2, 0, 23,
represented as a/b, where a and
Rational -1/4, 3/7, 15/2,
Q b are integers and b≠0. The
Numbers -2.75, 1.625,
decimal representations are
-0.333…, 5.272727…
terminating or repeating.
Numbers that cannot be
expressed as the ratio of two
Irrational √2 = 1.414213562 … ,
Q' integers. They are the non-
Numbers 𝜋 = 3.141592654 …
repeating and non-terminating
decimals.

Real
R Rational and Irrational
Numbers
 38

Methods of Writing a Set

Set-builder Notation or Rule

Enumeration or Roster Method
• The elements of a set are
listed or enumerated in any
order but no repetition and are
enclosed by curly braces.
Method
• The members of the set are
defined by stating their
common properties. Example
of a set-builder notation:
{x I x > -2} or {x : x > -2}

This is read as “the set of all

x’s, such that x is greater than
-2”.
The” I” is read as ”such that”.
The “:” can also be used
instead of ”I”.

These are the steps on how to write sets using the set builder notation:

1. Use a lowercase letter, x or any other letter, to describe the elements of the set.
2. Use a separator, either a colon ( : ) or a vertical bar ( l ).
3. Tell the condition or properties of the elements of the set.
4. Enclose the complete description inside curly braces.

Here are some examples for you.

Enumeration or
Statement Rule Method
Roster Method
D = {e, i} D is the set of vowels D = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a vowel in the
in the word little. word little}
E = {c, d, n, y} E is the set of E = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a consonant in the
consonants in the word decency}
word decency.
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} N is the set of N = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a natural number}
Natural numbers. or
N = { 𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}

S = {2, 1, 0, -1, -2, …} S is the set of S = { 𝑥I𝑥 is an integer less

integers less than 3. than 3}
or
S = {x ∈ 𝑍Ix < 3}

B = {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, B is the set of all B = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a prime number
29} prime numbers between 10 and 30} or
between 10 and 30. B = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a prime number,
11 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 29}
 39

T = {-15, -10, -5, 0, 5, T is the set of T = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a multiple of 5

10} multiples of 5 greater greater than -20 but less
than -20 but less than positive 15}
than positive 15. or
T = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a multiple of 5,
−15 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 }
or
T = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a multiple of 5,
−16 < 𝑥 < 11 }

T = {5𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −4 < 𝑥 < 3} or

T = {5𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2} or
T = {5𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −3 ≤ 𝑥 < 3} or
T = {5𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −4 < 𝑥 ≤ 2}

G = {22,24, 26, 28, 30, G is the set of G = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a positive even

32, 34, 36, 38} positive even number greater than 20
numbers greater but less than 40} or
than 20 but less than G = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a positive even
40. number, 20 < 𝑥 < 40}
or
G = {2𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 10 < 𝑥 < 20} or
G = {2𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 11 ≤ 𝑥 < 20} or
G = {2𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 11 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 19} or
G = {2𝑥I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 10 < 𝑥 ≤ 19}

M = {13, 15, 17, 19, 21} M is the set of odd M = { 𝑥I𝑥 is an odd number
numbers between between 12 and 22} or
12 and 22.
M = {2𝑥 + 1I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 5 < 𝑥 < 11}
or
M = {2𝑥 + 1I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 6 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}
or
M = {2𝑥 + 1I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 11}
or
M = {2𝑥 + 1I𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 5 < 𝑥 ≤ 10}

Kinds of Sets
These are simple descriptions and examples to help you distinguish one kind
of set from another.
Kind of Set Definition / Notation
1. Finite Set • A set whose elements
are limited or countable
• The cardinality of a set is
the number of its
elements. The cardinality
of set A is denoted by
n(A) or IAl.
2. Infinite Set • A set whose elements
are unlimited or cannot
be counted
Note: the infinity of the set
is denoted by three dots (...)
called an ellipsis and is read
"and so forth."
3. Unit Set • A set with only one
or element
Singleton Set
4. Empty Set • A set with no object or
or element
Null set
• The symbols "{ }" and
"∅" are used to denote
an empty set.
40
Examples
A = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a positive
integer less than17}
A = {1,2,3, …,16}
n(A) = 16
B = { 𝑥I𝑥 is an odd integer
between 50 and 60}
B = {51,53,55,57,59}
n(B) = 5
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
n(W) = ∞
D = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a negative odd
integer}
D = { -1, -3, -5, . . .}
E = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a proper
fraction}
E = {1/2, 3/4, 5/7, . . .}
F = { 𝑥I𝑥 is an integer
greater than 10 but
less than 12}
F = {11}
n(F) = 1
G = { 𝑥I𝑥 is the vowel in
the word day}
G = {a}
H = { 𝑥I𝑥 is an integer
greater than -1 but
less than 0}
H = { } or H = ∅
n(H) = 0
B = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a counting
number between 45
and 46}
B = { } or I = ∅
n(B) = 0
 41

