18BPA61C -DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA

• SUBJECT CODE: 18BPA61C

• PREPARED BY: DR.P. MAGUDAPATHY,

Asst. Professor

• DEPARTMENT: PG & Research Department of Public

Administration

• CONTACT NO.: 9994672379

• E-MAIL ID: magudapathypalanisamy@gmail.com

The content is prepared according to the text book and reference book
given in the syllabus.
 Year Subject Title Sem. Sub Code

2018 -19
Core 10:Development Administration in India VI 18BPA61C
Onwards

Objective
To make the students to understand the Concept of Development
Administration through integrated, organized and proper Coordination in
Governmental Action in India.

UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance of Development Administration –
Evolution of Development Administration – Traditional Administration and
Development Administration – International Context of Development
Administration.

UNIT – II: BUREAUCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

Development Planning in India – Bureaucracy and Development
Administration – District Collector – DRDA – Field Level Agencies.

UNIT – III: URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Urban Development Programmes– Urban Housing Development Programme–
JNNURM.–Urban Wage Employment Programme -Urban Self Employment
Programme

UNIT – IV: RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Rural Development Programmes – Integrated Rural Development Programmes
– Poverty Alleviation Programme – SJSRY-MGNREGA.

UNIT – V: ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

NGOs and Development Administration – Citizens’ Grievances and Redressal Mechanism.

Textbook
1. Palekar-S.A ,Development Administration- Prentice hall India Publication -2012

Reference books
1. Narayanan Hazary ,Development Administration, Quest for identity
Publication- 2005- -Aph Rup
2. KuldeepMatheer ,Development Policy and Administration ,SAGE
publication Pvt Ltd-1996
Anil K.Srivatsava ,Development of Public Administration in India, Kunal Book Publishers,
2011
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN INDIA

ROLE OF PLANNING

Meaning of Planning

Planning means to determine what is to be done and how it is to be done. In a very broad and
general method, planning may be treated as a systematic pre-thought out process of
determining the objectives of administrative effort and of devising the means calculated to
achieve them”. According to Seckler Hudson, “planning is the process of devising a basis
for a course of future action”.

Planning, according to Urwick, is “fundamentally an intellectual process, a mental pre-

disposition, to do things in an orderly method, to think before acting, and to act in the light of
facts rather than guesses. It is the anti- thesis of speculative tendency”.

It is often said that planning is a rational method of decision-creation and organization. It

means that planning involves the following steps:

A clear perception and definition of the problem

Determination of objectives and availability of possessions

Choice of activities and means for achieving the goals

Coordination of these mutually dependent means and activities

Formulation of programs

Choice of constant and most effective methods of implementing the coordinated

programs

Systematic review and feed-back in order to continue and sustain the process.

Therefore planning is the process of devising a sound basis for a future course of action.
Planning is needed for all types of tasks, whether big or small. It can be used through
countries at several stages of development and in dissimilar social and economic
circumstances. Planning has to be flexible, dynamic and adaptable. It involves several
methods for the achievement of defined objectives. These methods are based on foresight and
clarity of goals.

Need for Planning

The role of planning varies according to the social and economic circumstances prevailing in
a country. Planning plays a very crucial role in the developing countries. The need for
planning arises on account of the nature, magnitude and complexity of several troubles
persisting in a system. Planning has many advantages.
Planning Enables Comprehensive and Scientific Understanding of Troubles

Planning enables though does not necessarily ensure the emergence of comprehensive and
scientific understanding of the troubles of a system. In the context of development planning,
it is essential that a comprehensive and meaningful understanding of underdevelopment and
the factors, forces and processes which hold back progress is arrived at this has to be the first
step of development planning and it stresses upon the need for having a systematic planning
mechanism.

Prevention of Wastage and Improvement in Productivity

On the basis of a comprehensive and scientific understanding of the troubles, planning plays
a crucial role in assessment, mobilization and appropriate utilization of the possessions
accessible. It prevents underutilization, mis-utilization and inappropriate allocation of
possessions.

Highlights the Pros and Cons of Several Decisions

On account of extension of the field surveyed, sectorally and spatially, in order to arrive at
decisions, planning plays a useful role. It highlights the external repercussions of several
decisions. It brings out both the positive and negative dimensions of the decisions and
enables the planners to take steps to create use of either the positive effects or to lessen the
negative effects of decisions.

Augment the Rationality of the System

Planning plays a very significant role in rising the rationality of the system through avoiding
arbitrariness, duplication, and inconsistency, neglect of communal and long-term interests. As
a result, several of the defects of decentralized, uncoordinated decisions based largely on the
motivation of individual gain can be rectified through planning.

Prevents Inconsistency of Individual Decisions on Inter-linked Matters

Through planning, it is possible to combine in a mutually constant method communal social

decision-creation on significant issues of general social relevance with individual decision-
creation in areas where minute details, local circumstances and regularly changing situations
have to be taken into consideration.

