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Manuscript_573eb96d68796f70fcdf8b42267c94c0

1 Regional and Field Assessments of Potentials for Geological Storage

2 of CO2: A case study of the Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria
3 Bappah Adamu Umar1,*, Raoof Gholami2, Prasanta Nayak3, Afroz A. Shah4 and
4 Haruna Adamu5
5
6 1National Centre for Petroleum Research and Development, Energy Commission of Nigeria,
7 Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi-Nigeria.
8 2Department Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University, Malaysia.

9 3Sabah Shell Petroleum Company Ltd., Plaza Shell, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

10 4Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam

11 5Department of Environmental Management Technology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa

12 University, Yelwa Campus, Dass Road, P. M. B. 0248, Post Code 740272, Bauchi-Nigeria.

13 *Corresponding author’s email: bappahau@ncprd.atbu.edu.ng phone number

14 +2347016066594

15 Abstract

16 The Niger Delta, as an actively producing oil and gas region has potential to develop into a
17 new CO2 geological storage hub. Criteria for screening basins for Carbon Capture and
18 Storage (CCS) was used in combination with 3D seismic data and well information to assess
19 the basin's potential in this contribution. It is shown here that the presence of excellent
20 reservoir-seal pairs, very large basin size, suitable reservoir depth, matured oil and gas
21 fields, moderate faulting intensity, availability of giant hydrocarbon fields and being a
22 passive margin generally makes the Niger Delta basin excellent environment for CCS. High
23 resolution 3D seismic dataset and well information from case study areas enabled
24 identification of potential reservoir, traps and seals. Geomechanical analyses have shown
25 that slip tendency is generally low while fracture stability is high, which indicates that the
26 study area is stable in the current stress regime.

27 Key words: Regional, Assessment, Potential, CO2, Storage, Pollution.

28

29

30

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31 1. Introduction

32 The sudden rise in the average atmospheric concentrations of CO2 to unprecedented 403
33 parts per million in 2016 (WMO, 2017) is largely attributed to the increase in burning of the
34 fossil fuels and cement production (Global CCS, 2017 and WMO, 2017).The release of
35 greenhouse gases are generally believed to be responsible for the global warming (Bachu
36 2002 & Semere et al., 2014). CO2 being the most abundant of the released gases, constitute
37 about 64% of the enhanced greenhouse effect (Bryant, 1997). Studies have shown that the
38 concentration of the CO2 at the atmosphere can remain for hundreds of years (IPCC, 2007).
39 Therefore, mitigation technologies are required to reduce the amount of the CO2 by the
40 year 2050 (IEA, 2008). Among the mitigation technologies employed in the recent time, CCS
41 has been quite promising (IEA, 2004) and is believed to play a vital role in reducing future
42 CO2 emissions significantly (Bachu, 2016). A large volume of potential storage, effective
43 trapping of hydrocarbons, gainful experience with CO2 injection for enhanced oil recovery
44 (EOR) and successful monitoring and verification in numerous injection projects builds
45 increased confidence in storage security and safety in the subsurface formations or
46 locations (Jenkins et al., 2015).

47 CCS technology essentially consists of three major stages (Bachu, 2016 and Global CCS,
48 2011), namely- i) The first stage is the Capture (separation) of the CO2 from exhaust flue
49 gases from a point source more specifically from hydrocarbon exploration activities which is
50 the focus of this article. The flared gas can be captured by using any of the three established
51 methods: Post-combustion, Pre-combustion and Oxy-fuel combustion. ii) The second stage
52 is the Transport where the captured CO2 is transported via pipelines or ships on large water
53 bodies. The third stage is Storage where the transported CO2 is permanently stored in a
54 suitable geological formation. Once it is sequestered, the CO2 undergoes different trapping
55 scenarios (CO2CRC, 2008). The trapping mechanisms progressively helps in securing and
56 converting the injected CO2 into immobile material that can remain permanently in the
57 subsurface. So far, more than 200 million tonnes of anthropogenic CO2 have already been
58 injected into geological formations worldwide (Global CCS, 2017).

59 Despite enormous oil and gas reserve, no detailed assessment has been carried out to
60 evaluate the Niger Delta basin for potential geological storage of CO2. The delta is regarded

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61 as having the largest natural gas reserve in Africa, which makes Nigeria the ninth largest
62 natural gas reserve holder in the whole world (Oyewo, 2011). As a result, oil and gas
63 exploration and production activities in the basin have led to release of large volumes of CO2
64 into the atmosphere incessantly through gas flaring process (Oni and Oyewo, 2011).
65 Implementing CCS technology could help bring into use the gas being incessantly flared
66 away. This can be achieved through Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS). For
67 example, the use of CO2-EOR in maintaining reservoir pressure and enhancing oil and gas
68 production or by storing it in suitable underground formations for later use. However,
69 cautious considerations must be given to the tectonics of the reservoir, hydrodynamics of
70 the formation and mineralogical aspects when evaluating a potential geological formation
71 (Bachu, 2000).

72 In this research paper, we assessed the regional potentials of the basin using screening
73 criteria developed by CO2CRC (2008) and used gas production data from oilfields in the
74 Niger Delta to develop a point source distribution map as done elsewhere Li et al. (2009).
75 These were applied to give us highlights on the regional potentials of the basin. A more
76 detailed "field assessment" was also carried out to evaluate the potentials for CO2 storage at
77 two different locations within the basin using 3D Seismic volumes of the oilfields and their
78 corresponding well information. Here, the premise is to use the 3D seismic volumes of the
79 depleted oil and gas fields as potential candidates for storage of CO2.