5. Equal Sets • Two sets containing the Let A = {l3, 14, 15, 16}
same elements are B = {14, 15}
equal.
• Symbolically, A = B. D = { 𝑥I𝑥 is a natural
number greater
than 12 but less
than 17}.
• The symbol "≠" is used
to denote that two sets E = {l5, 16, 14, 13}
are not equal.
From the given sets, A = D
and that both A and D are
equal to E, A = D = E.
Also,
A ≠ B, D ≠ B, and E≠ B.
6. Equivalent • If Sets A and B have the
Sets same number of
elements or the same
cardinality, then they are
equivalent sets. Let A = {11,12, 13}
B = {x, y, z}
• They may have different C = {𝜆, 𝛽, 𝛼}.
elements or some
common elements only.
From the given sets,
A~B, A~C, and B~C.
We use the symbols “~”
or “≡” to denote that sets
are equivalent.

7. Disjoint Let R = {2, 4, 6},

Sets S = {11, 13, 15}
or • Two sets with no
non- common elements are Then, R and S are disjoint.
intersection disjoint.
The set of whole numbers
and the set of negative
numbers are disjoint.

Subsets, Supersets, and Power Sets

A is a subset of B if every Consider the sets:

element of A is in B. The J = {5, 6, 7}
phrases "A is contained in K = [8,7, 6, 5}
Subsets B" and "B contains A" are L = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
other ways of saying that A
is a subset of B. then, we can say that
J⊆K, J ⊆ L, and K ⊆ L.
Symbolically, A ⊆ B.
 42

The number of subsets of a Given: M = {7, 8, 9}

given set with "n" elements can n(M) = 3
be computed using the formula
2n. 2n = 23
= 8 subsets
Note: Every set is a subset
of itself. The subsets of M are:
The empty set is a subset {7}, {8}, {9}, {7, 8}, {7, 9},
of every set. {8, 9}, {7, 8, 9}, ∅

If every element of A is in B, Consider the sets:

but there is at least one J = {7, 6, 5}
element in B that is not in A, K = {8,7, 6, 5}
then A is a proper subset of L = {9, 8, 7, 6, 5}
B.
We can say that
In symbols, we have A⊂B. J ⊂ K, J ⊂ L, and K ⊂ L.

If a set has "n "elements, Given: J = {5, 6, 7}

the number of proper
Proper Subset subsets can be verified For the number of
using proper subsets of J:
2n – 1. 2n – 1 = 23- 1
=8-1
=7

Note: Every set is not a The proper subsets of J

proper subset of itself. are:
A null set is a proper subset {5}, {6}, {7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7},
of every set. {6, 7}, ∅

• If A is a subset of B, then Consider the sets:

we can say that B is a J = {2, 4, 6}
superset of A, denoted by K = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Superset B ⊇ A. L = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

Then, we can say that

K ⊇ J, L ⊇ J, and L ⊇ K.

• The set of all subsets of a Let N = {q, r, s}

set A is called the power set n(N) = 3
of A, denoted as P(A).
|P(N)| = 23 = 8
Power Sets
• The cardinality (or the
number of elements) of the P(N) = {∅, {q}, {r}, {s},
power set of A is given by {q, r}, {q, s}, {r, s},
|P(A)| = 𝟐𝒏 . {q, r, s}}
 43