Brings in relation to the Structural Change

Planning, through communal decision-creation and direct or indirect control in excess of

social possessions, enables the country to undertake large tasks and bring in relation to the
changes in the structure or the system. Through planning, motivational and informational
handicaps, which are the feature characteristics of uncoordinated decisions, can be avoided.
Enables Orderly Reconciliation of Conflicting Interests

Plans play a significant role in ushering an orderly change and preventing counter- productive
conflicts from emerging after the decisions are taken. It invites such conflicts in advance so
that efforts towards their reconciliation may be made at the earliest Therefore, through
ensuring in advance that the several planned activities and changes are mutually constant,
plans prevent wastage of possessions and efforts.

So, planning is a very crucial component of any system oriented towards bringing in relation
to the social and economic development Planning has to play an active organizational and
decision-creation role from the stage of conception to the final implementation and evaluation
of the schemes. It facilitates socio-economic change in accordance with predetermined
objectives in a most effective and rational manner.

As we have read in the previous units of this block, India inherited a stagnant economy
marked with abject poverty and lopsided growth. The nature of the tasks and changes
essential for development at the time of Independence was such, that it could not have been
handled without per and concrete recourse to planning.

Private enterprises were not in a position to create full use of economic and human
possessions. Agrarian relations, small size of land holdings, fragmented holdings, heavy
indebtness of the farmers, and persistence of low productivity methods of production had led
to agricultural backwardness. Without a base of productive and prosperous agriculture, which
was the mainstay of more than two-thirds of Indians, there was no possibility of modern
industrial growth. The ruin of Indian handicrafts and absence of cottage industries aggravated
the crises further. This called for a systematic planning process.

Modern infrastructural facilities for creation use of natural possessions, human possessions,
science and technology, international trade and economic relations and for directly meeting
the need for several social services was not developed in a method and to an extent conducive
to development the colonial state neglected these vital investments and drained India of her
valuable possessions. Winning of freedom, unification of the country after partition,
institution of Sovereign, Democratic Republican Constitution made it clear that there was an
urgent need for planning as a consciously adopted means of economic organization and
decision-creation with a certain inevitable degree of centralized control. The state had to
intervene in order to augment the possessions for development these tasks were not
performed through the bureaucracy throughout the colonial rule. Therefore without conscious
choice, coordination of activities, large level mobilization of possessions and centralized
efforts, the troubles facing the country at the time of Independence could never have been
tackled properly. Planning, so, became a method of responding to the multifaceted,
interrelated and stupendous tasks of development.

Machinery for Planning in India

In a country like India where the bulk of the means of production are owned through private
individuals, planning should be such that it regulates and controls private socio-economic
activities that contribute to development and is constant with the aims and actions of public
policy. Planning in India aims at ensuring social and economic development for fulfilling the
basic objectives laid down in our Constitution. As mentioned in unit 6, Indian planning may
be termed as development and regulatory planning in a mixed economy framework. It means
that it is a planning process for both public and private sectors. To understand the nature of
planning process in the country, we necessity have a thought in relation to the evolution of
planning in India and dissimilar institutions involved in plan formulation and implementation.

Evolution of planning

Planning was not an unfamiliar concept for Indian leaders when freedom dawned in 1947.
Awareness and importance of planning was clearly visible even in the pre- Independence
period in 1936, Dr. M Visveswarayya had published an essay cm the desirability and
feasibility of planning for industrialization. In 1938, National Planning Committee under the
chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru did substantial work in collecting material for planning.
Later in 1944, the government recognized a Planning and Development Board. A Planning
Advisory Board was also constituted in 1946. These pre-Independence efforts stress upon the
unity of approach that our leaders possessed for the achievement of common goals. After
Independence, a systematic process of planned development was initiated. Since then our
plans have been trying to promote balanced socio-economic development and welfare of
Indian people.

Institutions Occupied in planning

There are several institutions that are involved in plan formulation, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation. The National Development Council (NDC), Planning
Commission jointly with its working groups and advisory panels, State Planning Boards,
District Planning Cells, Planning Cells in Central and State ministries and Parliament are
involved in this effort. Association with private sector is also secured through several
Development Councils and representatives of Commerce and Industry. It is a multi-stage,
multi-stage and multi-agency planning system.

Planning Commission is a multi-member body which was recognized through the Cabinet
resolution of March 15, 1950. Its objectives and functions are to create an assessment of the
possessions of the country, investigate possibilities of rising these possessions, formulate a
plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of the country’s possessions. Planning
Commission has to describe the stages in which the plan should be accepted out, propose the
allocation of possessions for due completion of each stage. It determines the circumstances
and machinery for the successful implementation of the plan through pointing out the factors
hindering economic development Planning Commission also has to review from time to time
the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan and recommend changes
where required.
For evaluation of the plans, we have Program Evaluation Organization (PEO). It was set up in
1952. It works under the general guidance of Planning Commission. The main functions of
PEO are to undertake evaluation studies, to assess the program results against the stated
objectives, to measure their impact on beneficiaries and the socio-economic structure of the
society and to provide advice to State Evaluation Organization that are involved with plan
evaluation at the state stage. Another very significant organization that helps in planning is
the National Development Council (NDC). The NDC acts as a bridge flanked by the union
government, Planning Commission and state governments. It prescribes guidelines for the
formulation of the plan. It considers the plan formulated through the Planning Commission. It
also considers significant questions of social and economic policy affecting national
development it reviews the work of plan from time to time and recommends events necessary
for the fulfillment of plan objectives. "The NDC tries to secure people’s participation in
planning and pays attention to the improvement of administrative services and development
of less advanced regions.