80 Although, there have been efforts with different approaches from oil companies operating
81 in the basin and Federal Government of Nigeria towards gas utilization aiming at reducing
82 gas flaring. Notably, Shell’s gas gathering projects were introduced to compliment the
83 activities of the Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) by exporting the harnessed gases to
84 international market for sales. Other gas utilization programmes that were initiated towards
85 deriving economic value from flared gas include: Gas to power plants, gas as feedstock to
86 petro-chemical plants, gas re-injection for oil reservoir management and gas fuel for local
87 industries. Despite such efforts, gas flaring in the basin has not been brought to extinction.
88 Therefore, this research carried out detailed geological analyses of the basin for potential
89 implementation of CCS technology as an abatement option for the control of CO2
90 atmospheric pollution.

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 91 2. The Geology of the Niger Delta Basin

92 The Niger Delta is Palaeocene to Recent and wave dominated delta situated on the Gulf of
93 Guinea on the west coast of Central Africa (Doust & Omatsola 1989; Rouby et al., 2011) (Fig.
94 1). It was formed on a triple junction that developed during the breakup of the South
95 American and African plate in the Jurassic (Burke 1972; Whiteman, 1982; Rouby and
96 Cobbold (1996) and Owoyemi and Willis (2006). It covers an area of 75,000km2 and has
97 regressive clastic sediments with a maximum thickness of 12km (Doust and Omatsola,
98 1989). The delta has prograded seaward resulting in the formation of a number of
99 depositional centres called depobelts from the onshore to the offshore (Fig. 1)

100 Gravity deformation affected the clastic sediments which was propagated from the
101 undercompacted and overpressured shales underneath (Bilotti and Show, 2005; Corredor et
102 al., 2005; Damuth, 1994; and Maloney et al., 2010). This resulted in the formation of growth
103 faults structures in the extensional domain (e.g. Doust and Omatsola, 1989; Evamy et al.,
104 1978; Weber and Daukoru, 1975), which was compensated by a downslope compressional
105 system of faults and thrusts (e.g. Corredor et al., 2005 and Damuth, 1994).
106
107 The stratigraphy of the Niger Delta is fairly simple containing the fluvial Benin, deltaic
108 Agbada and the Akata Formations (Short and Stauble, 1967; Rouby et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). The
109 Akata Formation is mostly marine shale with occasional turbidite sandstone and siltstone
110 (Short and Stauble, 1967). Thickness ranges from 600m to >6000m (Omoboriowo et al.,
111 2012). The Akata Formation is considered to be the main source rock for oil and gas in the
112 basin. The Agbada Formation overlays Akata and is interpreted to comprise alternating
113 deltaic sandstones and shale (Weber, 1987). The formation is regarded as the major
114 reservoir unit. Thickness within the formation varies with maximum of 12, 000ft (3,940 m)
115 (Avbovbo 1978). The texture of the formation consists of sandstone which varies from
116 coarse to fine grained, poorly to very sorted and unconsolidated to slightly consolidated
117 (Omoboriowo et al., 2012). Porosity decreases with depth and values of 40% has been
118 recorded (Dourst and Omatsola, 1990).
119 The Benin Formation is a sand-rich fluvial deposit (Owoyemi and Willis 2006; Omoboriowo
120 et al., 2012; Maloney et. al., 2010). Reyment (1965) described as the coastal plain sands that
121 out cropped at Benin, Onitsha, and Owerri province in the Delta area. It is mainly

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122 continental consisting of highly porous, fresh water bearing sandstones with little shale
123 intercalation which increases towards the base of the formation.

124

125
A B
126
127 Fig. 1: The Niger Delta Basin showing the locations of the study areas (A and B) and the
128 depobelts. Insert: Map of Africa showing the position of the Niger Delta Basin. A - seismic
129 volume of Field "A", while B - seismic volume of Field "B".

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130

131 Fig. 2: Stratigraphic sequence in the Niger Delta Basin modified after (Folorunso et al. 2015)

132 3. Datasets and Methodology

133 Statistical data of production and flaring (See Appendix) obtained from the Nigerian
134 National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC statistical bulletins 1997 – 2011) for 165 oil fields
135 was used as part of basin scale assessment. 3D seismic datasets (Fig. 1) and well information
136 from onshore fields in the Niger Delta basin were used for field scale assessment. Field "A"
137 seismic volume covers an area of 420km2. It has 883 inlines and 762 crosslines with 25m line
138 spacing. The seismic volume is in time domain. It has 10 wells, Logs – Gamma, Density,
139 Sonic, Resistivity, Caliper and Checkshots from 4 wells. Field "B" dataset is a depth

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140 converted volume covering an area of 84km2. It has a line spacing of 25 m x 12.5 m. To limit
141 errors during data processing of the seismic volume, noise was reduced both time and
142 frequency domains. It has 9 wells and a gamma ray logs. The quality of the seismic volumes
143 are very good which aided visualization and interpretations of the fault pattern and
144 horizons.