Universal Set and Complementary Sets

• The universal set is the set Let A = {a, c, e, g}

containing all the possible
elements under consideration
Universal Set or the set containing all the
elements of its subsets, Then, U = {a, b, c, d, e,
without repetition.
• Sets A and B are
complementary if they have
no common elements, and
their union is the universal
set.
Complementary
Sets
• In symbol, the complement of
A is 𝐀𝐜 𝒐𝒓 𝐀′.
B = {b, d, f}
C = {a, d, g, h}
f, g, h}
Let U = {10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 15, 16, 17}
A = {10, 12, 14}
B = {11, 13, 15, 17}
C = {10, 12, 13,14,
16}
Then, Ac = {11, 13, 15,
16, 17}
Bc = {10, 12, 14, 16}
Cc = {11, 15, 17}

Operations on Sets

Union The union of two sets A and B Let A = {1, 3, 5}

is the set containing all the B = {1, 5, 8, 10}
elements of both sets. C = (3, 6, 12, 14}
D={}
In symbols, we write A ∪ B.
A U B = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10}
B U C = {1,3,5,6,8,10,12,14}
C U D = {3, 6, 12, 14}

Intersection The intersection of two sets A Let A = {1, 3, 5}

and B is the set containing the B = {1, 5, 8, 10}
common elements of both C = (3, 6, 12, 14}
sets. D={}

In symbols, we write A ∩ B. A ∩ B = {1, 5}

B ∩ C = { } or ∅
C ∩ D = { } or ∅
 44

Combinations Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}

A = {1, 3, 5}
B = {1, 5, 8, 10}
C = {3, 6, 12, 14}
D={ }

Examples:

(A U B) ∩ C = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10} ∩ (3, 6, 12, 14}

= {3}

(A ∩ C) U B = {3} U {1, 5, 8, 10}

= {1, 3, 5, 8, 10}

A U B U C = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = {1, 5} ∩ {3, 6, 12, 14}

={ }

(A U B) ∩ (C U D) = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10} ∩ {3, 6, 12, 14}

= {3}

(A ∩ B) U (C ∩ D) = {1, 5} U { }
= {1, 5}

(A U D) ∩ (B ∩C) = {1, 3, 5} ∩ { }
= { } or ∅

Ac ∩ B c = {2,4,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14} ∩
{2,3,4,6,7,9,11,12,13,14}
= {2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14}

B c ∩ C c = {2,3,4,6,7,9,11,12,13,14} ∩ {1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,13}
= {2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13}
 45

Cross Product of Sets

Let A = {5, 7, 9},

B = {r, s, t}

Find: A x B
• The cross product of two non-
empty sets A and B is the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b), Solution:
where the first element a is
from set A, and the second A x B = {(5, r), (5, s),
element b is from set B. (5, t), (7, r),
Cross Product (7, s), (7, t),
of Sets (9, r), (9, s),
Note: The symbol "x" is used for (9, t)}
the operation.
Find: B x A
Read A x B as A cross B.
Solution:
AxB≠BxA B x A = {(r, 5), (r, 7),
(r, 9), (s, 5),
(s, 7), (s, 9),
(t, 5), (t, 7),
(t, 9)}
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 5
Elementary Logic
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of
Mathematics”
 48

Elementary Logic

Objectives of the Module

At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. identify propositions,
2. form compound propositions, and
3. express compound propositions in symbolic forms and vice-versa.

Logic is the discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. It is regarded
as one of the oldest intellectual disciplines in the history of humanity. It was the Greek
philosopher Aristotle who pioneered logical reasoning. Throughout centuries, logic has
immensely influenced other fields such as philosophy, mathematics, science,
engineering, business, and law, to name a few.

Logic is essential in our daily lives. It helps steer us in the direction of the truth
and away from falsehood. Thus, it helps us in expressing our ideas and opinions and
in making decisions.
Propositions, Simple and Compound Statements
The first step to learning logic is to identify propositions. A proposition,
sometimes called a statement, is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but
not both. To represent propositions, the lower case letters like p,q,r,s,… are used.
These are called propositional variables.

The table shows examples of propositions and sentences that are not
propositions.

Propositions Not Propositions

1. Tarlac is a province in Region III.
(True)
2. Elephants have wings. (False)
3. 15 – 2x = 8, if x = 5. (False)
4. Twenty is less than fifty. (True)
5. 52 + 1 is a prime number. (False)
1. Where is your teacher? (a
question)
2. Open the door. (a command)
3. Ouch! (an exclamation)
4. This food is delicious.
(subjective)
5. 5x + 2y = 7 (There are no
assigned values to x and y.)

