Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management Perspectives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tmp

Gender diversity in sport event tourists’ willingness-to-pay for ancillary

services: A choice experimental approach
Seong Ok Lyu a, Innhoo Baek b, Jinwon Kim b, *
a
School of Global Sport Studies, Korea University, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management, University of Florida, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aims to propose diverse feasible management strategies for developing an effective ancillary service
Ancillary service items offered at sport events. Using a sample of South Korean sport event tourists attending KBO (Korea Baseball
Gender Organization) League games, this study employs a gender perspective to devise marketing strategies that are
Choice experiment
capable of effectively attracting the buying power of female sport event tourists. Results from the choice
Sport event tourist
Willingness-to-pay
experimental approach suggest that respondents put the heaviest weight on healthier local food sold at stadium
concessions. The scenario analysis results indicate that female tourists show their stronger preferences for the
highest levels of ancillary service settings. Results also denote that females are less concerned about the high
levels of ticket prices, which provides a useful avenue for sport event marketers.

1. Introduction
Sporting events have a tight connection with tourism management
due to their potential to draw a large number of visitors to a destination
(Fourie & Santana-Gallego, 2011; Kim, Kim, & Jang, 2021; Nicolau,
2021). It is essential to consider sport event tourism within the broader
context of tourism management since several sporting events result in
significant economic, social, and cultural benefits for a host destination
(Kim & Kim, 2023; Kirkup & Sutherland, 2017). Sport event tourism
marketers also need to acknowledge that they are limited to affect
technical results of an event and control their core products (Forrest &
Simmons, 2002). Tomlinson, Buttle, and Moores (1995) noted that high
probability of winning matches does not necessarily ensure that the
stadium where an event is taking place is filled. The unmanageable
nature of core sport products encourages sport event professionals to
improve the quality of ancillary services, denoting a variety of supple­
mentary service components at sport events (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton,
2014). Regardless of the direct outcomes of the core products, sport
event tourists’ experience of enjoyable entertainment resulting from
high-quality ancillary services commonly leads to attendance satisfac­
tion (Martin & O'Neill, 2010).
Using diverse factor analytic measurement tools, a sizable number of
previous studies (e.g., Kelley and Turley, 2001; Theodorakis, Kaplani­
dou, Alexandris, & Papadimitriou, 2019) have paid much attention to
examining how ancillary service quality affects sport event tourists’
perceptions of satisfaction. Yoshida and James (2010) also investigated
how several dimensions comprising ancillary services at professional
and college sport events (e.g., stadium employees, service environment)
influence sport event tourists’ attendance satisfaction. Nevertheless,
there is limited research effort to thoroughly recognize how much they
are willing to pay for different aspects of ancillary services offered at
sport events. An improved knowledge on sport event tourists’ prefer­
ences for ancillary services may enable tourism managers to develop
effective service plans for enhancing the quality of in-stadium enter­
tainment (Fernandes & Neves, 2014).
Rational choice theory assumes that people choose a most preferable
option to realize their utility maximization after comparing a set of al­
ternatives (Kahneman, 2003). In the same way as general consumers,
sport event tourists are likely to reveal their preferences for particular
ancillary service encounters. In doing so, spectators attending a sport
event make intricate trade-offs among a range of ancillary service at­
tributes and put distinctive weights on these service components (Ped­
ersen, Kiil, & Kjær, 2011). Consumer preferences manifested by the sum
of choices are commonly assessed using the choice experimental (CE)
techniques (Lyu & Han, 2017). These microeconomic valuation tools are
known to offer important practical information regarding how much
respondents are willing to pay for particular attributes and how man­
agers implement marketing mix strategies to achieve their revenue

