errs ite Ree exactly ey 4 cae n Foes) ] ene Se eS Britain to increase boa canter Peon Rarer etd (Germany) BIG @ smuacy scan See Section Eacoenesnioror Ereond aoe C Soe ene vert Corre @ Novernber By his ee Brae tiooneeetet) ones cee as pare 1915 @ January By this | See ee cesreunie peer) oon eee Erect Rect ae Germany and total war Despite having to fight a two-front war, having weak allies and facing Allied economic and military superiority, the German military machine remained inthe field for over four years. Germany itself ‘was never invaded and as late as the (northern) spring of 1918, the German Army was in striking distance of victory. At the time of the armistice in November 1918, no German teritory contained many to keep going, but of key importance ‘enemy forces. Many factors account for the ability of was its ability to organise for war on the home front. Germany accepted the need for ‘total war’ right from the start of the conflict. German war organisation ‘Walter Rathenau, head of the electric ‘The driving force behind eatly German war organisation was y to setup a War Raw ‘company ABG. By 3 August 1914, Rathenau had persuaded the War Mins Materials Department, the KRA (Kriegsrohstoffabtilng). Rathenau became its director. The KRA CHAPTER'Serst: goods Subsite pods hat were produced goats could tbe cbianed determined war production. Key raw materials were dedared emergency materials and placed under KRA control. The KR ‘also controlled labour. Later in the war, Germany used forcad labour from occupied countries to meet its labour shortages Prisoners of war weve forced to work in agriculture Shortages were met by using the resources of occupied countries or by producing substitute or ersatz goods. Textiles ‘were made from wood pulp and attempts were made to extract. cil from seeds and shale deposits. Aluminium was extracted from days and replaced copper in electrical fittings and munitions. By 1918, Germany was producing synthetic rubber Nitrogen was extracted from the atmosphere to produce nitrates essential forthe production of explosives and fertiliser. ‘Te following extract highlights how the work of some German scientists helped to make up the gap in German SQUECE 52. Walter Rathensu ‘war supplies 6G Stony ating Res ror mince on ko tn ft. Es bec tie Nan copeprprmac ered ets ok be far cao: ahs car reper imporud ane! conher sheath es randectand to eat ta syn Yaved tpn ahora tow snd wonder preseda predic ssl erm od Kriegswirtschaftsgesllchaften (war economy companies) were set up and the bosses of Germany's top firms were asked to lead them. The purpose ofthese companies was to commander rawr materials and allocate them to manufacturers working on government contracts. These companies built n the large cartels that were already a feature of German industrial life For example, there was no need for a war coal company because the coal cartel was already doing the job. In September 1914, the tafor industrial firms joined to forta the War Committee for German Industry to look afer their own interests and advise the government. ‘The British naval blockade, imposed on Germany from the beginning of the war, severely hurt the German economy, Prewar Germany depended on international trade. Germany imported more than. 50 per cent of ts raw materials and 33 per cent ofits food needs. The blockade tock away 80 per cent of Germany's export market. ‘To combat this, in 1916 the War Ministry set up the Central Purchasing Company, the ZEG Gentraleinkauftsgesellschaft), to purchase goods in neutral countries. Nevertheless, this could not prevent shortages arising, The following extract illustrates an aspect of the problem of shortages it the area of transport. GG REE pene we emt wing plan ough 40D nes wre ed by tote ar ED080 dd of ress du to msnutton, Aso suk Germany tama Yo motrsed anspor . But powsesed nether ruber plantations worl fds Pel ond ish on had 1916 eran 8) 115th month esd of 1500 wbber yes ond 25000 pret bes could no anges be met ..By 1917 nonden free were reseed, Aempt o procuce sythebe rer such proved ton and urevaring by 1917, no amount of take cold Noe fics pain Stages ofl and bee 9 ten, Me Fn ar Cumann hati gay 91-18, rl Ln, 17. 