SUBTOPICS

Chapter 10 :

 PEnzymes and Energy Transfer

 hotosynthesis

 GENERAL: Photosynthesis and Pizza

 Respiration

 Additional Metabolic Pathways

 Assimilation and Digestion

 Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells, regulating metabolic activities.
They play a crucial role in energy conversion within cells, either through anabolism or
catabolism. Photosynthesis is anabolic, constructing molecules for energy, while respiration
releases energy. The photosynthesis-respiration cycle is facilitated by an enzyme complex that
splits water molecules and releases electrons, temporarily storing biochemical energy. These
electrons transfer energy through oxidation-reduction reactions.

 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

 Photosynthesis and respiration involve oxidation-reduction reactions, where one compound

loses electrons and another gains electrons. Oxidation involves the removal of an electron, while
reduction involves the addition of electrons. Oxygen is typically the oxidizing agent, but
oxidations can occur without oxygen

Photosynthesis is a biological process used by many cellular organisms to convert light energy into
chemical energy, which is stored in organic compounds that can later be metabolized through cellular
respiration to fuel the organism’s activities

Photosynthesis is a biological process used by many cellular organisms to convert light energy into
chemical energy, which is stored in organic compounds that can later be metabolized through cellular
respiration to fuel the organism’s activities.

The Essence of Photosynthesis

Cells require energy for their activities and reproduction, primarily through ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), which is produced constantly in plants using light. This energy-storing process, similar to a
solar-powered engine, prevents cell death by charging batteries before the sun goes down. Plants also
accumulate energy through sugar molecules or starch for short-term storage. Photosynthesis, a process
in chloroplasts, produces light energy from carbon dioxide and water, resulting in glucose. Oxygen gas is
released as a by-product, which diffuses into the atmosphere
Chapter 11

CHAPTER 11; GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

This chapter introduces growth phenomena with a discussion of the distinctions among growth,
differentiation, and development. This is followed by a discussion of plant hormones (auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene) and their roles in plant growth and development.

 Many plants, such as radishes and pumpkins, go through a sequence of growth stages. They
grow rapidly at first; then for a while they show little, if any, increase in volume; and eventually,
they stop growing completely
 the basic units of heredity, control the synthesis and development of enzymes, which are
proteins that catalyze every metabolic step within cells.
 Nutrients furnish the elements and energy for plant growth and maintenance. A lack of
nutrients restricts the normal development of plants. Plants typically obtain all of their nutrients
from the air and soil.
 The major known types of plant hormones are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and
ethylene. Ethylene is a simple two-carbon molecule, while the other major plant hormones are
ring structures, as shown in Figure
 The major known types of plant hormones are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and
ethylene. Ethylene is a simple two-carbon molecule, while the other major plant hormones are
ring structures, as shown in Figure
 Auxins are a powerful growth hormone produced naturally by plants. They are found in shoot
and root tips and promote cell division, stem and root growth. They can also drastically affect
plant orientation by promoting cell division to one side of the plant in response to sunlight and
gravity.
 The bioassay of auxin is the Avena curvature test. Auxin bioassay is a quantitative test as it
measures the concentration of auxin to produce the effect and the amount of effect produced
 Cytokinins are a group of plant growth regulators which are primarily involved in performing cell
division in plant roots, shoot system. This hormone helps in promoting the cell's growth,
development, differentiation, affecting apical dominance and delay in leaf senescence
 Abscisic acid is a sesquiterpene, which has important roles in seed development and maturation,
in the synthesis of proteins and compatible osmolytes, which enable plants to tolerate stresses
due to environmental or biotic factors, and as a general inhibitor of growth and metabolic
activities.
 Ethylene has a wide range of functions in plants. Some of the important functions of ethylene
are seed germination, shoot
 and root growth, root development, abscission of leaves and fruits, the formation of
adventitious roots, senescence of leaves and flower and sex determination.
 Senescence is an irreversible form of long-term cell-cycle arrest, caused by excessive
intracellular or extracellular stress or damage. The purpose of this cell-cycles arrest is to limit the
proliferation of damaged cells, to eliminate accumulated harmful factors and to disable
potential malignant cell transformation
Chapter 12

Meiosisand AlternationofGenerations

 As in mitosis, a doubling of the DNA molecules of each chromosome takes place before meiosis
actually begins, so that each chromosome initially has two identical DNA molecules held
together by a centromere. Like mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process that has been divided
into arbitrary phases for convenience

 F o u r m ain p h a s e s a r e r e c o g niz e d in e a c h o f t h e t w o divisio n s , a n d t h e fir s t p

h a s e is f u r t h e r s u b divid e d. Sin c e t h e m ain p h a s e s o f t h e fir s t divisio n b e a r t h
e s a m e n a m e s a s t h o s e o f t h e s e c o n d divisio n , it h a s b e c o m e c u s t o m a r y t o
d e sig n a t e fir s t divisio n p h a s e s wit h a R o m a n n u m e r al I a n d t h o s e o f t h e s e c o
n d divisio n wit h a R o m a n n u m e r al II.
 First, it brings together new combinations of genes from different parents. Second, the
production of gametes by meiosis reshuffles existing gene combinations in the parents via
recombination and segregation.

 Homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis and at least one crossover is needed to
maintain each pair. The recombination of alleles as a result of crossing-over adds to the shuffling
of genetic information
 So, depending on chromosomal location, some genes are shuffled much more frequently at
meiosis than others.
 The main features of prophase I are as follows: (1) The chromosomes coil, becoming shorter and
thicker, and their two-stranded nature becomes apparent (remember that each “strand” refers
to a double-stranded DNA molecule); the chromosomes also become aligned in homologous
pairs. (2) The nuclear envelope and the nucleolus disassociate. (3) Parts of each closely
associated pair of chromosomes are exchanged with each other ( Fig. 12.2 )
 A s p r o p h a s e I p r o g r e s s e s , p a r t s o f t h e c h r o m a tid s o f t h e h o m olo g o u s c h
r o m o s o m e s b r e a k a n d a r e e x c h a n g e d wit h e a c h o t h e r. D e p e n din g o n t h e
length of the chromosomes, this exchange may occur at one to several points along the length
of the paired homologous chromosomes
 T h e e vid e n c e f o r t his e x c h a n g e o f p a r t s a p p e a r s a little later in prophase I, when
the chromosomes of each homologous pair appear to push each other apart. It can then be seen
that adjacent chromatids have crossed over at one to several points
 Crossing-over results in an exchange of some of the DNA contributed by the two parents, which
is the basis for some of the variability seen in the offspring. An X-shaped figure called a chiasma
(plural: chiasmata ) results from each crossover ( Fig. 12.3 ). Chiasmata are necessary for the
attachment of homologous chromosomes to opposite spindle poles at meiosis and their
subsequent separation at meiosis I. They result in the recombination of alleles on chromosome
 The main feature of anaphase I is as follows: each whole chromosome (consisting of two
chromatids) from a pair migrates to a pole (an invisible point at each end of the cell.
Chapter 12