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: watchdog88@korea.ac.kr (S.O. Lyu), innhoobaek@ufl.edu (I. Baek), jinwonkim@ufl.edu (J. Kim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2023.101171
Received 1 June 2022; Received in revised form 8 August 2023; Accepted 10 August 2023
Available online 17 August 2023
2211-9736/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.O. Lyu et al.
maximization (Hensher, Rose, & Greene, 2005).
Using the CE approach, this study intends to provide feasible man­
agement strategies for developing an effective ancillary service items
offered at sport events. With a study sample of sport event tourists
attending professional baseball games in South Korea, this study aims to
better understand which types of ancillary service settings are most
preferred by spectators to guarantee their attendance satisfaction. The
current study also employs a gender perspective to recognize inherent
differences in sport event tourists’ preferences for ancillary services.
Gender has been applied in many previous studies (e.g., Dietz-Uhler,
Harrick, End, & Jacquemotte, 2000; Nysveen, Pedersen, & Thorbjørn­
sen, 2005) as the most common segmentation base in marketing exer­
cises. This is because gender can easily be identified while potential
markets segmented are huge and profitable (Son, Kerstetter, & Mowen,
2008).
2. Literature review
2.1. Ancillary services at sport events
Ancillary services provided at sport events involve secondary in-
stadium entertainment and hospitality items promoting memorable
consumption of core sport products (Kelley & Turley, 2001). Greenwell,
Fink, and Pastore (2002) noted that different attributes of these sup­
plementary services combine several factors associated with stadium
employees, facility design, safety, amenities, atmosphere, and infor­
mation signs. Well-organized ancillary services are known to facilitate
sport event tourists’ feelings of entertainment and endow particular
sport events with several distinctive values (Hall, O'Mahony, & Vieceli,
2010). Hightower, Brady, and Baker (2002) also provided empirical
evidence that high-quality ancillary services at a stadium are predictive
of sport event tourists’ behavioral intentions to revisit the venue and
disseminate attendance recommendations to others.
While previous studies (e.g., Byon, Zhang, & Baker, 2013; Shonk &
Chelladurai, 2008) have categorized the promotional services in a
different manner, the quality of ancillary services is commonly man­
ifested by three key elements: physical environment, interactions with
frontline employees, and other self-service technologies. Wakefield and
Blodgett (1994) asserted that the built environment of sport facili­
ties—often referred to as the ‘sportscape’—has a substantial effect on
sport event tourists’ impressions regarding ancillary service encounters
and their resulting cognitive and psychological responses. For example,
a range of concession booths selling food and snacks in addition to
alcohol beverages, and different types of family entertainment sections
(e.g., barbecue and camping areas, children’s playground) play a key
role in shaping sport event tourists’ evaluation of ancillary service
quality at professional baseball parks (Berger, 2015). Furthermore,
versatile stadium surroundings featuring after-game shopping and rec­
reation opportunities available at or near the venue can lessen sport
event tourists’ reflected failure attributed to the unsuccessful game re­
sults (Greenwell et al., 2002; Tomlinson et al., 1995).
Interpersonal interactions involve intangible service encounters with
stadium staff and employees at some places including concession
counters, ticket boxes, and merchandise stores (Yoshida & James, 2010).
Ko and Pastore (2004) emphasized that the attitudinal and behavioral
characteristics of stadium service employees act as major factors form­
ing sport event tourists’ perceived quality of ancillary services. This is
the reason why sport event marketers are eager to develop and operate
adequate training programs for their stadium employees. Nevertheless,
the innovative progress of self-service technologies, the last component
of ancillary service attributes, has challenged the role of human in­
teractions in determining the quality of attendance experience (Neu­
hofer, Buhalis, & Ladkin, 2014).
In order to deliver a more comfortable in-stadium experience, a
growing number of new stadiums have adapted cutting-edge informa­
tion communication technologies (ICTs) featuring high-definition huge
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Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171
screens for instant replays and game information, and mobile applica­
tions for in-seat food ordering and merchandise purchasing (Shin & Lyu,
2018). Besides these three service attributes, Yoshida and James (2010)
added aesthetic quality into their ancillary service model and found a
significant association between sport event attendees’ perceptions of an
aesthetical pleasing environment and ancillary service quality. Along
similar lines, Pedersen et al. (2011) indicated that cheerleading shows
performed by female dancing squads can increase sport event tourists’
levels of attendance satisfaction. While previous studies (e.g., Ko &
Pastore, 2004; Yoshida & James, 2010) using the traditional Likert-type
measurement scales have contributed to a better recognition of con­
ceptual relationships between diverse ancillary service components and
spectators’ appraisals of sport events, there is limited research that ex­
amines how much sport event tourists are willing to pay for particular
service attributes.
2.2. Gender perspectives on sport event attendance
Gender is the most common basis for market segmentation since the
demographic characteristic is viewed as an important factor in moder­
ating consumers’ evaluative judgment (Darley & Smith, 1995). This
straightforward criterion fulfills several requirements of effective seg­
mentation in light of the fact that the targeted markets can be clearly
split into two large sub-groups (Nysveen et al., 2005). Despite the
traditional belief that sport event attendance is a male-dominated
pastime, the proportion of female spectators has noticeably increased
over recent decades as a result of gradual changes in gender role
orientation (Hayhurst, 2011). Accordingly, a growing body of research
(e.g., Chen, 2010; Wann, Waddill, & Dunham, 2004) has paid much
attention to the roles of gender in sport event attendance motivations.
According to Mitchell and Walsh (2004), women are believed to be
more interpersonally oriented than men. Since the role played by fe­
males is characterized by their inclination toward harmonious re­
lationships with others, motivations for social interactions and group
affiliation often serve as key drivers for sport event attendance behaviors
of women sport fans (Son et al., 2008). Males tend to demonstrate more
aggressive, independent, and self-assertive tendencies than females
(Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001). In particular, males’ distinc­
tive orientation toward physical and verbal aggression is closely asso­
ciated with eustress motivations for watching sport competitions (Cohen
& Avrahami, 2005).
Furthermore, previous studies have empirically explored gender
differences in sport event tourism. For example, Dietz-Uhler et al. (2000)
revealed that women considered themselves to be sport fans because
they enjoyed sport events with friends and family members; men viewed
themselves as fans when they participated in sport activities and wished
to obtain information regarding their favorite sports. Using a study
sample of Australian sport event tourists, Hall and O'Mahony (2006)
found that female attendees were more interested in physical environ­
ment of sport event facilities (e.g., parking, seating, stadium accessi­
bility) and enjoyable entertainment experience (e.g., alcohol-free and
smoking-free zones), whereas male spectators put greater importance
on emotional arousal factors regarding whether the sport event was
stimulating.
3. Method
3.1. Choice experiment
Despite the complexity of parameter estimations, the choice exper­
iment (CE) is advantageous in measuring consumer tastes for different
projected products and services that are not available in real markets
(Lyu & Han, 2017). Using the stated preference (SP) theory involving