Each state has a State Planning Board or State Planning Cell to help in plan formulation. It
prepares a plan for the state with the help of ministries and departments in the state,
representatives of districts and members of District Planning Cells. The State Planning Board
calls for the several projects from the district which is then combined on the basis of priorities
and financial implications and a state plan is prepared and placed before the Planning
Commission. The districts have District Planning Cells for plan formulation. Soon after state
budget is voted in the assembly, the several departmental heads prepare a district- wise
breakup of the outlays provided in the plan. The district authorities jointly with District
Planning Cells prepare a district plan which is an aggregation of departmental schemes
received from the state government

Planning Process in India

The Constitution of India comprises the subject of „social and economic planning‟ in the
Concurrent List India draws up plans in the form of five year programs. The formulation of
five year plan is a time-consuming and intricate process. This process can be divided into five
stages.

First Stage: This stage begins three years before the commencement of a new plan.
Studies are undertaken through the Planning Commission to look at the state of economy and
scrutinize the troubles. Tentative conclusions out of this effort are arrived at and a framework
of the plan is drawn. This framework is submitted to the central cabinet after this it is placed
before the NDC. The NDC designates the rate of growth and broad priorities to be assumed
for the purpose of further work on the plan.

Second Stage: Planning Commission works out general dimensions of the plan in the
light of guidelines given through the NDC and a draft memorandum outlining the
characteristics of the plan is prepared.
 Third Stage: Draft memorandum is placed before the NDC and after NDC‟s
consideration, the work for preparation of draft outline of the plan starts. This draft plan is
open for the comments of state and central ministries. After NDC‟s approval, this plan is
circulated for public discussion. It is then measured through Informal Consultative
Committee of Parliament and also through Parliament as a whole.

Fourth Stage: Planning Commission holds detailed discussions with central ministries
and state governments concerning their plans. Discussions are also held with representatives
of major organized industries in the private sector. Planning Commission then prepares a
paper in which principal characteristics of the issues needing more consideration are outlined.
This paper is placed before the NDC and central cabinet for their consideration. Final report
on the plan is based on the conclusions reached on this paper.

Fifth Stage: A draft of the final report on the plan is measured through central ministries
and state governments and then submitted for approval of the NDC and central cabinet after
their approval it is presented before Parliament for discussion and approval.

Planning Commission and the NDC are not involved in plan implementation. Planning
Commission only determines the machinery for proper implementation of plan; it does not
through itself carry out the formulated plan. Monitoring and evaluation of plans is done
through the Planning Commission and the NDC through Program Evaluation Organization
and other agencies occupied in appraisal of plans.

Limitations of Planning in the Country

Our Five Year Plans have broadly aimed at augment in growth rate, extensive modernization,
and establishment of socialistic pattern of society, attainment of self-reliance, upliftment of
backward classes, balanced growth, systematic regional development, removal of poverty and
promotion of heavy and capital goods industries. All these objectives will be discussed in
detail in unit 8 of this block. But here it is essential to note that despite four decades of
planning, we have not been able to solve the troubles of unemployment, under-employment,
rise in prices and poverty. Regional inequalities continue to persist. We have not been able to
utilize our manpower possessions to the maximum extent our growth rate has been
inadequate.

Concentration of economic power has increased. Therefore there has been a wide gap flanked
by targets and achievements. These troubles can be attributed to many limitations in our
planning process. Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) in its Report on the
Machinery for Planning (1968). Private sector is only involved at the time of plan
formulation, even here the consultations flanked by the two are held very rarely. The ARC
criticized the functioning of Central Advisory Council on industries and several Development
Councils which have been created through the government for consultations with the
industrial sector. It noted that these councils suffer from lack of proper leadership and
technical support and therefore have been usually ineffective.
The Planning agencies also suffer from lack of trained personnel with requisite caliber and
experience. There is lack of coordination flanked by the related sectors of economy at the
time of plan formulation and implementation. Moreover, implementation of the plans has
been rather inadequate. While formulating plans, the practicability of the schemes necessity is
kept in view. Proper attention has to be paid to agencies and people involved in
implementation and evaluation of plans, and a proper feedback mechanism has also to be
recognized.

Economic development alone will never lead to overall development of the country, it is, so,
imperative to bring in relation to the structural and institutional changes in the society.
Usually it has been found that there is an absence of realism in planning. Though agricultural
production has increased, process of land reforms has been very slow; the small and landless
laborers continue to live in poverty. Planning in India is not geared towards undertaking
continuous and scientific investigation of social obstacles such as the kinship and hereditary
relations based on caste system which comes in the method of economic reforms and
development. Financial incentives to reduce backwardness are not enough. Certain non-
economic, political and social factors have to be kept in mind.

Our plans have not been able to adhere to time schedules; as a result there have been cost
overruns. The process of execution of plans is so slow that the financial outlays for plans-
become insufficient after a certain period of time. Expenditure increases because with the
passage of time the prices go up. There is no emphasis on sense of urgency in plan
implementation and evaluation. Supervision of plans at all the stages has been ineffective.
Plan execution and evaluation is marked with red tape and wastage of possessions.