26-7‘Tocope with shortages, government agencies were established, In1915, the Imper (juchipordial) wt nt up Uarg thls offic, the government wsokenten ae ean ce Office. In 1916, the War Pood Office was established and by 1918 there were 258 lavs tht miposed restrictions on everything from restaurant outs tothe length of women's dvesses a Searity andthe severe demands of wat led the government to intervene divectly nthe economy, Kgiome ‘The government built two plants of its own to produce nitrates needed for agriculture. These plants Wer ize set ‘were soon also producing nitrates for explosives. Hale n1916, the German supreme commander, Hindenburg, demanded contrlofall warmatters, and '#@al aes sothe Supreme War Office (Kriegsamt) was established. Hindenburg also forced through the Reichstag Indes lccmn the Fatrotic Ausliary Service Law (1916), which {ave the government power to call up all men aged 17-60 for labour service. Workers could now be directed on the orders ofthe Kregzomt. In Octber 1926, the Weapons and Munitions Procurement Agency (WUMBA) was set up Sections of the War Ministry disappeared as WUMBA took control of the country’s coal, ron and steel, In August 1916, Hindenburg ordered the implementation of a program aimed at massively increasing armaments production — aircraft production wae set at 1000 per month ‘ihen asked hove long this program would remain in force, Hindenburg replied that it would last no later than June 1917, as he expected the Wa" — sqye a. Hungry Germon chi vould have ended by then Netharlands tock fos © How useful would the photograph above be fora historian studying the impact ofthe war on the Gorman home front? Comment on its nature reliability and cortent @ Wy do historians naed to be careful using photosraphic evidence from World Wer? for total war fete Ein Historians do not agree on the effectiveness of Germany's wartime organisation. Some are impressed with the ability of the German economy to keep the massive war machine going for 80 long in the face of enormous obstacles such as the Allied blockade and the ‘strength of the enemy. Such a view is held by Roger Chickering, as outlined inthe following extract ROGER CHICKERING The effectiveness of this hastily improvised effort stood out in the annals of Gesmony’s economic mobilization for war. Despite the anvieties of the War Ministry, the German armies didnot collpse in late 1914 For want of weapons of munitions; and inthis respect at lest, German soldiers were well supplied forthe duration ofthe confit, There was no ‘munitions isis in Germany. hiring, met Gary andthe or 184-16 C2 cat ant Dein 19,qutedin fe 0,9 8 gers Ps, Cone, 158 lh ra i Rae cHATER Ss War onthe ome foneDAVID THOMSON | David Thomson's account of the effectiveness of Germany's wartime planning and economy | suggests that Germanys total war organisation was admired by future governments, both Germar and non-German. ‘The scion of capitalist enterprise and big business, Walter Rathenau, created what came to 4 be called, quite correctly, ‘war socialism’ (Kriegssozialsmus). A special agency controlled Pecan prices and rationed fod, lt decreed two meates days @ week and fed Germans on war essere y Tread invhich turnips and potatoes were mixed with flour. Trade uions lied wth military Reece leer to mitarise the ecuntr’s economic ie Rathena'sachieveret in thus eresing Dirge See ceee nn mene ee cine words: ‘in its methods itis closely akin 22 communism, and yet it departs essentially From the prophecies and demands resulting Irom radical theovios” Germany's ‘war economy? became an exemplar of economic planning forthe whole ofthe postwar world Danson, Eup Segoe gin. amon, 1p 6 Other historians, however, paint a different picture of German wartime organisation. hey argue that Binance Minister Helferich was iresponsible in the manner in which he raised funds forthe war. They point to the growth of German indebtedness and the rise of inflation in Germany. However, these criticisms are hardly justified. All governments (except the United States Government) relied on deficit financing and ended the war in debt. Germany was not the only country with an inflation problem in 1918. A German victory in 1918, with its imposition of ‘reparations on France and the preservation of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, would have resulted {in a more healthy German economy after the war and consequently a glowing assessment of the German wartime economy. Nevertheless by intervening in such a major way, the German Government left itself open to criticism if things went badly. William Carr highlights this point inthe extract below. WILLIAM CARR ‘These measures undoubtedly helped Germany westher the crisis of war to the summer of 1916. But wer-time collectivism... was the undoing of the German government in the long run. Precisely because the state was intervening so actively inthe regulation ofthe ‘economy ordinary Gecmans begen to blame i for its manifest failure to protect the' ving stendards in the second half ef the wor. No langer did dizcantented people in town and countryside vent their anger on an imaginary socials ‘enemy’ but openly criticised state Officials for ther inability to cope with the situation, a crucially important psychological development which prepared the way fr the revolutionary situation of 1918-20. Wa, A tno Gran 115-585 Can ea, on, 1 9 201 QUESTIONS, 41 What is the fundamental reason for Chickering’s admiration of German wartime organisation? 