asking respondents to choose a favorite option from a range of choice
alternatives, the CE provides a more comprehensive awareness of con­
sumer preferences for hypothetical products and services than the
S.O. Lyu et al.
contingent valuation method (CVM), which has been acknowledged as
the most popular SP-based economic valuation technique (Wicker,
Hallmann, Breuer, & Feiler, 2012). The CE was developed based on an
assumption of consumers’ complicated trade-offs among various prod­
uct attributes when considering alternatives comprised of multiple at­
tributes (Louviere, Hensher, & Swait, 2000). The microeconomic
valuation tool has been also employed by previous studies to forecast the
effect of changes in product attributes on potential market shares by
simulating a series of feasible management scenarios (Hensher et al.,
2005).
The CE is grounded on an important assumption of random utility
theory (McFadden, 1974), which suggests that a rational consumer
chooses an alternative with the greatest amount of perceived utility over
a set of choice alternatives. This economic theory also posits that con­
sumer utility comprises two different aspects: observable and unob­
servable. More specifically, the indirect utility function of sport event
tourist i visiting hypothetical professional ballpark with given ancillary
service atmosphere j can be expressed as Uij = Vij + εij = βXij + εij, where
Vij represents the observable element; εij, the unobserved random error
component; Xij, a combination of different levels of attributes; β, the
vector of parameter estimates. The probability of visiting a professional
baseball park with particular service environment j can be shown as
( )/ ∑
Pij = exp βXij exp(βXik ), which represents the multinomial logit
k∈Ci
model (MNL) proposed by McFadden (1974). Despite the succinct
parameter estimation practices, this traditional MNL algorithm mostly
violates the restrictive requirement of the independence of irrelevant
alternatives (IIA), denoting that “the ratio of the choice probabilities of
any two alternatives is entirely unaffected by the systematic utilities of
any other alternatives” (Ben-Akiva & Lerman, 1985, p. 108).
The random parameter logit (RPL) model has been utilized to allow
for consumers’ systematic taste variations in the deterministic element
of the utility function (Train, 2003). By handling parameter estimates of
attributes as random variables, this model can be used as an effective
tactic to avoid the stringent IIA requirement of the CE approaches. The
RPL model is accordingly beneficial in assessing how parameter esti­
mates show particular distribution patterns, which in turn reflects the
presence of respondents’ preference heterogeneity (McFadden & Train,
2000). Since each random parameter is not known, the unconditional
probability is integrated over all values of β using the maximum simu­
( (
∫ )/∑
lation likelihood estimation (MSLE) as Pij = exp βXij exp
k ficient signs.
)
(βXik ) f(β|θ)dβ for a given value of θ. Among different MSLE methods,
most CE studies have employed the Halton draws for a more stable
parameterization (Bhat, 2001).
Based on the RPL model estimation results, some previous studies
developed different decision support tools (DST) to generate optimal
product bundles. The spreadsheet-based DST can help researchers make
successful decisions using a series of scenario analyses (Hensher et al.,
2005). Using the predicted probabilities of attribute changes, the DST
also provides useful insights into potential market shares of several
hypothetical scenarios.
3.2. Attribute and level development
Identifying adequate attributes embracing the hypothetical products
and services is crucial in gaining an accurate understanding of re­
spondents’ innate preference patterns (Hensher et al., 2005). An
extensive review of previous literature was implemented to detect a
range of attributes representing ancillary service atmosphere at different
sport events. We also scrutinized a variety of professional baseball club
websites and Internet-based news and magazine articles regarding in-
park ancillary service settings. As a result, we developed eight
different attributes involving in-stadium ancillary services. We also
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Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171
allotted two or three levels to each attribute because the choice
complexity perceived by respondents grows seriously as the number of
levels increases (Louviere et al., 2000). The specific descriptions of each
attribute and level are as follows:
■ The attribute of APPS was developed to examine respondents’ tastes
for mobile service environment available to sport event tourists via
smartphone applications. This qualitative attribute has three
different levels. ‘Low’ level represents a basic service setting using e-
ticketing only; ‘Medium’ indicates a modest service level including
parking fee payment, in-park map services as well as e-ticketing; and
‘High’ signifies a superior level including instant replays, player and
team statistics, surveys, ordering merchandise plus the ‘Medium’
service items. We expected positive coefficient signs because previ­
ous literature (Berger, 2015; Hutchins, Li, & Rowe, 2019) revealed
sport event tourists’ preferences for more advanced technologies in
stadiums.
■ The attribute of ALCOHOL indicates several types of alcohol bever­
ages sold at ballpark concession facilities. Three different levels (i.e.,
‘Local beer’, ‘Local beer + Imported beer’, and ‘Local beer + Distilled
liquor’) were apportioned to this qualitative attribute. Due to re­
spondents’ tastes for diversified beverage choice options (Arul,
2015), we anticipated positive coefficient signs for this attribute.
■ The FOOD attribute shows different types of food and snacks sold at
ballpark concession facilities. This qualitative attribute also includes
three levels (i.e., ‘Fried chicken’, ‘Fried chicken + Boxed meals’, and
‘Fried chicken + Local food’). We expected positive coefficient signs
because of sport event attendees’ interest in more food and snack
options (Stillman, 2001).
■ The attribute of CHEERLEADERS represents the availability of pro­
fessional female cheerleading and dance squads. This qualitative
attribute has two levels (i.e., ‘Not available’, and ‘Available’). We
anticipated a positive coefficient sign since Pedersen et al. (2011)
indicated sport event tourists’ strong preferences for cheerleading
shows.
■ The attribute of ORDER/DELIVERY denotes some methods of
ordering and delivering food, drinks, and merchandise. Three
different levels (i.e., ‘Order-at-counters/Pickup’, ‘App-order/
Pickup’, and ‘App-order/In-seat delivery’) were allotted to this
qualitative attribute. Previous studies (Kapustka, 2017; Quan &
Wang, 2004) provided empirical evidence supporting positive coef­
■ The attribute of FAMZONE indicates several types of family recrea­
tion areas placed at the outfield bleachers. This qualitative attribute
includes three different levels (i.e., ‘Barbecue zone’, ‘Barbecue zone
+ Playground’, and ‘Barbecue zone + Swimming pool’). We antici­
pated positive coefficient signs based on Chapin (2000) findings that
sport event tourists are in favor of more recreational spaces.
■ The FACILITIES attribute represents some types of shopping and
entertainment facilities available at or near a ballpark. This quali­
tative attribute involves three different levels (i.e., ‘Shopping mall’,
‘Shopping mall + Movie theaters’, and ‘Shopping mall + Play
parks’). We expected positive coefficient signs since sport event at­
tendees prefer visiting other entertainment sites before or after
attendance (Greenwell et al., 2002).
■ The attribute of PRICE suggests the ticket price for a lower deck seat.
This quantitative attribute has three levels (i.e., ‘KR₩15,000’, ‘KR
₩20,000’, and ‘KR₩25,000’). The base level of KR₩15,000 in­
dicates the average ticket price for a regular season KBO League
weekend game. Unlike other attributes, the PRICE attribute was
expected to reveal a negative coefficient sign because of ordinary
consumer aversion for a higher ticket pricing policy, which is closely
associated with the economic demand theory.
Table 1 presents brief information about ancillary service attributes
and levels in addition to the hypothesized coefficient signs. We utilized
S.O. Lyu et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171