Regional and Area Planning in the strict sense of the term has never been introduced in India.
Planning in India has been sectoral. Plans at the state, district, block and village stages have
just been mere break-ups of sectoral plans. Planning at the grass- root stage is very weak. The
district, block and village bodies merely collect data for the state and central governments.
No full-fledged planning is done at these stages. Usually the policies are handed in excess of
from above and people at the local stages are required to fill in this framework. Participation
of people and voluntary agencies in planning has also been quite inadequate.

BUREAUCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

ENHANCING BUREAUCRATIC CAPABILITY

Personnel Development

A bureaucracy is an instrument which is devised for the fulfillment of certain purposes. As

these purposes change, the nature of the bureaucracy should also undergo changes. In most
developing countries like India the bureaucracy was originally devised through the imperial
power for serving its own ends. Several of the colonial characteristics of the bureaucracy
have sustained to exist even after the attainment of independence. Hence changes in
personnel administration are needed for having a bureaucracy, suited to democratic
administration.

In India, Government employment has been classified on the rank system into services,
classes and grades since colonial times. A person may move from one job (or position) to
another, and yet his rank can remain unchanged. Obviously, this system of classification is
not suited to a bureaucracy with a diversity of positions having varying functions and
responsibilities required through the large number of developmental activities. The system of
position classification, in which jobs rather than persons are classified, is more suited for our
present needs.

Classification, Recruitment and Placement

The capability of the bureaucracy can also be enhanced through paying attention to the
aptitude and interest of an officer while creation the placement (or posting him to a
scrupulous place). This is especially significant so long as we recruit people to services and
not to jobs. Therefore members of the Indian Administrative Service have dissimilar types of
knowledge, interest and aptitude. All graduates are eligible for entry into the Service; still,
they have dissimilar educational backgrounds. While some of them have studied arts, others
have studied sciences; while some have studied engineering, others have studied
management.

Promotion and other Incentives

Everybody’s performance is dependent upon his/her motivation that is the extent to which
he/she has been stimulated to achieve certain goals. Motivation results from rewards and
punishments. Modem psychological theory puts greater emphasis upon rewards than upon
punishments. Rewards are positive in character and can lead to an unlimited improvement in
performance. Punishments, on the other hand, are negative and tend to lead to the minimum
acceptable performance. Hence rewards are of greater significance than punishments for
improving performance.

Training

Training of personnel is of rising importance due to the continuous and great expansion of
knowledge. The use of science and technology creates it possible to immeasurably augment
productivity. Therefore the green revolution, or great augment in agricultural productivity,
has come in relation to the Punjab, Haryana, and Western U.P., through the use of high
yielding diversities of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and mechanical implements such as pump
sets and tractors. Hence it is significant to impart this new knowledge to functionaries of
agriculture departments of all State Governments in the country. Likewise, other employee’s
necessity also updates their knowledge like the doctors, engineers, architects and managers.

Disciplinary Action

We have noted earlier that Indian Administration suffers from a lack of use of reward and
punishment. We have also noted that reward is more effective than punishment for
influencing performance. What we need, so, is a system which combines rewards and
punishments. The possibility of punishment necessity is there, for it is required through
accountability. Punishment of Civil Servants is governed through Civil Services
(classification, control and appeal) Rules, which were originally made under the Government
of India Act, 1919. They give for punishment in case of breach of conduct prescribed under
rules of conduct relating to the Service to which the employee belongs. These Rules give for
the following punishments in the ascending order: censure, withholding of increments,
reduction to a lower stage, recovery of Government’s loss from pay, suspension, removal
(which does not disqualify from future employment), and dismissal. Though, Article 311 of
the Constitution gives that a civil servant cannot be removed or dismissed through an
authority subordinate to that which appointed him; it also gives that no dismissal, removal or
reduction in rank can be ordered unless the civil servant has been given a reasonable
opportunity of being heard in respect of the charges brought against him.

Organizational Development

So distant we have discussed how the personnel can be developed for enhancing their
capability. Now we propose to look at how the organizational structure can be developed.
The distinction flanked by the system and the individuals who constitute the system, is
significant. Therefore in a dictatorship, large numbers of individuals may be prevented from
doing, or even saying, that which they consider to be right. Hence a political system which
gives freedom to the individual is better than one that does not. Likewise, the excellence of an
administrative structure is dependent upon the extent to which it allows the utilization of the
potentialities of its members. A structure is a set of relationships. Most modern organizational
structures are too restrictive in nature. This is specially so in ex-colonial developing countries
like India.

Decentralization

J. Ramsay MacDonald, who later became the Prime Minister of England, described Indian
Administration under British rule as follows:

The tendency has been to centralize the working: The machine of Government has
become a thing separately, and through separating itself from the organic life of India it has
overemphasized the fact that India is ruled through foreigners. The evolution of such a
system is inevitable.... Secretariats become all-powerful; not a sparrow falls but is recorded,
reported and re-recorded, docketed, initialed and minted; not a suggestion emanates from
below but is regarded with suspicion or hostility as something of a foreign origin; not a thing
is done without involving the whole machine in the doing of it.