145 For geological storage of CO2, a number of methodologies and frameworks have been
146 developed for site suitability evaluation (Bachu, 2003; CO2CRC, 2008; Rodosta et al., 2011).
147 For the purpose this research, the methodology developed by CO2CRC (2008) (Table 1) was
148 applied. Based on the methodology, assessment of potential sites for geological storage of
149 CO2 was carried out in different scales, starting with basin scale assessment where various
150 features/characteristics of basin are evaluated in a summary form. The statistical data was
151 used as part basin wide assessment to obtain a plot of the distribution of the gas produced
152 and flared in the basin. This assesses the possible point sources for CO2 capture and is thus
153 a part of the CCS chain, however, it can also give indication of the potential for storage in
154 depleted oil and gas fields in the basin. A more detailed evaluation was then carried out at
155 field scale level using the 3D seismic volumes and well information, which further
156 characterized the reservoir potentials. Faults and horizons were interpreted from the
157 seismic datasets to aid assessment of the reservoir potentials e.g. structural traps, reservoir
158 depth, seals and fault geometries essential for CO2 storage. The well logs were used in
159 carrying out well correlation to assess the reservoir thickness and lateral continuity.

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

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167 Table 1: Criteria for assessing basin potentials for CO2 Storage re-drown from (CO2CRC,
168 2008)

Increasing CO2 storage Potential

Criterion
Classes
1 2 3 4 5
1 Seismicity Very high High Intermediate Low (e.g. Very low (e.g.
(tectonic (e.g. (syn-rift (e.g. foreland) passive cratonic)
setting) subduction strike-slip) margin)
zone)
2 Size Very small Small Medium (5000- Large Very large
(<1000 km2) (1000- 25000 km2) (25000- (> 50000 km2)
5000km2) 50000 km2)
3 Depth Very shallow Shallow Deep Intermediate
(<300m) (300-800m) (>3500m) (800-3500m)
Faulting Extensive Moderate Limited
intensity
4 Hydrogeology Shallow, Intermediate Regional Long-
short flow flow systems range flow
system or systems;
compaction topography or
flow erosional flow
6 Geothermal Warm basin Moderate (30- Cold basin
>400C/km 400C/km) (<300c/km)

7 Reservoir-Seal Poor Intermediate Excellent

pairs
8 Coal seams None Very Deep Shallow (300-
shallow (>800m) 800m)
(<300m)
9 Coal rank Anthracite Lignite Sub- Bituminous)
bituminous
10 Evaporites None Domes Beds
11 Hydrocarbon None Small Medium Large Giant
potentials
12 Maturity Unexplored Exploration Developing Mature Super-mature
13 Onshore Deep Shallow Onshore
/offshore offshore offshore
14 Climate Arctic Sub-arctic Desert Tropical Temperate
15 Accessibility Inaccessible Difficult Acceptable Easy
16 Infrastructure None Minor Moderate Extensive

169

170 Reactivation analysis which gives information on the tendency for up-dip leakage of the fluid
171 (CO2) was carried out using the stress information obtained by Adewole and Healy, (2013).

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172 The Niger Delta Basin is a typical normal faulting regime where the maximum principal
173 stress is the vertical stress (Sv) based on the Anderson classification scheme
174 (Sv>SHmax>Shmin) (Zoback 2010). The stress values, corresponding depth, gradient and the
175 direction of breakout azimuth were plotted in the Trap tester software (table 2).

176 Table (2): Stress values obtained from borehole breakouts (Adewole and Healy, 2013)

Gradient Stress (MPa) Depth (m) Direction

(MPa/m) (degrees)
SHmin 0.004950 19.80 4000.000 89.000000
SHmax 0.005500 22.00 4000.000 -1.000000
SV 0.010500 21.00 2000.000
177

178 Due to the non–availability of a reliable fault rock strength for this analysis, clay smear
179 which forms the lowest strength fault rock is assumed to have a coefficient of internal
180 friction of (µ= 0.45) and cohesive strength of (C=0.5MPa). A coefficient of friction 0.30 used
181 for the analysis was obtained in (Oghenero et al. 2014). Two approaches were used to
182 assess the study area for potential fault reactivation using the outlined data shown in table
183 (2).

184 4. Basin Scale Assessment

185 4.1 Screening Assessment: The screening criteria shown in table 1 was used for assessing
186 the potentials in the Niger Delta basin shown in Table 3. Based on the criteria, each basin
187 characteristics is categorised into poor to excellent. Starting with the Seismicity, the Niger
188 Delta is believed to be a passive margin characterised by low seismicity and interpreted as
189 very good. In terms of basin size, it is approximately 75000km2 (Doust & Omatsola, 1990)
190 which excellent for CO2 storage. Faulting intensity is generally moderate. The hydrogeology
191 is characterised by regional flow systems, which is excellent. The Akata Formation has
192 geothermal gradient of >400C/km while Benin and Agbada Formations are <300C/km (Turtle
193 et al., 1999). The basin is generally considered as matured oil and gas province. Table 3
194 summarises all the features captured in the assessment and their corresponding
195 interpretation. Based on the summary, it can be deduced that the Niger Delta is an ideal
196 location of CO2 storage.