Table 1
Attributes and levels of ancillary services.
Attributes Levels Expected
coefficient signs

APPS 1. Low1: e-ticketing only +

2. Medium: Paying parking fees, in-park
map services, as well as e-ticketing
3. High: Instant replays, player and team
statistics, surveys, ordering merchandise,
as well as paying parking fees, in-park map
services, and e-ticketing
ALCOHOL 1. Local beer1 +
2. Local beer + Imported beer
3. Local beer + Distilled liquor
FOOD 1. Fried chicken1 +
2. Fried chicken + Boxed meals
3. Fried chicken + Local food Fig. 1. An example from 18 choice sets.
CHEERLEADERS 1. Not available1 +
2. Available
ORDER/ 1. Order-at-counters/Pickup1 + choice data acquired from 523 respondents.
DELIVERY 2. App-order/Pickup
3. App-order/In-seat delivery
4. Results
FAMZONE 1. Barbecue zone1 +
2. Barbecue zone + Playground
3. Barbecue zone + Swimming pool 4.1. Respondent profiles
FACILITIES 1. Shopping mall1 +
2. Shopping mall + Movie theaters The choice questionnaires were completed by 269 males (51.4%)
3. Shopping mall + Play parks
and 254 females (48.6%). The mean age was 34.7 (SD = 9.8) while the
PRICE 1. KR₩15,0001 −
2. KR₩20,000 largest proportion of respondents’ age fell within their 20s (n = 188,
3. KR₩25,000 36.1%), followed by 30s (n = 172, 32.9%) and 40s (n = 127, 24.3%).
Note: 1
denotes base level.
The majority of participants reported having a bachelor's degree or
higher (n = 386, 73.8%). An average respondent attended 4.7 KBO
League games (SD = 5.9) during the previous 12 months. A series of
an effect coding scheme for each attribute since main effects can be
difference tests were also conducted to detect potential gender differ­
interpreted independently from other factors (Louviere et al., 2000).
ences in several socio-demographic and attendance features. As a result,
there was no significant difference excepting the age variable (t = 8.557,
3.3. Experimental design p < 0.001). In other words, male respondents (M = 38.0, SD = 9.4) were
revealed to be significantly older than females (M = 31.3, SD = 8.6).
A full factorial strategy enumerating all possible combinations yields
an uncontrollable number of cases (i.e., 37 × 21 = 4374). A fractional
4.2. Aggregate model estimations
factorial design with main effects was employed to generate a
manageable number of choice comparisons despite the partial loss of
We estimated the random parameter logit (RPL) models utilizing
statistical information (Louviere et al., 2000). As recommended by
NLOGIT version 6, an econometric software. Prior to investigating the
Kuhfeld (2005), the D-optimal design yielded 36 choice sets, which
inherent preference differences in the two gender groups, we estimated
maximized the efficiency of parameter estimates by offering minimum
an RPL model using the aggregate sample to view respondents’ general
values for all elements in the variance-covariance matrix. In order to
tastes for ancillary service atmosphere. We additionally estimated
further lessen possible response fatigue, we employed a random block
another RPL model with several interaction terms to better understand
scheme to split the 36 choice comparisons into six different question­
how socio-demographic features affect respondents’ preferences for
naire versions. As a result, respondents randomly encountered only six
particular attributes. Table 2 shows the estimation results of the two RPL
choice combinations. Appendix section available online demonstrates
models for the aggregate sample.
the outcomes of the fractional factorial design.
Among eight attributes comprised of ancillary service settings at
In addition to the two choice options (i.e., “Ballpark A” and “Ballpark
professional ballparks, all attributes in the RPL without interaction
B”), we included a non-choice option of “I would not choose either
terms were at least partially significant for the mean parameters
ballpark” because some consumers waive their purchase opportunities
excepting for the attribute of FAMZONE, which denotes different in-park
in actual markets after comparing multiple product alternatives. This
family entertainment opportunities. The alternative specific constant
non-choice option, which is associated with the alternative specific
(ASC) revealed the highest level of statistical significance with a positive
constant (ASC) term, contributes to an improved knowledge of the
coefficient sign. This result suggests that respondents were in favor of
average effect of the non-purchase alternatives (Bennett & Adamowicz,
attending a baseball game rather than forgoing a visit to the stadium.
2001). A choice set used for our study is illustrated in Fig. 1. Our survey
Furthermore, the significant negative sign of the PRICE attribute indi­
questionnaire is also available online.
cated KBO League fans’ strong preferences for lower ticket prices. While
the ‘Medium’ level of the APPS attribute was not statistically significant,
3.4. Data collection the ‘High’ level was significant with a positive mean coefficient sign,
reflecting that respondents exhibited preferences for highest usability
In order to collect CE data, an online survey was implemented for one levels of in-park smartphone applications.
week in November 2016. With an aid of a South Korean market research The two attributes of ALCOHOL and FOOD may be interesting in that
company, we collected our choice data from 550 respondents who re­ the two levels of each attribute showed different mean coefficient signs.
ported their experience of attending KBO League games during the More specifically, the opposite mean coefficient sign of the ALCOHOL
previous 12 months. Among these data, we excluded 27 respondents attribute suggested that respondents favored drinking imported beer at
containing insincere opinions. This data screening procedure yielded ballpark stands, but disliked both high-alcohol content distilled

4
S.O. Lyu et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171

Table 2
Results of the random parameter logit (RPL) model estimation for aggregate sample.
Attributes Levels RPL without interactions RPL with interactions

Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

Coeff. (S.E.) Coeff. (S.E.) Coeff. (S.E.) Coeff. (S.E.)