Centralization continues to be one of the prime characteristics of the Indian

Administration. It has several characteristics and ramifications; though, its most significant
indicator is the secretariat — a citadel of bureaucratic power such as does not exist in any
developed country. The interposition of the colonial institution of the secretariat flanked by
the minister and the executive head of the department interferes with both, proper political
control in excess of the bureaucracy and adequate participation of specialists in decision-
creation.

It is significant to bring the minister into closer touch with the executive agency
consisting of specialists. At present control in excess of specialists is exercised through
bureaucrats in the secretariat in the name of the “Government”. This creates for great power
for the generalist officers in the secretariat. Executive agencies function under the restrictive
control of these generalist officers who often have little understanding of the technicalities
involved. Since the so-called heads of departments (such as the Director of Agriculture, the
Director of Public Instruction, and so on) themselves function under the stringent control in
excess of officials in the field. What is more, field officers function under dual control, they
are answerable to the office of the head of the department for performance, but in matters
like transfer, promotion and disciplinary action they are not dealt with through the secretariat.
As a result, functionaries in the field often feel that they do not have the autonomy necessary
for effective functioning.

Enhanced Role of Specialists

The role of modern science and technology cannot be in excess of- emphasized when dealing
with development administration. While several specialists are employed through the
Governments in India, they often do not have a role which would create an enough impact
upon the policy and its implementation. An impact on policy would require keeping close
contact with the minister. Though, the main advisers of ministers are the generalist officers in
the secretariat. It is true that heads of departments are asked to comment in writing on policy
proposals; though, they do not have an enough role in initiating policies. This would require
more authority and personal interaction with the minister.

It is notable that the minister and the secretary are both usually amateurs in the sense of not
having specialized knowledge, and hence may not be able to think of new events for dealing
with hard troubles. Nor can a Planning Commission do* all the policy-creation, since
situations differ so much from place to place and time to time. Hence close association
flanked by specialists and the minister is essential. The Administrative Reforms Commission,
in its Report on Personnel Administration, recommended that officers in the secretariat
should come from in the middle of specialists. This recommendation has not been
implemented through the Governments. The least that should be done is to induct more
specialists into the secretariat, so that the minister can hear them as well as the generalists.

Reorientation of Staff Agencies

Agencies which deal with planning, financial administration, personnel administration,

administrative reform, law creation, and central purchasing and building activities, are
recognized as staff agencies. Examples of staff agencies are the Planning Commission, the
Finance Ministry, and so on. Staff agencies are said to be advisory in nature, but as Simon
pointed out, in reality they exercise control on behalf of the cabinet. The controls which staff
agencies exercise are, to some extent, necessary. Therefore having a single coordinated plan
for the government as a whole requires a planning agency: its advice to the government
relating to the size of the plan for a certain ministry implies some controlling power in excess
of that ministry.

Though, if the staff agencies in large organizations like a State Government go beyond laying
down broad policy guidelines, and tend to deal with details they can hamper the fulfillment of
governmental objectives through the executive ministries. In India, staff agencies were used
throughout British rule for exercising checks in excess of the executive or line agencies (such
as departments of education, health and so on) in the interests of the foreign power.

Delegation of Authority

Delegation means conferring authority from one administrator or organizational unit to

another in order to accomplish scrupulous assignments. Therefore a State Government can
delegate authority in a certain matter to the Deputy Commissioner. The administrator who
delegates authority continues to have his original authority and responsibility even after
delegating it.

Delegation is essential in every large level organization. Officers at lower stages mainly
exercise delegated authority. If there were no delegation in a corporation, its chairman would
have to manage it alone. One of the significant faults of Indian Administration is a general
lack of delegation. Throughout British rule, Indian officials were not trusted. Hence ICS
officers directly exercised authority as distant as possible. If authority was delegated to Indian
officers and any mistake was made through the officer to whom it had been delegated, it was
withdrawn. Rules therefore came to give a low delegation; subordinates were required to take
prior sanction for every little thing.

Reduction in Number of Stages

Hierarchy is measured to be an essential element in an organization. Though, if the number of

stages in the hierarchy is large, the chain of communication flanked by the field and decision-
creation stages tends to become so long that communication ceases to be effective. Lack of
effective communication means that those at lower stages are unable to understand the
changing objectives of administration, and those at higher stages are unable to comprehend
the needs and troubles in the field.

Procedural Development

The colonial heritage of Indian Administration also results in procedures which are
underdeveloped. Throughout the British rule, the administration was accepted on according
to rules made under laws made through the British Parliament. After Independence, laws
made through Indian legislatures, and rules made under them, should have taken the place of
the old provisions. Though, in most cases the old rules have been allowed to continue.