197

198

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200 Table (3): Screening Assessment for the Niger Delta Basin for geological storage of CO2
Increasing CO2 storage potential

Criterion Classes

Poor Fair Good Very Good Excellent

1 Seismicity Low
(tectonic setting) (passive margin)
2 Size >5000km2

3 Faulting intensity Moderate

4 Depth Deep (>3500m) Intermediate

(<3500m)

5 Reservoir – seal pair Excellent

6 Maturity Matured

7 Hydrocarbon Small Large fields Giant fields

potentials fields

8 Climate Tropical

9 Geothermal >400C/km <300C/km

(Akata (Benin and Agbada
Formation) Formations)
11 Hydrogeology Regional and long-
range flow
systems

12 Accessibility Difficult

13 Infrastructure Moderate

201

202 4.2 Assessment of Gas Potential: Gas potential of a number of basins have been evaluated
203 as part of basin wide assessment to identify the major sources of CO2 via compilation of
204 anthropogenic gas/CO2 point emission sources (Li et al., 2009; Fang & Li, 2011, and Wei et
205 al. 2013). It is a preliminary measure of CO2 storage suitability in a basin (Fang & Li, 2011). In
206 this research article, ArcGIS was used to plot gas production data from oilfields (NNPC
207 Statistical Bulletins 1997-2011) in the basin which presented the quantity of gas produced
208 and flared at each field location (Fig. 3). The amount of gas produced and flared (see
209 appendix for details) from each field location served as potential point source for CO2 and
210 other associated gas constituents in the basin. Fields with 99 – 100 percentage gas flared

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211 are regarded as most polluted while those with 0 – 27 are deemed to be less polluted. High
212 amount of gas obtained from a good number of fields (Fig. 3) has shown that the basin has
213 abundant gas that could serve as potential source points/areas to capture and store or re-
214 used the associated CO2.

215 The percentage of gas flared by a good number of fields signifies the need for the
216 application of Carbon Capture and Storage as a mitigating technology. This could either be
217 by capturing CO2 from the produced gas or alternatively produce energy (e.g. H2) from the
218 flared gas and capture CO2 in the process. The application of the technology in the basin
219 could also bring the much-needed production security in the oil and gas sector of Nigeria.

220

221 Fig. 3: Map of Niger Delta illustrating distribution of point source and percentage of the gas
222 produced and flared from oil and gas fields in the basin. Insert is map of Nigeria showing the
223 location of the Niger Delta Basin.

224 4.3 Capture Techniques for the Flare Gas in the Basin

225 A number of point sources of environmental pollution (e.g. cement production, fertilizer
226 production, chemical industries etc.) are located in different parts of the basin. However,
227 based on the above analysis (Fig. 3) and previous studies (e.g. Oni and Oyewo, 2011), gas
228 flaring (the focus of this research article) as a result of hydrocarbon exploration activities
229 remains the major source of CO2 pollution in the basin. The released CO2 can be captured by

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230 using any of the three established methods: Post-combustion, pre-combustion and Oxy-fuel
231 combustion (Leung et al., 2014) (Fig. 4). The captured CO2 is ultimately stored in favourable
232 underground geological formations (Bachu, 2003) (Fig. 4).

233 i) Post -combustion method. This method removes CO2 from the flue gas after combustion
234 has taken place. The flue gas contains CO2 and other associated gases (Songolzadeh et al.,
235 2014 and Brunetti et al., 2010). CO2 is separated from the other gases at atmospheric
236 pressure and temperature range of 320k and 400k (Songolzadeh et al., 2014). CO2
237 concentration of less than 15% is normally recovered (Mondal et al., 2012). The method is
238 relatively inexpensive and is widely applied in industries (Brunetti et al., 2010).

239 ii) Pre-combustion: This involves reacting fossil fuel with oxygen or air to give a gaseous
240 product of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) known as fuel gas or syngas. CO is then
241 reacted with steam in catalitic reactor to produce CO2 and more H2 (Olajire 2010). The
242 produced CO2 is recovered by either chemical adsorption or cryogenic distillation as
243 illustrated in (Fig. 4).

244 ii) Oxyfuel Combustion: Here, oxygen is used instead of air for combustion. The combustion
245 gives flue gas consisting of CO2 and H2O which are separated by condensation of the H2O.
246 The method yields high concentration of CO2 as output (Olajire 2010) and equally offers
247 relatively easier separation technique of the exhaust gases. However, it has the
248 disadvantage of requiring large amount of oxygen (Olajire 2010).

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249

250 Fig. 4: Block diagram illustrating major pollution point sources, capture techniques and
251 storage options.

252 5. Field Scale Assessment

253 The 3D seismic volumes and available well information were used to identify potentials for
254 CO2 storage (e.g. traps, reservoir depth and lateral extend) in the study areas which are
255 discussed below:

256 5.1 Well correlation

257 Four wells from the study area were used for the well correlation analysis using gamma ray
258 well logs (Fig. 5). The analysis revealed a reservoir at a supercritical depth range of (2900-
259 3200m). The depth range satisfy the depth requirement for geo-sequestration (Bachu 2003)
260 . The reservoir is laterally extensive throughout the study area and may potentially be quite
261 extensive outside the study area to enable sequestration of large amount of CO2. Previous

262 studies (Bachu 2003, CO2CRC 2008, Ramírez et al. 2010) have shown for a large scale
263 geological sequestration to be viable, a laterally extensive reservoir and cap rock that is
264 thick enough must be present. The reservoir unit (Fig. 6) has an estimated thickness of

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265 approximately 50-55m and is sandwiched between thick shale layers which have thickness
266 of approximately not less than 100 – 110m. The thick shale layers could serve as potential
267 seal while a major fault of approximately 1.3km (Fig. 6) trending 840 that cuts through the
268 reservoir in the western part of the field could provide potential structural closure that
269 could also serve as seal to any injected CO2.