ASC 7.80*** (0.41) 2.27*** (0.20) 7.73*** (0.43) 2.42*** (0.27)

APPS Medium − 0.01 (0.06) 0.34*** (0.11) − 0.01 (0.05) 0.22 (0.15)
High 0.30*** (0.06) 0.34*** (0.11) 0.29*** (0.06) 0.37*** (0.10)
ALCOHOL Local beer + Imported beer 0.10* (0.05) 0.36*** (0.10) 0.15** (0.07) 0.29** (0.11)
Local beer + Distilled liquor − 0.13** (0.06) 0.02 (0.19) − 0.15* (0.08) 0.21 (0.19)
FOOD Fried chicken + Boxed meals − 0.19*** (0.05) 0.03 (0.22) − 0.18*** (0.05) 0.16 (0.18)
Fried chicken + Local food 0.48*** (0.06) 0.48*** (0.09) 0.47*** (0.06) 0.44*** (0.09)
CHEERLEADERS Available 0.41*** (0.06) 0.88*** (0.08) 0.41*** (0.06) 0.88*** (0.09)
ORDER/DELIVERY App-order/Pickup − 0.03 (0.05) 0.09 (0.17) − 0.03 (0.05) 0.17 (0.15)
App-order/In-seat delivery 0.37*** (0.06) 0.44*** (0.09) 0.37*** (0.06) 0.39*** (0.10)
FAMZONE Barbecue zone + Playground − 0.06 (0.06) 0.08 (0.12) 0.26 (0.20) 0.06 (0.13)
Barbecue zone + Swimming pool − 0.02 (0.05) 0.06 (0.11) − 0.17 (0.19) 0.04 (0.10)
FACILITIES Shopping mall + Movie theaters 0.04 (0.06) 0.27** (0.12) 0.03 (0.06) 0.21* (0.12)
Shopping mall + Play parks 0.31*** (0.06) 0.55*** (0.11) 0.29*** (0.06) 0.53*** (0.11)
PRICE − 0.18*** (0.01) − 0.19*** (0.02)
INCOME × PRICE 0.01 (0.01)
AGE × Barbecue zone + Playground − 0.01 (0.01)
AGE × Barbecue zone + Swimming pool 0.01 (0.01)
GENDER × Local beer + Imported beer − 0.11 (0.10)
GENDER × Local beer + Distilled liquor 0.04 (0.11)
Log likelihood − 2253.86 − 2255.64

Note: * p < 0.1; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01.

beverages and cheap local beer. The FOOD attribute indicated that KBO
League fans were more in favor of diverse local food cooked on the spot
at ballpark concession facilities, but displayed less preferences for boxed
meals sold at in-stadium convenience stores. The positive mean coeffi­
cient of the CHEERLEADERS attribute revealed respondents’ significant
preferences for cheerleading shows performed by female dance squads.
Unlike the ‘App-order/Pickup’ level, the ‘App-order/In-seat delivery’
level of the ORDER/DELIVERY attribute revealed statistical significance
implying that attendees preferred the minimum-effort service environ­
ment using mobile technologies compared to the relatively labor-
intensive ‘Order-at-counters/Pickup’ option. The positive, significant
‘Shopping mall + Play parks’ level of the FACILITIES attribute showed
that respondents were in favor of visiting play parks as well as shopping
malls located at or near a ballpark before or after games.
The RPL model with interactions revealed an identical significance
pattern with the RPL model without interactions. Nevertheless, there
was no significant interaction term in the RPL model with interactions
developed to examine the cross effects between socio-demographic
characteristics and several attributes of interest. In order to identify a
better model from the two models, we conducted a likelihood ratio (LR)
test, as suggested by Louviere et al. (2000). The LR test statistic of 3.56
(i.e., − 2[− 2255.64 − − 2253.86]) failed to reject the null hypothesis,
indicating identical preference systems in the two models when taking
the critical value (i.e., χ 24,0.05 = 9.49) into account. As a result, we chose
the parsimonious RPL model without interactions.
The standard deviation parameters in the RPL models demonstrate
whether spectators’ preferences for ancillary services are heterogeneous
across a set of attributes (Train, 2003). Among fourteen standard devi­
ation parameters, nine were statistically significant in our final RPL
model. This result suggests that our respondents had the within-group
preference heterogeneity for relevant attributes while this model pro­
vided incomplete information regarding particular sources of preference
diversity. Accordingly, we further segmented our sample by gender to
examine how the socio-demographic feature affects respondents’ taste
heterogeneity.

Table 3
Results of the random parameter logit (RPL) model estimation for segmented gender samples.
Attributes Levels Male spectators Female spectators

Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

Coeff. (S.E.) Coeff. (S.E.) Coeff. (S.E.) Coeff. (S.E.)

ASC 8.06*** (0.67) 2.98*** (0.46) 8.22*** (0.65) 2.40*** (0.35)

APPS Medium 0.06 (0.07) 0.29* (0.16) − 0.10 (0.09) 0.39*** (0.14)
High 0.19** (0.08) 0.28 (0.18) 0.38*** (0.09) 0.40** (0.17)
ALCOHOL Local beer + Imported beer 0.06 (0.07) 0.35** (0.15) 0.17** (0.08) 0.30 (0.23)
Local beer + Distilled liquor − 0.12* (0.07) 0.01 (0.34) − 0.18** (0.09) 0.08 (0.21)
FOOD Fried chicken + Boxed meals − 0.22*** (0.08) 0.31** (0.15) − 0.15* (0.08) 0.02 (0.21)
Fried chicken + Local food 0.40*** (0.08) 0.35** (0.14) 0.54*** (0.09) 0.50*** (0.17)
CHEERLEADERS Available 0.41*** (0.08) 0.89*** (0.11) 0.44*** (0.09) 0.89*** (0.12)
ORDER/DELIVERY App-order/Pickup − 0.01 (0.07) 0.20 (0.19) − 0.04 (0.08) 0.19 (0.25)
App-order/In-seat delivery 0.27*** (0.07) 0.15 (0.24) 0.47*** (0.09) 0.51*** (0.13)
FAMZONE Barbecue zone + Playground − 0.08 (0.07) 0.02 (0.14) − 0.04 (0.09) 0.24 (0.19)
Barbecue zone + Swimming pool 0.01 (0.07) 0.01 (0.11) − 0.03 (0.08) 0.25 (0.16)
FACILITIES Shopping mall + Movie theaters 0.04 (0.07) 0.13 (0.18) 0.01 (0.08) 0.12 (0.22)
Shopping mall + Play parks 0.28*** (0.09) 0.52*** (0.15) 0.34*** (0.10) 0.57*** (0.16)
PRICE − 0.17*** (0.01) − 0.19*** (0.02)
Log likelihood − 1162.72 − 1075.48

Note: * p < 0.1; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01.