Propositions can either be a simple statement or a compound statement.

A simple statement is a single statement that does not have other statements
as parts.
A compound statement contains two or more statements joined by logical
connectives.
 49

Examples:
Two is a rational number. (simple statement)
Two is a rational number and four is an even number. (compound statement)

Try this!
Which of the following are propositions?
a. I am a freshman student.
b. Answer the exercises.
c. −9 + 15 = −6

Logical Connectives and Symbols

The table that follows shows the kinds of propositional logic, their corresponding
connectives, and symbols.
Propositional Symbolic
Connective Symbol/Term Read as
Logic Form
~ curl or tilde ~p
Negation not not p
¬ dash with a tail ¬p
Conjunction and/but ∧ caret mark p∧q p and q
Disjunction or ∨ wedge or vee p∨q p or q
if p, then q
if p, q
p implies q
Conditional/ p only if q
if..., then → right arrow p→q
Implication q if p
q whenever p
q is necessary
for p
p if and only if q
↔ double-headed
Biconditional if and only if p↔q p implies q, and
arrow
q implies p

The following examples show how these logical connectives are used to form
compound statements.
Note: The negation does not form a compound statement when used but it is
considered a connective since it alters the original statement.
A. Negation:

Proposition Negation
p: The traffic in EDSA is heavy. ~p: The traffic in EDSA is not heavy.
q: Today is Friday ~q: Today is not Friday.
r: I do not like milk tea. ~r: I like milk tea.
s: The students did not attend the ~s: The students attended the
webinar webinar.
t: 23 + 34 57 ~t: 23 + 34 = 57
 50

B. Conjunction:

Let p, q, r, and s be the following propositions:

p: Russel is not happy.
q: Russel is going to a party.
r: It is a holiday.
s: Jack is not invited.

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Russel is not happy but it is a holiday. p ∧r
2. It is not a holiday and Russel is happy. ¬r ∧¬p
3. Russel is going to a party but Jack is not invited. q∧s

C. Disjunction:

Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:

p: Jerald is a producer.
q: Jerald is a composer.
r: 2 > 5
s: 5 < 7

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Jerald is a producer or he is a composer. p∨q
2. Jerald is not a composer or he is a producer. ¬q ∨ p
3. 2 > 5 or 5 < 7 𝑟 ∨s

D. Conditional:

In "if p, then q", p is called the antecedent (hypothesis or premise), and

q is called the consequent (or the conclusion).

Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:

p: It is going to rain.
q: I will not go out.
r: Cherry is going to visit a friend.
s: All even numbers are integers.
t: Zero is an integer.
 51

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. If it is going to rain, then I will not go out. p→q
(in the if p then q form)
2. I will not go out if it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q if p form)
3. I will not go out whenever it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q whenever p form)
4. If it is not going to rain, then Cherry is going to ~p → r
visit a friend.
5. If it is not going to rain, then I will go out. ~p → ~q
6. If all even numbers are integers, then zero is an s→t
integer.

E. Biconditional:
Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:
p: Lewis is a singer.
q: Lewis is a vocalist.
r: Lewis is a recording artist.
s: Seven is a whole number.
t: 9 + 13=25

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Lewis is a vocalist if and only if he is a singer. q↔p
2. Lewis is a recording artist if and only if he is a r↔p
singer.
3. Lewis is not a recording artist if and only if he is ~r ↔ ~p
not a singer.
4. Seven is not a whole number if and only if ~s ↔ t
9+13=25.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

When a compound statement is to be written in symbolic form, there are
instances when simple statements need to be grouped together. This is done by
using the parentheses.
The table below shows examples of compound statements with grouping
symbols.
Symbolic Form The parentheses indicate that:
𝑝 ⋀ (𝑞 ⋁ 𝑟) 𝑞 and 𝑟 are grouped together
(𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)⋁~ 𝑟 𝑝 and ~𝑞 are grouped together
𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together.
(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) → (~𝑟 ⋀ ~𝑠)
~𝑟 and ~𝑠 are grouped together.
 52

When a compound statement is to be written as an English sentence, the

statements inside the parentheses must be written on the same side of the comma.