270 Fig. 5: Well correlation indicating lateral continuity of reservoir unit in Field “B”

271 5.2 Potential Reservoir and Seals:

272 For a better and more secured geological storage, CO2 needs to be sequestered in a
273 supercritical form (Bachu, 2003). Being in supercritical state means that the sequestered
274 CO2 behaves like a gas by filling all available spaces within the rock volume and having a
275 liquid density that increases with increasing depth. As density increases with depth, the
276 volume occupied by the supercritical CO2 systematically reduces, thereby enabling large
277 storage per unit volume. Thus, the depth at which CO2 becomes supercritical slightly varies
278 with basins, it is found that in most basins is at about 800m (Bachu, 2003). Therefore, in
279 suitable reservoirs CO2 can be stored at depth of about 800m and deeper depending on the
280 nature of the geothermal gradient of the basin.

281 Generally, reservoirs in the Niger Delta are within depth 2000 to 6500m with intermediate
282 geothermal gradient of approximately 270C/km (Tuttle et al., 1999), which is ideal for CO2
283 storage. The reservoirs are predominantly of sandstone and unconsolidated sand of the

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284 Agbada Formation. They are mostly stacked having thickness of less than 15m and in some
285 areas reaching up to 45m (Evamy et al., 1978). The alternating stacked sand and shale
286 sequences can potentially provide multiple CO2 storage levels within the reservoirs. Porosity
287 of 40%, 2darcys permeability and a thickness of 100m have been reported for the reservoir
288 sandstones (Edward & Santagrossi, 1990). This further suggest that the reservoirs have very
289 good porosity, permeability and thickness that could serve as potentially good candidates
290 for geosequestration.

291 To identify potential reservoir for CO2 storage in the study area, we correlate interpreted 3D
292 seismic volume with well information from Field "B" Oilfield which revealed potential
293 reservoir at depth of 2900 - 3200m capped with thick shale unit and a fault to the left which
294 could provide potential closure (Fig. 6).

295

296 Fig. 6: Interpreted seismic section of Field "B" Oilfield showing well correlation indicating
297 potential reservoir identified at a depth of 2900 – 3200m. The reservoir unit has an
298 estimated thickness of approximately 50-55m, and is sandwiched between thick shale layers
299 which have thickness of approximately not less than 100 – 110m. Insert: correlation with GR
300 log.
301 The identified reservoir-seal pair above can serve as favourable storage location. The CO2
302 would be injected at the water leg of the reservoir just above the interpreted horizon 4 (Fig.
303 6 and 7). The injected CO2 would preferentially migrate in the North-West direction the
304 other parts of the reservoir.

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305
306 Fig. 7: Field "B" 3D seismic volume illustrating the proposed CO2 storage location just above
307 horizon 4 in the identified potential reservoir (shown in Fig. 6) and potential migratory route
308 from the North to the Western part of the field.
309 5.2 Faulting intensity
310 Faulting intensity in the Niger Delta is generally regarded as moderate. Growth faulting is
311 the common structural style (Dourst and Omatsola, 1990). It is a synsedimentry structure
312 generated as a result of sediments deposition on overpressured ductile clay/shale formation
313 aided by slope instability (Evamy et al., 1978; Dourst & Omatsola, 1990). Faults can act as
314 fluid flow barriers and can also provide migratory route (Bryant, 1997). Highly faulted and
315 fractured areas are not favourable for the storage of CO2 (Bachu 2003), because of concern
316 for possible leakage.

317 Well interpreted 3D seismic dataset from Field "A" (Fig. 8) has revealed such complicated
318 fault geometries in the area, such areas and perhaps all potential sites must be assessed
319 critically to ascertain their structural integrity and possible leak pathways before
320 deployment.

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321

322 Fig. 8: Seismic section of the Field "A" oilfield illustrating interpreted faults and horizons

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323

324 Fig. 9: Stratigraphic section of Field “A” illustrating potential CO2 storage reservoir

325 Despite the relatively complicated structural setting of the field (Field “A”), the stratigraphic
326 section of the field (Fig. 9) revealed a potential reservoir that could serve as potential CO2
327 storage location. It is characterised by a reservoir sand of approximately 16.8m thick
328 sandwich between potential seals (shale unit). The lower shale unit has a thickness of 5.6m
329 while the upper shale unit is 6.7m thick. Non availability of data in the portion above the
330 6.7m upper shale unit limits our interpretation for the shale to provide efficient seal to the
331 stored CO2. However, the fault networks present in the field (e.g. Fig. 8) could potentially
332 provide added supportive seal to the upper shale sequence. But detailed fault seal analysis
333 is needed to prove that the fault network can potentially serve as seal to the stored CO2. At

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334 the top of the lower seal, a portion of missing/non-recovery of data for approximately 3m
335 exist shown in (Fig. 9) above. The logged core samples used to generate the stratigraphy
336 indicated no sample recovery for the interval. Porosity within the reservoir varies from
337 excellent to fair as shown in (Fig. 9).