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S.O. Lyu et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171

4.3. Gender model estimations
The estimation results of the RPL models using the segmented sam­
ples based on gender are presented in Table 3. We additionally con­
ducted a LR test for identifying a significant difference between the full
model and the two gender models. The LR test statistic of 31.42 (i.e., − 2
[− 2253.86 − (− 1162.72–1075.43]) rejected the null hypothesis, indi­
cating that there is a significant difference in coefficient vectors when
taking the critical value (i.e., χ 215,0.05 = 25.00) into account. Significant
mean parameter signs in the two models were identical to those in the
aggregate model without interactions. All mean parameters in the two
gender models also revealed a consistent statistical significance pattern
excepting for the level of ‘Local beer + Imported beer’ of the ALCOHOL
attribute. This result suggests that female sport event tourists signifi­
cantly preferred drinking imported beer while male attendees were not
sensitive to the same types of beer. Different magnitudes of mean pa­
rameters were observed in the two models, denoting that the two gender
groups possessed distinctive patterns of preferences for ancillary service
environment. Since mean parameter values in these segmented models
can be interpreted in the same way as in the aggregate models, this
section skipped detailed descriptions regarding the parameter estimates.
The standard deviation parameters in the two segmented models
revealed a different pattern from those in the final aggregate model.
Specifically, half of the standard deviation parameter estimates in both
male and female models (i.e., seven out of fourteen) were statistically
significant, which was fewer than the aggregate model where nine
standard deviation parameters were significant. This result suggests that
gender acted as a possible source of preference heterogeneity because
our segmentation strategy decreased the number of significant standard
deviation parameters.
4.4. Marginal willingness-to-pay values
A set of marginal willingness-to-pay (MWTP) values are generally
computed to compare each magnitude of mean parameter estimates
representing proposed attributes and weigh the importance of each
attribute (Hensher et al., 2005). The MWTP values can be estimated by
negatively dividing each mean parameter of the non-price attributes by
the mean parameter of the price-related attribute (Bennett & Adamo­
wicz, 2001). For example, the MWTP value of male spectators on the
‘High’ level of the APPS attribute can be computed as –(βHigh/βPRICE) =
− (0.19/− 0.17) ≈ 1.143. Table 4 shows the calculation results of the
MWTP values.
The computation results of the MWTP values demonstrated that re­
spondents showed their greatest amount of MWTP value (i.e., KR
₩2677) on the ‘Fried chicken + Local food’ level of the FOOD attribute.
The strong preferences for cheerleading shows were also substantiated
by the second largest MWTP value (i.e., KR₩2306) on the ‘Available’
level of the CHEERLEADERS attribute. Furthermore, sport event tourists
attending KBO League games were willing to pay a relatively large
amount of money for the highest levels (i.e., ‘App-order/In-seat de­
livery’ and ‘High’) of the ORDER/DELIVERY and APPS attributes.
Comparisons of each MWTP value indicate evident gender differ­
ences in ancillary service preferences. Overall, female sport event
tourists revealed higher MWTP values on diverse attributes than male
attendees. Females showed the highest MWTP values (i.e., KR₩2770)
on the ‘Fried chicken + Local food’ of the FOOD attribute while males
exhibited their willingness to pay KR₩2384 for the same option.
Compared to male attendees, in other words, women spectators were
willing to pay KR₩386 more for diverse healthy food choice opportu­
nities at concession facilities. Males placed greatest importance on
cheerleading performances since they presented the highest MWTP
value on the ‘Available’ option of the CHEERLEADERS attribute (i.e., KR
₩2455). The negative MWTP values imply consumers’ dislike of prod­
uct changes (Lyu & Han, 2017). In this sense, respondents revealed their
significant aversion to the ‘Local beer + Distilled liquor’ option of the
ALCOHOL attribute while female attendees showed stronger dislike of
the high-alcohol content beverages than males.
4.5. Scenario analyses
This study conducted several scenario analyses and developed a
Microsoft EXCEL-based DST to provide better awareness of how many
respondents are expected to attend the hypothetical ballparks with
particular combinations of ancillary service attributes. Once drawing
individual-level utilities derived from the estimation results of several
RPL models, we computed potential market shares of each scenario
based on respondents' predicted probabilities as recommended by
Hensher et al. (2005). We generated four different scenarios with
feasible ancillary service options. These scenarios represent diverse
ancillary service settings comprising several combinations of attributes
and levels. Scenario 1 was designed to present the current level of
ancillary services, while Scenario 4 was proposed to represent each level
of service attributes most preferred by respondents excepting for the
highest level of the PRICE attribute. The other two scenarios (i.e., Sce­
narios 2 and 3) were added to assess potential market shares of hypo­
thetical ballparks with alternative ancillary service surroundings by
modifying several levels of each attribute. Table 5 demonstrates the
results of our scenario analyses.
The results of scenario analyses revealed that respondents most
preferred Scenario 4 with a potential market share at 48.3%, while
Scenario 1 indicating the current in-park service status revealed an ex­
pected market share at 24.0%. This result denotes that sport event
tourists were interested in the stadium environment offering higher
levels of different ancillary services despite the most expensive ticket
price. Furthermore, Scenario 2’s projected market share of 20.0% was
less than the 24.0% for Scenario 1 indicating that sport event tourists
preferred the current ancillary service status over an ICT-focused

Table 4
Results of marginal willingness-to-pay (MWTP) value computations (Unit: KR₩1).
Attributes Level changes Aggregate sample Male Female

APPS Low → Medium − 51 340 − 495

→ High 1645 1143 1971
ALCOHOL Local beer → Local beer + Imported beer 525 368 885
→ Local beer + Distilled liquor − 721 − 730 − 941
FOOD Fried chicken → Fried chicken + Boxed meals − 1073 − 1323 − 773
→ Fried chicken + Local food 2677 2384 2770
CHEERLEADERS Not available → Available 2306 2455 2241
ORDER/DELIVERY Order-at-counters/Pickup → App-order/Pickup − 144 − 47 − 188
→ App-order/In-seat delivery 2081 1611 2434
FAMZONE Barbecue zone → Barbecue zone + Playground − 336 − 493 − 188
→ Barbecue zone + Swimming pool − 89 3 − 156
FACILITIES Shopping mall → Shopping mall + Movie theaters 195 266 62
→ Shopping mall + Play parks 1741 1649 1765
1
Note: At the time of the survey, KR₩100 was approximately equal to US$0.09.