2 According to Thomson, what methods did Rathenau use to keep Germany going? 3 According to Carr, why was it politically dangerous for the German Government to be $2 in wartime organisation? DBI vono wan:Britain and total war Britain didnot gear itself up to total war as quickly orin the same manner as Germany. In fact, Britain id not proceed far down that path until mid-1915, There were several reasons Britain organised for total war more slowly than Germany. These are explained in Source 5.4 CGemay idan uthrain Frm of foermont withthe pperane of ecnocrcy bt defray rt the preci: ‘Fit Coreription was an accepted pre. Garman fe Thar wae qu ny for Germany tomden goverment conta sre of bch mre ded place ‘though th lin Geary support ‘ight ad Fecdoms the German Government faced ite oppontion tit sutheraran wartime eontrle uni mach Teer nthe wan, ‘Besa ma pramentarydemecracy ithe rw pets song union rmovement Thee wat no tration ot coneription in Bain an hein id roteroy the wate satu thatthe Germon miltary hog goverment earl were ily pts bce, Ban dl ot ase erganation Forte wari B16 Diernces between German and Bi society + Many Bain beeved the war would be creer uly Ae res the fil esposetathe warn bins ea les sumed Bris mrt economy ‘soudhanl the merewed demands “hare asa mzundrstandingin Briain about the nature oF he mae Many, he Kirche, the Minter for War lived thewarncld be rapid wa of hverent. Sicha na would ne rogue enormous ough any the war by handing st ‘erative contrac toprite fs. Government controls Although the government in Britain was slow to move to organisation for total war, like other belligerent governments ft was quick to assume controls. On 8 August 1914, the Defence ofthe Realm ‘Act (DORA) was passed. This suspended civil rights and put Britain under virtual martial law. Police ‘ore given the right to stop and question citizens, and suspects could be imprisoned immediately. During the war, DORA scope was gradually increased to encompass control over a wide range of ‘tivities. In 1917, activities such as kite ying and feeding bread to animals became ilegal. Official Permission was needed to buy binoculars. DORA alzo gave the government the power to buy goods ‘strodcbottom prices and to requisition all forms of transport, ranging from ships to cars and horses. ‘The government used DORA to restrict Brit ‘s suffering because of alcohol a point made by King George V ina statement from March 1915. G.G Fame erence tis witha cous age ct dentate a nal to secre the oust ‘ar materalinispensabl to meet the rquement of cur army in the fd, nd that here haben "ch teu dln the conveyance of tho necstary enforcement ad supp odour gallant oops atthe ot ‘Saleen tig Ga qatar eas f avi Ld Ga Nha ats, and, 19-36 sed anton Honeve, sauce 54 ame deadlocked onthe Britain's flare to Wistrn Fon, the view nto change, immediately adept total war drinking habits. [twas believed that war production Harter sEmployers began to echo the King's sentiments. Increased take-home pay and an ‘eat, drink and be merry’ attitude, not all that surprising during a war, were causing increasing alcoholeated absenteeism. The government took several measures to deal with the situation. In 1915, pub opening hours were limited, beer prices were increased and the alcohol content of beer and spirits was reduced, ‘The numbers of arrests for drunkenness fell to below prewar levels. In 1916, the government introduced daylight saving in the hope of increasing the number of daylight working hours. Many measures were introduced regarding the workforce, censorship, and ‘government information campaigns. Government controls over food British living standards did not collapse as they did eventually in Germany and, for many, nutrition and diet actually improved during the war. This was partly due to direct government intervention in emmployer-union relations, which maintained wage level ‘he government aimed to keep the workers happy and thus prevent disruptions to war production that might have been brought about by striking workers. Food supplies remained fairly plentiful, ut a poor harvest in 1916, panic buying and the impact of Germany's submarine campaign made the introduction of food restrictions necessary. In December 1916, Lord Devonport, the new food controls, exorted the British people to restlt thei fod intake voluntarily. He asked people to limit their consumption per week to 115 grams of sugar, 1.8 kilograms of bread and 11 klogams of mest. By April 1917, wheat stocks had fallen to 10 days’ worth of supplies. The situation was saved asa result ofthe breac-economiy campaign and increasingly successful anti-submarine activity. Soure 35 shows an example ofa postr fro this campaign SOURCE 55 British propaganda pester eee ee SOURCESE The Kings and Queen's mast ration cards from 118 EX) woo waneons 11 What sthe poster in Source 5.5 trying to encourage people to do? 2, Why do you think tis aimed at women? 