Examples:
p: Cathy is good in Chemistry.
q: Cathy is good in Statistics.
r: Cathy is a scholar.
s: Cathy is an athlete.

English Sentence Symbolic Form

Cathy is not an athlete, but she is good in
~𝑠 ⋀ (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑟)
Chemistry and she is a scholar.
If Cathy is good in Chemistry and she is good in
(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) → 𝑟
Statistics, then she is a scholar.
Cathy is not good in Chemistry and she is not
good in Statistics, but she is a scholar and an (~𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)⋀ (𝑟 ⋀ 𝑠)
athlete.
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 6
Truth Values and Truth Tables
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of
Mathematics”
 55

Truth Values and Truth Tables

Objectives of the Module
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. construct truth tables of compound propositions, and
2. determine whether the proposition is a tautology, a contingency or a
contradiction

Let us define truth value and truth table.

The truth value

• of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)
• of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements
and its connectives.

A truth table is a table that shows the truth values of a compound statement
for all possible truth values of its simple statements.

Note: 1. The Truth Table of one simple statement consists of two rows showing
the possible truth values of the given statement.

Truth
Table
(Assertion)
p
T
F

Note: 2. The Truth Table of a compound statement containing two simple

statements starts with two columns of four rows showing the truth
values of every possible combination of the two given statements. The
third column shows the truth values of the given compound statement
and their connectives in all possible cases. This table is the so-called
standard truth table form.

Truth Table
Truth Value of the
p q
compound statement
T T
T F
F T
F F
 56

Study the following truth tables.

Negation:
Truth Table If a statement is true, its negation is
p ~p false.
T F If a statement is false, its negation is
F T true.
Conjunction:
Truth Table
p q p∧q
T T T The conjunction p ∧ q is TRUE when
T F F both p and q are true.
F T F
F F F

Disjunction:
Truth Table
p q p∨q
The disjunction p ∨ q is TRUE if at
T T T
least one of them (either p or q) is
T F T
true.
F T T
F F F

Conditional:
Truth Table
p q p→q
The conditional p → q is FALSE
T T T
when p is true, and q is false. It is
T F F
true in all other cases.
F T T
F F T

Biconditional:
Truth Table
p q p↔q
The biconditional p ↔ q is TRUE
T T T
when p and q have the same truth
T F F
values.
F T F
F F T

Let us determine the truth values of the following compound statements.

1. Five is an even integer and four is an odd number.

F ∧ F F ∧F
F F
 57

2. Sampaguita is our national flower or Narra is a vegetable.

T ∨ F
T ∨F
T
T

3. If California is a continent, then the Philippines is a province.

F → F
F→F
T
T
4. Five is a factor of 10 if and only if 10 is a multiple of 100.
T ↔ F
F T↔ F
F

Try this!

Given the following propositions with their corresponding truth values, what is
the truth value of the statement "Archie has fever and he has difficulty in breathing,
but he is infected with COVID 19".

p: Archie has fever. (T)

q: Archie has difficulty in breathing. (F)
r: Archie is not infected with COVID 19. (T)

Constructing Truth Tables

Now let us try to construct a truth table. Follow the steps, as shown in the
examples that follow.

Examples:
1. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p ∨ q) ∧ ~ p.

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Write the truth values of the disjunction p ∨ q on a new column.
Step 3: Negate p, then write the results on the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of p ∨ q (in step 2) and ~p (in step 3),
determine the truth values of (p ∨ q) ∧ ~p. Write the results in the last column.

p q p∨q ~p (p ∨ q) ∧ ~p
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T T T
F F F T F
 58

2. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p).

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values in the next column.
Step 4: Write the truth values of the conditional p → q on another column.
Step 5: Using the truth values from the negation of p (in step 2) and the negation
of q (in step 3), determine the truth values of ~q ∨ ~p.
Step 6: Using the truth values of p → q (in step 4) and ~q ∨ ~p (in step 5), write
the truth values of (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p) in the last column.

p q ~p ~q p→q ~q ∨ ~p (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p)

T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Try this!

Construct a truth table for the compound proposition (p → ~q) ↔ (~p ∨ q).

Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

A tautology is a proposition where the truth values are always true in all
possible cases.

A contradiction is a proposition where the truth values are always false in all
possible cases.