6
S.O. Lyu et al.
Table 5
Results of scenario analyses.
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
(Current status) (ICT-focused)
APPS Low High
ALCOHOL Local beer Local beer + Imported beer
FOOD Fried chicken + Boxed meals Fried chicken + Local food
CHEERLEADERS Available Not available
ORDER/DELIVERY Order-at-counters/Pickup App-order/In-seat delivery
FAMZONE Barbecue zone Barbecue zone + Playground
FACILITIES Shopping mall Shopping mall + Movie theaters
PRICE KR₩15,000 KR₩25,000
Aggregate 24.0% 20.0%
Potential market share Male 29.0% 18.9%
Female 20.9% 21.8%
services environment.
Gender differences in ancillary service preferences were also wit­
nessed in the scenario analysis results. The expected market shares
revealed that a drinking-focused service setting (Scenario 3) was
preferred by male sport event tourists, whereas females favored Scenario
2 offering higher levels of ICT-based services. Although Scenario 4 was
selected by the two gender groups as the most preferred ancillary service
option, the potential market shares revealed that female attendees were
more in favor of this scenario than males.
5. Discussion
5.1. Study implications
Several MWTP values suggest that respondents showed their highest
preferences for more diverse food options at professional ballparks,
which is consistent with findings of Stillman (2001). They were willing
to pay KR₩2677 for a variety of established local foods in addition to
the deep-fried chicken, a very popular snack at South Korean ballparks.
The negative MWTP values of the ‘Fried chicken + Boxed meals’ level
indicate spectators’ aversion to the ready-to-eat food sold at concession
facilities. This finding suggests an important management implication
that sport event marketers need to attract a range of famous local
restaurant branches to stadium concession facilities in order to meet
their customers’ demand for healthier food. Sport event tourists
attending KBO League games also displayed considerable interest in
different entertainment facilities located in or next to ballparks, which
was corroborated by the positive MWTP values on the FACILITIES
attribute. Professional sport club owners and local governments are
eager to develop a greater range of recreational and entertainment fa­
cilities when designing new large-scale arenas (Chapin, 2000). This
signifies that stadiums are no longer just places to view sport events, but
become multipurpose spaces for dining, supporting, and even shopping
(Höck, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2010).
The second largest MWTP value (i.e., KR₩2306) on the level of
‘Available’ of the CHEERLEADERS attribute highlighted respondents’
strong preferences for organized cheerleading teams at professional
ballparks. Unlike Major League Baseball (MLB) teams, all KBO League
clubs employ their cheerleading squads to motivate players and enter­
tain spectators. This result reflects that respondents considered female
cheerleaders an essential component of ancillary services at professional
baseball games while Pedersen et al. (2011) failed to identify Danish
soccer fans’ significant attitudes toward cheerleading shows.
It may be worth noting that sport event tourists attending KBO
League games were in favor of using innovative mobile technologies
available at ballparks. Respondents were willing to pay a relatively large
amount of money (i.e., KR₩2081) for smartphone applications that
enable spectators to order snacks and beverages, which results in the
elimination of long queues in front of concession stands. Mobile appli­
cations for game information, e-ticketing, and ordering merchandise
were also considered to be important ancillary service items. From a
7
Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171
Scenario 3 Scenario 4
(Drinking-focused) (Idealistic status)
Low High
Local beer + Distilled liquor Local beer + Imported beer
Fried chicken Fried chicken + Local food
Available Available
Order-at-counters/Pickup App-order/In-seat delivery
Barbecue zone Barbecue zone + Swimming pool
Shopping mall Shopping mall + Play parks
KR₩20,000 KR₩25,000
7.7% 48.3%
10.8% 42.2%
5.7% 51.7%
management perspective, a greater effort for improving ancillary service
quality by adapting advanced ICTs is required to meet the needs of sport
event tourists.
It may be an interesting finding that the two levels of the ALCOHOL
attribute revealed an opposite coefficient sign. Respondents were in
favor of drinking local and imported beer, but they showed their strong
distaste for beverages with high-alcohol content. This result indicates
KBO League spectators’ concerns regarding alcohol-induced incidents.
Since drinking is viewed as an essential part of attendance experience at
sport events (Klick & MacDonald, 2021), stadium security staff does not
strictly enforce alcohol guidelines at most KBO League ballparks.
Nevertheless, sport event tourists showed their vigilance against exces­
sive alcohol consumption at stadium settings, which consequently en­
courages them to become casual drinkers. Among our four different
ancillary service scenarios, the drinking-focused environment also
revealed the lowest market share at 7.7%. Accordingly, several alcohol-
free spaces are required for sport event tourists who prefer a sober
viewing experience, which in turn contributes to safer stadium
ambience.
The segmentation strategy contributed to a better recognition of
gender-based differences in sport event tourists’ preferences for ancil­
lary services. As previously mentioned, female spectators were willing to
pay more for different attributes representing promotional service set­
tings. This finding may be consistent with Hall and O'Mahony (2006),
asserting that the most important attendance motives for women involve
hospitable in-stadium services and properly managed physical facilities.
The results of the scenario analyses revealed that female sport event
tourists were particularly interested in ancillary services adapting
advanced ICTs. Females’ positive attitudes toward innovative technol­
ogies were also corroborated by their greater MWTP values on the
highest levels of both APPS and ORDER/DELIVERY attributes.
In order to predict use acceptance of new technologies, previous
studies (e.g., Wang & Wang, 2010) have employed the technology
acceptance model comprised of two basic factors including perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989). Perceived usefulness
is defined as the extent to which the use of a technology improves an
individual’s performance while perceived ease of use indicates the
extent to which a person believes that using the system will be free of
effort (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). Earlier research revealed that men
tend to place greater importance on perceived usefulness of new tech­
nologies, whereas women are more sensitive to perceived ease of use in
determining their intention to use diverse innovative technologies. In
light of women’s stronger preferences, several mobile technologies
applied as part of our hypothetical ancillary service items may be
characterized by effortlessness rather than usefulness.
The negative attitudes toward high-alcohol content beverages were
more clearly witnessed among female tourists. This finding may not be
surprising as females generally consume less alcohol and have fewer
alcohol-related problems than males (Nolen-Hoeksema & Hilt, 2006).