338 However, the Field "B" oilfield shows rather simpler fault geometries evident from well
339 interpreted 3D seismic volume and the generated fault model of the area (Fig. 10 and 11).
340 Such simple fault geometries characterise the onshore Niger Delta where earlier formed
341 depobelts were initially deposited. Faulting intensity generally increases from the North to
342 Southern part of the basin as a result of increasing instability of the over pressured shale
343 (Dourst and Omatsola, 1990; Tuttle et al., 1991). Therefore, in terms of fault setting, the
344 onshore presents more ideal environment for geological storage of CO2. Stratigraphically,
345 the field (Field “B”) is characterised by interbedded sand and shale sequence which could
346 favourably provide multiple CO2 storage levels.

347

348 Fig. 10: Field "B" showing interpreted faults, horizons and reservoir stratigraphy indicating
349 multiple potential CO2 storage levels.

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350

351 Fig. 11: Fault model of Field “B” illustrating simple growth fault structures in the area.

352 5.3 Potential Traps

353 One of the important safety assurances for safe and secured geological storage of CO2 is to
354 find out what trapping mechanism exist within the storage formation (CO2CRC, 2008). The
355 initial trapping mechanism when CO2 is injected into geological formation is Physical
356 trapping (Semere, 2007) where it will be structurally or stratigraphically trapped.

357 Structural traps characteristically dominate the trap types in the Niger Delta, even though
358 stratigraphic traps are also found (Evamy et al., 1978; Dourst and Omasola, 1990). It is
359 believed that Synsedimentary deformation resulted in the formation of the traps which
360 include simple rollover anticlines, collapse crest, clay filled channels etc. (Tuttle, et al., 1991
361 and Dourst and Omasola, 1990). The interpreted 3D seismic volume of Field "B" was used to
362 identify collapsed crest and rollover anticline (Fig. 12) as potential traps in the area.

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363
364 Fig. 12: Vertical section of Field "B" showing collapsed crest and rollover structures
365 identified as potential traps.
366 5.4 Geomechanical (Fault Stability) Analyses

367 When sequestering CO2 into sub-surface high pressure is needed to force the CO2 into the
368 reservoir in order to displace the existing reservoir fluids. Such pressure increase may
369 potentially trigger fault instability (Streit and Hillis, 2004) which could cause reactivation of
370 pre-existing structures and consequent leak of CO2 out of reservoir (Zoback, 2010 and
371 Rogers et al., 2008). The usual approaches to analyse for faults stability for potential CO2
372 injection are: Slip tendency and Fracture stability which are discussed below:

373 5.4.1 Slip tendency: The slip tendency on any fault surface is the ratio of shear to effective
374 normal stress (τ/σn). In assessing a potential CO2 storage area, the slip tendency analysis can
375 identify fault surfaces that are oriented to slip in a current stress field (Streit and Hillis,
376 2004). Such fault surfaces that are oriented in the present-day stress field are at maximum

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377 risk to potentially slip (Van Ruth et al. 2006) and the stored CO2 can migrates
378 upward/vertically along the fault segments out of the reservoirs (Miocic et al., 2014).

379 The slip tendency carried out on fault in "Field B" shows generally blue to yellow indicating
380 low tendency for potential fault slip. The plot of stereogram shows that the faults are
381 steeply oriented (870) in the direction of the maximum principal stress (Fig. 13) indicating
382 that they are in a region of mechanical stability. When plotted on Mohr scale, the points are
383 below the failure envelop (Fig. 14) and the surfaces shows low slip tendency (Fig. 15), which
384 generally indicates stable environment.

385

386 Fig. 13: Stereographic projection showing the orientation of the faults with respect to the
387 horizontal stress indicating low slip tendency.
388

22
389

390 Fig. 14: Mohr diagram indicating low slip tendency

391

392 Fig. 15: Fault surfaces showing generally low values for slip tendency

393

23
394 5.4.2 Fracture Stability

395 It is the measure of the amount of pore pressure a fault can sustain before fracturing
396 (Miocic at al., 2014). The fracture stability analysis carried out on the faults in the area
397 shows that the likelihood for fault failure by fracturing or re-activation due to pressure
398 increase is low (Fig. 16). Because all the faults are below the failure line shown in the Mohr
399 diagram. For any fault to fail due to pore pressure increase, additional increase of 3.2 MPa is
400 required (Fig. 17). This strongly suggest that the area is geomachanically stable and is
401 therefore potentially a suitable area for geological sequestration of CO2.

402

403 Fig. 16: Illustrates Mohr diagram showing fracture stability in the area

24
 b)

404

405 Fig. 17: Shows the amount of pressure increase required to cause fracture or reactivation of
406 faults in the area.

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

25
418 6. Conclusion

419 Basin wide assessment has shown that the presence of excellent reservoir-seal pairs, very
420 large basin size, suitable reservoir depth, matured oil and gas fields, moderate faulting
421 intensity, availability of giant hydrocarbon fields and being a passive margin generally makes
422 the Niger Delta Basin an excellent environment for (CCS). Also, field scale assessment using
423 3D seismic volumes and well information has further unravelled key potentials for geological
424 storage of CO2 in the basin. For example: potential reservoir, traps and seals identified. Well
425 correlation shows reservoir - seal pair at 2900 - 3200m which is within good range for CO2
426 storage. The stratigraphic sequences of the two fields have shown potential reservoir units
427 sandwiched between potential seals (shale unit) that could provide containment for the
428 injected CO2. The correlation analysis further indicated that the reservoirs are laterally
429 extensive that can enable sequestration of large volume of CO2. Geomechanical analyses
430 have shown that slip tendency is generally low while fracture stability is high, which
431 indicates that the study area is stable in the current stress regime. Pore pressure increase
432 that could cause fracturing or reactivate the weakest fault in the area requires additional
433 +3.2MPa. In general, this research presents Niger Delta as a very good basin viable to
434 support safe geological storage of CO2 that could help in increasing oil and gas production
435 through CO2-EOR, reducing pollution and expanding the global outreach of CCS technology.
436