Development of the Society

Public Administration constitutes merely an aspect of the society. Other characteristics of the
society — economic, social, political, cultural and educational, constantly interact with the
administration. Hence enhancement of bureaucratic capability requires changes in the social
environment. So long as the majority of the people remain poor, uneducated and unaware of
their rights and duties, they cannot properly participate in programs of development Import of
high technology cannot deliver the goods in a situation of general economic backwardness.
Therefore if the data received from the field are defective (say because of lack of means of
transport and communication), the processing of the data on a computer through highly
trained specialists is of no use. In short, economic development is a pre-requisite of
administrative development

BUREAUCRATS AND POLITICIANS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

Relationship in the Course of Policy Formulation

It was earlier whispered that while policy was formulated through politicians, it was there is
no such separation of functions. This is so in all countries: politicians and the bureaucracy
cooperate in the course of both policy formulation and implementation. In developing
countries, particularly, it has been found that the bureaucracy plays a significant role in policy
formulation also. In the following we shall consider the relationship of politicians and
permanent officials in the course of policy formulation in some detail.

Communication with the People

Public policy results from the interaction flanked by the people, functioning individually and
in groups, on the one hand, and the politicians and the bureaucracy on the other. In the
course of their interaction, all the three seek to power each other and communicate for this
purpose. Therefore the several sections of the people try to articulate their scrupulous
interests through interest groups, such as trade unions and associations of farmers, lawyers,
doctors, engineers and others. Political parties take note of these several interests and try to
satisfy all of them as distant as justifiably possible.

Provision of Information

Politicians and civil servants are repositories of dissimilar types of information, and both
these are needed in the course of policy formulation. Civil servants usually have the
advantage of longer experience; they also keep their command on organizational memory in
the form of files and other records. Hence they can give valuable feedback-information in
relation to the results of earlier efforts as well as ongoing programs. Now policy can, then, be
formulated in the light of these results: modifications can be introduced to avoid past
mistakes or troubles faced earlier. Politicians, on the other hand, are more likely to
successfully assess the mood of the people; particularly, they are expected to be able to tell
what the people will not stand.

Technical Consideration
Technical examination of policies and programs is of utmost importance for ensuring that
they fulfill the desired goals at the minimum cost. There are many characteristics of technical
consideration. The first is the substantive aspect. Therefore health policy necessity is
examined through doctors, educational policy through educationists, and so on. That is why
specialists of all types are nowadays employed through governments. They function in the
several departments at approximately all stages. Therefore in the Health Department not only
is the Director a doctor, but doctors are to be found in the primary health centers in the
remotest villages. Troubles and suggestions of specialists at several stages are measured and
lead to new policies and programs.

Coordination

All policies and programs are to a varying extent interrelated. Therefore agriculture
development also requires industrial development for the provision of fertilizer, pesticides,
and mechanical implements; it requires educational development so that farmers may be able
to read and benefit from new scientific knowledge; it also requires development of farmers‟
health so that they may be able to work properly. Hence policies of agricultural development
have to be drawn up so that they harmonies with other policies. Hence coordination of a high
order is necessary. Coordination is needed at all stages and all stages, as Mary Parker Follett
has stressed. At the top stage it is sought to be brought in relation to the through the cabinet.
All significant policies are reviewed through the cabinet. Here the ministers have an
opportunity to look at the implications of other policies for those of their own department.
Any inconsistency, gap or duplication is ironed out.

Authorization

The final stage of policy-creation is its authorization. The legislature authorizes or approves
policies and programs usually in the form of laws. Laws are necessary because without their
sanction the government cannot allocate social possessions. Therefore taxation is the prime
method for creation possessions accessible to the government. Imposition of taxes requires
laws. Therefore a law for the imposition of a certain tax may imply a policy for the
redistribution of wealth. Approval through the legislature is taken to mean approval through
the people, since the legislature consists of representatives of the people. Hence the passage
of a law puts the stamp of approval through the people’s representatives on the policy
contained in it and also empowers the executive to enforce it.

Relationship in the Course of Implementation

While in policy-creation politicians have the dominant role, in implementation the

bureaucracy has a greater role. While a politician only heads a department as a minister, civil
servants function at all stages. Members of the bureaucracy at the top stage advise ministers
and manager the departments, those at the middle stage supervise field officials and keep the
top informed of the progress, and field officials like policemen, tax-collectors and factory
inspectors enforce the law. It would, though, be a mistake to think that politicians have no
role in implementation. The minister is the political head of the department and bears
responsibility for both, its policies and their implementation.
Rule-Creation

A law as passed through the legislature is in general conditions. It does not go into details.
Therefore a law may prohibit trade in harmful drugs. Though, it would not list the drugs,
leaving this to be done through the executive. There are many causes why laws are stated in
such general, rather than specific, conditions. One cause is that the legislature is busy with a
large amount of business having to do with control in excess of the administration, discussion
of policies, and legislation. It does not have the time to go into the details. Another cause is
that the legislature consists of representatives of the people rather than experts: their proper
role is to protect the interests of the several sections of the society and not to get involved in
the intricacies of scrupulous pieces of legislation.

Supervision, Monitoring and Evaluation

After the notification of rules, implementation becomes mainly the responsibility of field
officials like tax-collectors, factory inspectors, doctors in government hospitals, and
policemen. Supervision in excess of them is exercised through superiors of the department.
This supervision usually remnants lax in Indian administration. The main cause is that
superior officials have very little real authority for rewarding or punishing their subordinates.
Promotion, particularly at lower stages, is not based mostly on seniority; nor can a superior
provide any other rewards. As distant as punishment is concerned, the procedure for taking
disciplinary action is very cumbersome and it takes a lot of time, sometimes years, before
the final decision in regard to punishment are taken.