A contingency is a proposition where the truth values are not always true nor
always false.

Examples:
1. Show that ~p ∨ (~q → p) is a tautology.
Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values on another column.
Step 4: Using the truth values from the negation of q (in step 3) and p (in step
1), determine the truth values of ~q → p.
Step 5: Using the truth values of the negation of p (in step 2) and ~q →p (in
step 4), find the truth values of the disjunction ~p ∨ (~q → p). Write the
results in the last column.
 59

p q ~p ~q ~q → p ~p ∨ (~q → p)
T T F F T T
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F T

It shows that the truth values of ~p ∨ (~q → p) are always true.

Thus, ~p ∨ (~q → p) is a tautology.

2. Is the proposition p ∧ (p → ~p) a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency?
Look at the table below.

p ~p p → ~p p ∧ (p → ~p)
T F F F
F T T F

Since the truth values of p ∧ (p → ~p) are always false, then it is a contradiction.

3. Is (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) a tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency?

p q ~q p ∧ ~q p∨q (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q)
T T F F T F
T F T T T T
F T F F T F
F F T F F F

Since the truth values of (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) are not always true nor always false,
then (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) is a contingency.

Try this!

Tell whether the proposition (q ∨ ~p) →p is a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency.
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 7
Statements Related to Conditional
Statements and Logical
Equivalence
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of Mathematics”
 62

Statements Related to Conditional Statements

and Logical Equivalence

Objectives of the Module

At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. determine whether propositions are logically equivalent, and
2. state the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of conditional statements.

Logical Equivalence

Two statements having the same truth values in all possible cases are logically
equivalent.

Symbolic form: p <=> q or p ≡ q (read as p and q are logically equivalent)

Examples:
1. Show that p → q and ~p ∨ q are logically equivalent.
Solution:
Step 1: Begin with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Write the truth values of p → q in the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of the negation of p (in step 2) and q (in column
2), write the truth values of ~p ∨ q in the last column.

p q ~p p→q ~p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Since p → q and ~p ∨ q have the same truth values in all possible cases, they
are logically equivalent. In symbolic form: p → q ⇔ ~p ∨ q or p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q.
 63

2. Is ~p ∧ ~q logically equivalent to p ∨ q? Let us examine the truth table below.

p q ~p ~q ~p ∧ ~q p∨q
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F

Since the truth values of ~p ∧ ~q in all cases are not the same as the truth
values of p ∨ q, then ~p ∧ ~q is not logically equivalent to p ∨ q or in symbols, ~p
∧ ~ q ⇎ p ∨ q.

3. Verify if ~(p → q) is logically equivalent to p ∧ ~q.

p q ~q p →q ~ (p → q) p ∧ ~q
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F

From the truth table, we can see that ~ (p → q) have the same truth values as
p ∧ ~ q. Therefore, they are logically equivalent.

Try this!

Is q ∧ ~p logically equivalent to ~p ∨ q? Use the truth table to show your

answer.
 64

The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive

There are three statements related to a conditional statement. These are the
converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.

Given: conditional statement p → q

Converse q→p Interchange the hypothesis (p) and the

conclusion (q).
Inverse ~p → ~q Negate both the hypothesis (p) and the
conclusion (q).
Contrapositive ~q → ~p Interchange the negated hypothesis (p) and
the negated conclusion (q).

Examples:

Write the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the following
conditional statements:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.
2. If you are smart, then you can get the job.

Solution:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.

Converse: If I will buy a new motorbike, then I get the loan.

Inverse: If I do not get the loan, then I will not buy a new motorbike.
Contrapositive: If I will not buy a new motorbike, then I do not get the loan.

2. If you are smart, then you can get the job.

Converse: If you can get the job, then you are smart.
Inverse: If you are not smart, then you cannot get the job.
Contrapositive: If you cannot get the job, then you are not smart.

Try this!

Tell the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the conditional
statement, "I feel nauseous whenever I stay up late at night."
 65

Truth Table for the Conditional and its Related Statements

The truth table for the conditional and its related statements is shown below.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q ~p ~q
p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

The table also shows that any conditional statement is logically equivalent to its
contrapositive, and its converse is logically equivalent to its inverse.

Notation:
p → q ≡ ~q → ~p
q → p ≡ ~p → ~q