3 The ation card ofthe King and Queenin Source S.6 were printed in national newspapers. Why do you think the government took this step? 44 How do you think the Brish would reac to the imposition of rationing? ‘The Board of Agriculture established a special Food Production Department that, by 1918, led to 30000 hectares of land being brought over to additional wheat production. Devonport’s successor, Lord Rhondda, introduced more stringent controls in 1918, In February, atoning was brought in for several products. It became ilegal to theow rice at weddings and to feed the pigeons at Trafalgar Square. Munitions By the spring of 1915, the British Government realised that it was desperately short of artillery shell, a {acthighlighted by the difficulties the army faced at Neuve Chapelle. At this time, Britain was producing 700 shells per day, compared to the 250000 per day coming out of German factories. There were demands from al quarters - press, army, parliament —for greater government direction ofthe economy. David Lloyd George was the politician who pushed Britain towards total war organisation. Lloyd George became Minister of Munitions in the Asquith government in May 1915. In July, parliament passed the Munitions of War Act and Lloyd George proceeded to mastermind war production and ‘extend government control. Private firms were given subsidies; the government established its own ‘munitions factories and shipyards; private companies were urged to amalgamate; and research and development began to be carried out on an unprecedented scale. Nevertheless, it took time for Lloyd George's work to bear frit. Supplies did not flow through in significant numbers until 1916 and it was 1917 before areal impact was felt. Between August 1914 and June 1915, the army was sent 110 artillery pieces; betwreen July 1915 and July 1916, it received ‘5006. Inthe same period, grenade production increased from 68000 to 27 millon Lloyd George sought to reduce the great industrial relations tension that existed in Britain before 1914, He tried to bring bosses and trade union leaders together. Men such as Sir Eric Geddes, chief ‘manager of North Bastern Railways, became senior administrators of his ministry. In order to maximise production in the munitions industry and elsewhere, Lloyd George needed to prevent strikes and limit the strict rules that unions placed on working practices. He wanted semi- Skilled workers to be allowed to work inthe raunitions factories, Healso sought to break down complex tasks into simpler ones,a process called dilution. This would allow ess-skiled workers, suchas women, to work. Lloyd George needed union cooperation. He explained the reason for this in his memoirs: GG Teecanesans watts tua weesehing th cont Th Geman wre as song ‘mptoms ofthe querlousness of overran [complaining about the ssins they were sufeingh Jn ncihor ofthese two countries cid the rulers bring the spokesmen of Labour Ferly into active Patwership, and the fare to do so enced in disaster for both. | deemed it essental to forestall {bl by binging the Labour lesdersinto more active and elective cooperation wth the government. Dl Gene, Mena via Nan 8 ton, Ln, 130-36 CHAPTER s Wr onthe Home rats BoSOURCES Workers at British munition factory SQURCES9 Munitions recruitment poster QUESTIONS groups of people often gained jabs working n Brith munitions fetoris? 1) During the war years, wl 2 De the photegraphsin Sources 57 and 5.8 suggest there was any danger inthis sor of work? 3 How doos th iment poster in Source 59 ty to encourage work in munitions Factories? Sn, as they ‘The unions did not like the idea of dia feared it could lead to a long-term fall in wages. Dilution ‘was resisted in the shipyards. To allay union fears, Loyd George promised that dilution would last only for the duration of the war. To further bring the unions onside, he urged employers to pay bonuses and encouraged the process of collective pay bargaining between employets and unions. He supported pay awards and set UP arbitration tribunals to sort out possible industrial disputes, To keep the unions onside, the government tried to control food prices and in 1915 parliament passed the Rent Restrictions Bill, which pegged rents '° 1914 levels. ‘The unions did not have ital their own way. In 1915, Lloyd George said:'a perfectly democratic 3° tas the ight to commander ery ou ome fe nb weak an everything ese, forthe WUE 510 Lloyd George visting workersMen could be fined or even imprisoned for lateness, absenteeism and striking. Working hours ‘were increased, leisure activities outside of work, such as professional football matches, were curtailed and there were restrictions on where people could work.