Administrative Management

Administrative management refers to the management of the organization as a whole. In

India the principal agencies for this purpose are the ministries or departments (in the Union
and State Governments respectively) of finance, planning, personnel and administrative
reform or reorganization. The Planning Commission and planning boards in the States, and
Public Service Commissions also participate in the function of managing the governmental
organization as a whole. While the management of programs or projects for fulfilling the
substantive purposes of the government are the responsibility of line agencies like the
Ministries of Defense, Industries and Health, administrative management relates to
organizing, financing, planning and staffing in all the ministries or departments. Effective
implementation of policies and programmer requires effective administrative management.

Troubles in the Relationship

So distant we have described the relationship that develops flanked by politicians and the
bureaucracy in the course of policy-creation and implementation. Now we shall try to look at
somewhat more closely the troubles of this relationship. It is significant to realize that most of
the troubles that arise in countries like India are basically related to underdevelopment. The
several characteristics of underdevelopment are interrelated. Economic, social, political and
administrative underdevelopment power, and sometimes cause, each other. Hence the
solution of administrative troubles ultimately lies in development; they can rarely be solved
in isolation.

Interference Intricate

The term “interference intricate” has been coined through Fred Riggs to refer to complaints
through politicians against what they call “bureaucratic interference” and countercharges
through administrators against what they call “political interference”. These politicians often
complain that the bureaucracy sabotages policies and programs of progressive social change.
The National Commission on Agriculture expressed agreement with this view while dealing
with the failure of land reforms.

Bureaucratic Power

Writers like Riggs, Weidner and Heady pointed out long ago that the bureaucracy tended to
be more powerful in developing countries than in developed ones. The greater the power of
the bureaucracy, the more hard it is for politicians to control it. Hence there is a tendency for
dictatorship through the civil and military bureaucracy in developing countries. Democratic
administration requires that the bureaucracy should be properly controlled through the elected
representatives of the people.

Loyalty

Members of the bureaucracy are expected to be committed to human and constitutional

values and nationals objectives. They are expected to be neutral flanked by political parties.
In the recent past, though, there have been complaints that some politicians in power have
demanded from the bureaucracy loyalty for their party and themselves. For instance,
members of the bureaucracy have stated that they could not express their disagreements with
ruling politicians freely throughout the Emergency. Some civil servants were perceived to
have lost their neutrality. The Shah Commission noted, “In some cases the administration and
administrators ceased to be insulated from politics with disastrous consequences”.

Collusion

Sometimes politicians and civil servants cooperate in wrong doing. The Shah Commission
noted that, “It is necessary to face the situation squarely that not all the excesses and
improprieties committed throughout the emergency originated at the political stage. In a large
number of cases it appears that unscrupulous and in excess of-ambitious officers were
prepared to curry favor with the seats of power and position through doing what they thought
the people in authority desired”. After the Emergency also, cases have come before courts
showing wrong doing jointly through politicians and civil servants.

NEUTRAL VERSUS COMMITTED BUREAUCRACY

Neutrality

The society consists of several sections, groups and classes. Each one of these tries to protect
its interests. The several interests often come into clash with each other. It is the function of
the government to maintain peace through keeping this disagreement within limits. The
government achieves this objective through trying to fulfill the just demands of each section.
This involves a changing allocation of possessions. Therefore in most democratic countries
there is progressive taxation through which the rich are taxed more than the poor; the
possessions so obtained are then utilized more for the welfare of the poor. In this method,
possessions are transferred from the rich to the poor.

Therefore governmental policy determines the allocation of possessions in the middle of the
several sections of the people. The bureaucracy participates in drawing up the policies for
such allocation through negotiating with representatives of the several interests, advising
ministers on the pros and cons of alternative policy proposals, and drafting reports, proposals,
resolution and legislative events. In view of such participation through the bureaucracy in
policy-creation, and also in putting it into effect, it is significant that the bureaucracy should
be non-partisan or neutral flanked by the several sections. In our society, neutrality of three
types is significant: neutrality flanked by classes, neutrality flanked by cultural groups, and
neutrality flanked by political parties. We shall consider the significance and troubles of each
type of neutrality; we shall also consider how neutrality of each type can be increasingly
achieved.

Commitment

The bureaucratic form of organization has both, advantages and disadvantages. Its main
advantage, as pointed out through Weber, is efficiency. Its main disadvantage, as pointed out
through Marx, is alienation. Hence we aim at reducing alienation while maintaining
efficiency. This can be done, to some extent, through improving the bureaucracy’s
commitment, or moral dedication.

Assessing Neutrality and Commitment

In this section we shall consider (i) whether neutrality and commitment are necessarily
antithetical, (ii) methods of achieving neutrality and commitment, and (iii) special devices for
significant areas.

