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CELL PROCESSES
What is a cell?
It is the basic unit of life
Types of cells
There are two types
 Animal
 Plant

STRUCTURE PROPERTIES FUNCTIONS

Cell membrane 2 lipid layer with one protein layer sandwiched
in between. It has a property that it is
selectively permeable.
Nucleus Contains genetic material (chromosomes)
Cytoplasm Contains water & dissolved substances e.g.
glucose, minerals, vitamins
Selects substances entering & leaving the
cell
 It controls cellular activities
 It controls cell division
This is an area where cellular
biochemical reactions take place.

Ribosome Small grains found scattered in the cytoplasm, It is responsible for protein
some may be attached to endoplasmic reticulum formation/ synthesis/ manufacture
mitochondrion Surrounded by 2 membranes, inner membrane It is the site for aerobic respiration
has folds

Cell wall Made carbohydrate called cellulose, its freely
permeable
vacuole Has concentrated solution made of water, salts,
glucose. The solution is known as cell sap.
Protects cell against mechanical
damage & gives plant a permanent rigid
shape.
Stores the cell sap (vital chemicals for the
cell)
Cell sap regulates osmotic potential of the
cell

SPECIALIZED CELLS
These are cells which have stopped growing, have a definite shape and perform ONLY one
specific function.
Examples of specialized cells.
Cell Function
1. Red Blood Cells Responsible for transporting
(Erythrocytes) oxygen around the human
body
2. Muscle cell
It moves bones in different
directions (contract / relax to
help move skeleton)
3. Sperm cell
Fuse with ovum to form a
zygote
4. Ovum
Fuse with sperm to form a
zygote
5. White Blood Cells Phagocytes – engulf & digest
(Leucocytes are two bacteria (disease- causing
types; Phagocytes & organisms.)
Lymphocytes)
Lymphocytes – produce
antibodies
6. Root hair cell - Absorb water and absorb
mineral ions (salts) from the
soil from the soil
- anchor / supports the plant
firmly to the ground.
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Relationship between structure & Function.
- Has a biconcave structure that helps it to have a large
surface area to volume ratio
- It is small in size and has a spongy cytoplasm that helps
it to squeeze itself in very small blood vessels/
capillaries.
- Absence of nucleus increases surface area for
transportation of O2
- Presence of haemoglobin that binds to oxygen and
carry it as an unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin
- Long & have numerous protein fibres in the cytoplasm.
(fibre helps to shorten the cell when there is energy)
- Ability to contract & relax in order to move parts of
the body
- Has streamlined head to enable it to move towards
ovum with less friction
- Has a tail to help it swim towards the ovum.
- Has an acrosome at the tip of the head, this contains
enzymes which dissolves the egg membrane to allow
sperm cell to penetrate the egg during fertilisation
 It has a large food store in its cytoplasm to
provide the zygote with nourishment before
implantation
NB. Theoretically, it is about 10x bigger than the sperm
cell
 Phagocytes are white blood cells that are able to
change shape of cytoplasm like amoeba to
engulf germs/ they carry out phagocytosis.
Have cytoplasm with lobed nucleus.
 Lymphocytes produce chemicals called
antibodies that kill bacteria.
- Large number of mitochondria to generate energy
needed fro active transport of ions
- Has a finger-like projection known as the root hair that
enables it to penetrate tightly packed soil particles
- Have Large concentrated sap vacuole which ensures
water uptake through osmosis
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7. Xylem cells - Transport water & dissolved
mineral ions from the roots to
top part of a plant
- Supports the plant against
mechanical damage
- Has dead hollow tube without cytoplasm to allow efficient
flow of water from roots to the leaves
- Walls are lignified (coated with lignin) to withstand osmotic
pressure
- Cylindrical cells are attached end to end forming a xylem
vessel.

8. Nerve Cell (neuron) Transmits nerve impulses
(messages) around the body
- Have very long fibres which connect distant parts of the
body
- Fibres are coated with fatty layer to prevent loss &
distortion of messages.
- Chemical reactions cause the impulses to travel along
the fibre

9. Palisade cell To make food / carbohydrates
through photosynthesis
- Has lots of chloroplasts to produce chlorophyll which
traps sunlight energy for the process
- Elongated so that they can pack tightly
- Located close to the upper epidermis to receive more
sunlight

10. Guard cells To regulate the opening & - Crescent shaped

closing of stomata - Always paired to form stomata
- Are able to change shape to close / open depending on
light intensity.