437 Acknowledgement:
438 The authors thank Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF) Nigeria and the
439 National Centre for Petroleum Research and Development (NCPRD) for financial support for
440 the research. Many profound appreciations laid to Schlumberger and Badley Geosciences
441 companies for the provision of Petrel and Traptester softwares during the execution of this
442 research.

443

444

445

446

447

26
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591
592

593

594

595 Appendix
596 N/S Oilfields Gas Produced Gas flared % of gas flared
597 1 Adibawa 2225072 2103621 98.58652
598 2 Afam 19465598 278498 1.430719
599 3 Afremo 3223562 3214594 99.7218
600 4 Agbaya 3157370 3109609 98.48731698
601 5 Ajitaton 541714 531153 98.05044728
602 6 Akaso 11612437 8730136 75.17918935
603 7 Alakiri 6122263 3659216 59.76901025
604 8 Amukpe 79842 73537 92.10315373
605 9 Awoba 13358470 6595724 49.37484607
606 10 Belema 11942803 11832418 99.07571949
607 11 Benisede 4468931 4354757 97.44516082
608 12 Bonny 92941997 736802 0.792754647
609 13 Diebu Creek 15790599 15679362 99.29554921

31
610 14 Ekulama 12248338 12133806 99.06491803
611 15 Elelenwa 6047369 1663386 27.50594515
612 16 Eriemu 5112097 5068450 99.14620165
613 17 Escravos Beach 4302642 2869230 66.68530638
614 18 Etelebou 4490992 4284706 95.40667184
615 19 Kanbo 5297367 5159478 97.39702762
616 20 Kolo Creek 43144822 988959 2.29218468
617 21 Krakama 9657469 9337042 96.68208099
618 22 Nembe Creek 14645301 929312 6.345461933
619 23 Nun River 3597038 3533362 98.22976571
620 24 Obigbo North 24006260 7005409 29.18159263
621 25 Opukushi 8290598 8099012 97.68911724
622 26 Oroni 614389 585898 95.36270994
623 27 Otumara 8070299 8002109 99.15504989
624 28 Saghara 809480 809480 100
625 29 Soku 188650588 3640306 1.929655263
626 30 Tunu 12435678 12281330 98.75882923
627 31 Adua 11318143 9485850 83.81101034
628 32 Asabo 24149303 15878953 65.7532559
629 33 Ekpe 4892334 549334 11.22846478
630 34 Eku 3529441 2560395 72.54392409
631 35 Enang 10346898 2798421 27.04599002
632 36 Etim 21452915 14223220 66.29970799
633 37 Inim 80034787 1504636 1.879977515
634 38 Usari 65408482 3310780 5.061698267
635 39 Okan 78296364 11966947 15.28416696
636 40 Mefa 51812162 2559953 4.940834162
637 41 Robertkiri 14110802 14051870 99.5823625
638 42 Yorla South 768717 748704 97.39657117
639 43 Belema Unit 14669 14669 100
640 44 Obagi 27103217 13870181 51.17540475
641 45 Odudu 8703709 7328350 84.198012546
642 46 Ebocha 54459960 47070294 86.43101097

643 47 Oshi 40721136 33797077 82.9964002

644 48 Tebidaba 10738510 10664400 99.30986701
645 49 North Apoi 6314000 6269433 99.29415584
646 50 Ologbo 18030426 16871677 93.5733687
647 51 Ossiomo 8890128 8890128 100
648 52 Agbara 9663197 9356457 96.82568823
649 53 Jones Creek 7861073 7709568 98.07271857
650 53 Odidi 18627436 12218729 65.59533475
651 54 Opuama 729210 5240 0.718585867
652 55 Oben 36666725 12449866 33.95412598
653 56 Odeama Creek 12842798 2921450 22.74776883
654 57 Orubiri 5132440 5132440 100
655 58 Ovhor 1345618 1247828 92.7327072