Several previous studies (e.g., Blume, 1991; Schulte, Ramo, & Brown,
2009) have provided supportive evidence for this finding that women
S.O. Lyu et al.
were more resistant to alcohol-related disorders due to social sanctions
regarding excessive drinking. Women were also willing to pay more for
diverse local foods sold at ballpark concession facilities. Findings from
previous studies (e.g., Baker & Wardle, 2003; Wardle et al., 2004) sug­
gested that women were more likely to place emphasis on healthy eating
and avoid high-calorie fast food. Gender differences in food choices at
stadiums may result from females’ concerns about body weight as well
as their preferences for healthy eating practices (Wardle et al., 2004).
A meaningful management implication can be derived from several
results of scenario analyses. The results suggest that our respondents
showed their strongest preferences for Scenario 4, representing the
idealistic ancillary service atmosphere, which revealed the largest po­
tential market share at 48.3%. This market share in Scenario 4 may be
noteworthy because the ticket price of the scenario was much higher
than that of Scenario 1 representing the current promotional service
settings. This suggests that the number of spectators can double given
changes made by sport event marketers from the current service status
to the idealistic environment. Female tourists revealed their strongest
preferences for the service circumstances presented by Scenario 4. In
other words, in the idealistic service settings, the potential number of
female tourists increases by as much as 2.5 times compared to the cur­
rent service status. Taken together, these findings indicate that women
are less sensitive to high ticket prices and are more susceptible to
ancillary service items, which provides a practical avenue for sport event
marketers.
5.2. Limitations and recommendations for future studies
While this study employed several components of ancillary services
within the context of professional baseball games, other factors can
provide valuable opportunities for alternative knowledge on sport event
tourists’ preference structures. Greenwell et al. (2002) noted that
ancillary services at sport events encompass different elements such as
facility layout, stadium accessibility, seating comfort, and information
signs, which are commonly affected by managerial control. Future
studies that take these service attributes into account may contribute to
deeper awareness of sport event tourists’ tastes for ancillary services as
well as physical stadium environment. While we employed a set of RPL
models to identify respondents’ embedded preference heterogeneity,
several studies (e.g., Alvarez et al., 2021; Boto-García, Mariel, Pino, &
Alvarez, 2022; Notaro, Grilli, & Paletto, 2019) have recently utilized the
latent class logit models presenting useful information about what fac­
tors affect the taste heterogeneity. Future studies using the alternative
algorithm may provide a better understanding of sport event tourists’
heterogeneous preference patterns.
Different emotional criteria for market segmentation can be more
effective in addressing consumers’ complicated choice decisions (Ben­
nett & Adamowicz, 2001). For example, Fillis and Mackay (2014) sug­
gested that team loyalty serves as an important moderating factor that
determines sport event tourists’ desire to attend games. In other words,
spectators with high levels of team loyalty may attend sport events
despite the poor quality of ancillary services, whereas sport event
tourists who are less loyal to their teams may be strongly affected by the
service atmosphere. Therefore, more research is needed to uncover how
team loyalty differentiates spectators’ decisions in relation to ancillary
service settings. A special caveat is also needed in generalizing several
study results to entire sport event tourists since we used a relatively
small sample of South Korean baseball fans. Accordingly, future studies
using attendees at other sport competitions may offer useful opportu­
nities for a richer insight into how different sport contexts affect spec­
tators’ preferences for ancillary services.
6. Conclusions
The demand for sport event tourism has increased due to the
expansion of leisure time and disposable income, making it an important
8
Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171
part of tourism industry (Perić, Vitezić, & Badurina, 2019). To effec­
tively attract a larger number of visitors to a destination using sporting
events, it is crucial to view sport event tourism into the broader scope of
tourism management. The overall success of a sporting event as a
tourism attraction is reliant on effective tourism management practices
that guarantee visitors have pleasant experiences through fully enjoying
a variety of supplementary services and amenities regardless of tech­
nical outcomes of the competitions (Martin & O'Neill, 2010).
The main purpose of this study was to help sport event marketers
recognize which attributes representing ancillary services offered at
professional sporting events are considered important by their cus­
tomers. Using a sample of South Korean sport tourists, this study also
provided useful opportunities to better understand gender differences
embedded in the promotional service preferences. We hope that an
improved knowledge derived from findings can contribute to the
development of successful marketing strategies that meet the rapidly
increasing attendance demand of female sport event tourists.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Seong Ok Lyu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation,
Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Innhoo Baek: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original
draft, Writing – review & editing. Jinwon Kim: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Data curation, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing
– review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Korea University Future Research
Grant (K2319861).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tmp.2023.101171.
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S.O. Lyu et al.
Seong Ok Lyu is an Associate Professor in the School of Global
Sport Studies at Korea University. He earned his doctoral de­
gree from Michigan State University. His primary research in­
terests lie in the areas of consumer decision-making process and
economic valuation for sport and tourism resources. He is also
interested in economic and social impacts of sport tourism
development.
Innhoo Baek is a Master Student in the Department of Tourism,
Hospitality, and Event Management at the University of Flor­
ida, USA. His research interests include sport tourism, leisure
time physical activity and community sport development.
10
Tourism Management Perspectives 48 (2023) 101171
Jinwon Kim is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Tourism, Hospitality, and Event Management at the University
of Florida, USA. He is a Director of the Center for Sustainable
Business and Community Analytics (CSBCA). His work focuses
on the planning, development, and management of leisure re­
sources and tourism destinations with the ultimate goal of un­
derstanding and promoting the role of tourism, recreation,
parks, and sport in the creation of active, vibrant, resilient, and
sustainable communities.