Cell Organization
Cells are organized into tissues, organs, systems and ultimately an organism (plant / animal)

 A Cell; is the basic unit of life

 A Tissue; is a group of similar cells carrying out the same function. E.g. xylems cells make
xylem tissue
 An Organ; is a group of tissues which work together to perform a particular function. E.g. the
heart is organ made of nerve tissue, muscle tissue, epithelial tissue etc.
 A System; is a group of organs which work together to perform a particular function. E.g. the
digestive system is made of; stomach, mouth, intestine, liver etc
 An Organism; Is a group of different systems which come together to form a living thing e.g.
Human beings are made of; nervous, skeletal, circulatory, digestive, muscle systems etc.
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Movement of Substances in & out of cells

There are three processes that are involved in the movement of substances in & out cells
 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport

1. Diffusion;
It is the random movement of particles from their region of their higher concentration to their
region low concentration down a concentration gradient until they are evenly distributed.

N.b. Diffusion occurs in all states of matter.

a) Diffusion in gases
The spread of perfume particles (or air freshener) from the nozzle of the spray can to fill up the
room occurs through diffusion.

b) Diffusion in liquids
The spread of potassium permanganate from the bottom of a beaker to the top is by diffusion.

Diffusion is affected by;

I. Changes in temperature;
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, hence particles will
move faster leading to an increase in the rate of diffusion
II. Particle size
Small particles dissolve faster because they are less dense & have a large surface area
hence can diffuse rapidly from one end to the other.
III. Concentration gradient
This is the difference in the amount of particles between two adjacent areas. Particles
move faster when the difference in the amount of particles is large. The rate of diffusion
diminishes as the concentration gradient reduces.

2. Osmosis;
It is the random movement of water molecules from their region of higher concentration to their
region of lower concentration along the concentration gradient through a partially / selectively
permeable membrane.
Similarities between Osmosis & Diffusion
 Particles are moving down the concentration gradient
 Both processes are passive, no energy is expended (used)

Differences between Osmosis & Diffusion

OSMOSIS
Occurs only in water molecules
Materials are moved across a barrier (a
partially permeable membrane required)
DIFFUSION
Occurs in all states of matter (any particle is
moved)
Does not require a barrier (partially membrane)
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3. Active Transport
This is the movement of materials from their region of low concentration to their region of high
concentration against the concentration gradient using energy from respiration. Substances are
moved through the aid of protein carrier molecules and a barrier is not important.

Active transport is different from the other two modes of movement in that;
 Unlike osmosis & diffusion, it occurs against the concentration gradient
 It requires energy from respiration
 Only mineral ions are moved

Osmosis and cells;

A cell can be exposed to the following conditions;
 Immersed in pure (distilled) water / dilute solution
 Immersed in a concentrated solution
??? Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in pure water / dilute solution

Ans; There will be an influx of water from the container into the cell by osmosis leading to an
increase in the contents of the protoplasm. As a result turgor pressure builds inside the cell
membrane causing it to stretch until it touches the cell wall. When this happens the cell is said to
be Turgid.
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??? Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

Ans; the water molecules will move out of the cell by osmosis. The outflux of water molecules will
lead to a decrease in the contents of the protoplasm hence a decrease in turgor pressure. The
cell becomes flaccid and cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall. When this happens the cell
is said to be plasmolysed.

??? Explain what happens when an animal cell is immersed in pure water / dilute solution

Ans; Water molecules will move into the cell by osmosis and due to build up of turgor pressure
the cell membrane will burst (since the animal cell has no cell wall to limit the stretching of the
membrane).

??? Explain what happens when a animal cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

Ans; Due to outflux of water by osmosis, the cell will decrease in size and when this happens the
cell is said to be shrunken.
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These activity can be used in performing experiments on osmosis

ACTIVITY; The Effect of sugar concentration on potato tissue

Apparatus & materials
 5 different solns; 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% and 60%
 5 petri dishes
 Cork borer
 White tile
 Scalpel
 30cm ruler
 Large potato
 25ml measuring cylinder

Procedure
- Label the petri dishes A to E.
- Place equal volumes (40ml) of the sugar concentrations into the petri dishes as; 0% in petri dish A;
5% in dish B, 15% in dish C etc.
- Prepare 5 equal sized (40mm) potato slices by boring the potato using a cork borer
- Place one potato slice in each petri dish.
- Leave the potato slices in the solutions for 60 minutes. Then remove the slices & blot them dry with a paper tissue.
- Measure the final lengths of the slices and record the results as follows

Sugar soln Initial length(mm) Final length Change in length

0% 40
5% 40
15% 40
25% 40
60% 40

Practice Questions on the activity above;

 Plot a graph of sugar concentration against change in length
 From the graph, work out the concentration of the potato tubes
 At what concentration would the concentration of the sap vacuole of the potato equal that
of the surrounding sugar soln?
 What process is responsible for the change in length of the potato tubes?
 What is the formula for calculating the change in length of the potato tubes?
 What else can be measured to find out the effect of concentration on the potato slices?
 What is your conclusion on the effect of concentration on?