32
656 59 Sapele 25251585 10506780 41.60839805
657 60 Ubefan 122503 121818 99.44083002
658 61 Middleton 1892583 1892583 100
659 62 Pennington 2074936 2049295 98.76425104
660 63 Oso 182202471 22215181 12.19257943
661 64 Forcado Yokri 12852702 12312426 95.79640141
662 65 Akono 432713 421926 97.50712366
663 66 Egbema 5137353 5111137 99.48969829
664 67 Batan 3012472 2916911 96.82782114
665 68 Egwa 11570651 10212316 88.2605136
666 69 Oguta 14754547 14715958 99.73846029
667 70 Olomoro 5017450 3814653 76.02772325
668 71 Ubie 87561933 2277218 2.600694071
669 72 Uzere West 2099893 2045784 97.42324966
670 73 Oweh 2822434 1078122 38.19830685
671 74 Clough Creek 949842 887792 93.46733457
672 75 Biseni 2277064 2105955 92.48554279
673 76 Obodo 686647 404888 58.96596068
674 77 Aghigho Creek 444441 335850 75.56683564
675 78 Ibewa 61409941 109 0.000177496
676 79 Ajuju 398016 284534 71.48808088
677 80 Afiesere 9422390 9069668 96.25655487
678 81 Ahia 4882830 4846339 99.252667
679 82 Evwreni 1052755 956473 90.85428234
680 83 Imo river 7946565 7053392 88.76026308
681 84 Isoko 1095938 925550 84.45277014
682 85 Rumuekpe 392794 373021 94.96606364
683 86 kokori 3355059 3095613 92.26702124
684 87 Utorogu 89264465 1646150 1.844126887
685 88 Eriemu 5112092 5068450 99.14629862
686 89 Ughelli East 17769743 710645 3.999185582
687 90 Ughelli West 1259556 1219066 96.78537516
688 91 Osiaka 74236 6220 8.378684196
689 92 Warri river 15742 15290 97.12870029
690 93 Ogini 1473223 914658 62.08550912
691 94 Beniboye 7219476 7156919 99.13349667
692 95 Malu 8763844 8721865 99.52099786
693 96 Edican 5252554 5252554 100
694 97 Abiteye 4491058 315374 7.022265132
695 98 Oredo 5902206 5454872 92.42090161
696 99 Meji 27062449 7834433 28.94946056
697 100 Abo 843712 782537 92.74930308
698 101 Oyo 1261 950 75.3370341
699 102 Gili-Gili 819989 814609 99.34389364
700 103 Funiwa 11114817 11060538 99.51165188
701 104 Okubie 2327916 2327916 100
702 105 Obama 18014072 17572937 97.55116445

33
703 106 Afia 1732660 1732660 100
704 107 Odudu 8703709 7328350 84.19801259
705 108 Ofon 19414895 18905224 97.37484545
706 109 Erha 59287658 2616846 4.413812399
707 110 Omuro 604286 587912 97.29035589
708 111 Jisike 2286015 2275181 99.52607485
709 112 Okono 15216026 14656913 96.32549918
710 113 Asaboro South 1445036 1445036 100
711 114 Ogharefe 3669401 3669401 100
712 115 Ologbo 18030426 16871677 93.5733687
713 116 Ossu 6052855 5974284 98.70191835
714 117 Bonga 36503491 4225429 11.57541069
715 118 Awawa 5246881 755073 14.39089242
716 119 Yoho 32936850 10100034 30.664845
717 120 EA 18706280 10288649 55.00104243
718 121 Parabe 12943689 12777182 98.71360475
719 122 Mina 1375611 1375146 99.96619684
720 123 Tapa 3674135 3615370 98.40057592
721 124 Delta 23546346 23467141 99.66362084
722 125 Eja 1548670 756297 48.83525864
723 126 Asabo 24149303 15878953 65.7532559
724 127 Akri 27583400 19535278 70.82258895
725 128 Edop 51507761 20239261 39.29361441
726 129 Asasa 26199959 20424159 77.95492733
727 130 Idu 18078305 17898805 99.00709718
728 131 Olo 4806040 3342 0.277609009
729 132 Otamini 1992585 1904065 95.55752954
730 133 Graban 75562571 1573106 2.081858755
731 134 Isan 2144078 2099139 97.9040408
732 135 Jokka 723394 723394 100
733 136 Ogbotobo 4783717 4709438 98.44725346
734 137 Benin River 723394 723394 100
735 138 Gbokoda 4783717 4709438 98.44725346
736 139 Makaraba 12813685 1190825 9.293384378
737 140 Kito 447155 427509 95.60644519
738 141 Dibi 13073072 6292549 48.13366743
739 142 Delta South 17096976 10027779 58.65235466
740 143 Mini NTA 7331834 7287012 99.38866592
741 144 Umuechem 1924530 1906458 99.06096553
742 145 Santa barbara 3788677 774527 20.44320484
743 146 Cawthorne Channel 32190393 24434818 75.90717516
744 147 NDA 3569677 2214569 62.03835809
745 148 Okwori 10397031 7141917 68.69188906
746 149 Abura 1980465 1268767 64.06409606
747 150 Isimiri 3154509 2699106 85.56342683
748 151 Nkali 7405873 2879755 38.88474728
749 152 Ubit 54377355 5425697 9.977861189

34
750 153 Mimbo 3261880 2551288 78.21526236
751 154 Ebughu 9108109 8343598 91.60625987
752 155 Akam 4599134 3920254 85.2389602
753 156 Ukpam 445226 391032 87.82775489
754 157 Iyak SE 1435188 935188 65.16135865
755 158 Inanga 3050020 2320997 76.09776329
756 159 Mfem 1381021 1000089 72.41663957
757 160 Isobo 3030164 3030164 100
758 161 Unam 7329887 6195887 84.52909301
759 162 Idoho 11149739 11112389 99.66501458
760 163 Utue 3085183 2657683 86.14344757
761 164 Iyak 9242310 4519310 48.89805687
762 165 Ime 3154127 2838713 89.99995878
763
764

765

766

767

768

35