Special Agencies and Recruitment Methods

Special agencies and methods of recruitment can be used for significant areas requiring a
high degree of both neutrality and commitment. One such special agency already in use is the
autonomous university. Higher education and research constitute an area in which
commitment and neutrality are both of great importance. If commitment is not there, pursuit
of knowledge lacks excellence; if neutrality is not there education becomes merely
indoctrination. The autonomous university aims at achieving both; it also retains the main
advantage of bureaucratization, namely efficiency, while avoiding the dysfunctions flowing
from bureaucratization due to its autonomy.

Max Weber has noted that staff members of a university constitute a bureaucracy. The
features of hierarchy, division of labor, specialization, rules and impersonality are to be found
in a university also, and hence it has the efficiency flowing from these factors. At the same
time, its autonomy permits its staff members to remain committed as well as neutral, since
the rules of conduct applicable to government servants do not apply to the employees of a
university.

SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN BUREAUCRACY

Social Background of the Bureaucracy

Occupation of the Father or Guardian

The main finding of research studies is that most members of the higher bureaucracy have
been drawn from the professional middle class of India, consisting of higher civil and
military officers, lawyers, doctors, university teachers and business executives.

Education

Research studies Shaw that most of the entrants into the higher bureaucracy are drawn from
in the middle of those educated at exclusive schools and colleges.

Rural-Urban Residence

The higher bureaucracy in India has been recruited predominantly from the urban areas.
There has not been much change in this scenario in excess of the years. Therefore of the 1981
recruits to the IAS, 72 per cent had an urban background and 28 per cent a rural one. If we
compare these figures with those for 1957, we discover a change of only 2 per cent. 74 per
cent then had an urban background and 26 per cent a rural one. Therefore there may at best be
a slight tendency for more rural residents to get into the higher bureaucracy.

Caste

The higher bureaucracy is recruited predominantly from the so called higher castes. People of
low caste are also usually poor and cannot afford higher education for their children. To
compensate for the age old discrimination against those having a low social status, the
Constitution of India provided for “reverse discrimination” in the form of reservation of jobs
for scheduled castes and tribes in Public Administration. For long, though, these quotas were
not filled, since candidates of scheduled castes and tribes could often not get qualifying
marks in the competitive examination.

Religion

While all the significant religions of India are represented in the higher bureaucracy, some of
them have fewer members than their proportion in the population. Therefore in the middle of
the IAS recruits in 1981, in relation to the88 per cent were Hindus, only one per cent was
Muslims, 4 per cent were Christians and 5 per cent were Sikhs. The representation of Muslim
has varied flanked by 1 and 6 per cent since 1957 and has been much lower of than their
proportion in the population.

Gender'

The representation of women in the higher bureaucracy has increased uniformly. In the
middle of IAS recruits for the year 1957, 1967, 1977, 1980 and 1981, their percentage was in
relation to the3, 8, 9 and 12 respectively. While there has been an augment in the number of
women getting into the IAS, they constituted only 7 per cent of the IAS officers in 1983.
Since women constitute in relation to the half of the population, they may be said to be still
grossly under-represented.

Role of Bureaucracy in Economic Development

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it was whispered that the state should restrict itself
to the country's defense and the maintenance of law and order, and that it should intervene in
the economy as little as possible. This view changed, particularly after the Great Depression
of the 1930s, in which millions of people became unemployed the world in excess of.
Nowadays, all governments are expected to regulate the economy so as to bring in relation to
the augment in production, a high stage of employment, moderate prices of commodities, and
check in excess of monopolies and unhealthy trade practices. The need for such regulation of
the economy is all the more great in developing countries like India due to widespread
poverty and unemployment on the one hand, and the great power of monopolists on the other.
The government regulates the economy through fiscal policies (through modulating taxes),
and monetary policies (through modulating money supply).

Planning, which means resource allocation through a centralized administrative process, is

resorted to for achieving economic growth. The government develops means of transport and
communication. It gives loans and raw materials to industrialists and farmers. All these
governmental activities are performed through government departments, nationalized banks
and other public undertakings through their officials. Hence the bureaucracy has a very
significant new role, namely that of functioning as the agent of economic development. More
and more economists, statisticians and trained managers are needed for the proper
performance of this role.

The Role of Bureaucracy in the Welfare State

In recent times there has been a tendency for entrusting the state with more and more
responsibility for social services, such as the provision of education, health care,
employment, labor welfare, the welfare of the blind and other handicapped persons, and the
welfare of widows and orphans. So much importance is attached to these new functions that
the state has been renamed as the welfare state.

The provision of such varied social services requires large numbers of dissimilar types of
specialists, such as teachers, doctors, nurses, labor officers and social workers. With their
recruitment as members of the bureaucracy, the nature of the bureaucracy tends to change:
the new role requires a new type of bureaucracy.
The State and Bureaucracy as Mediators of Social Change

In olden day’s prophets and saints like Gautama Buddha, Jesus Christ, Guru Nanak and
Swami Dayanand called for changing several social practices, norms and rituals. Nowadays,
though, several such changes are sought to be brought in relation to the help of laws.
Therefore, untouchability, bigamy, child marriage and dowry system have been declared
illegal.

The State and Bureaucracy as Mediators of Political Development

The emotional bonds of nationalism are often weak in new nations. Though, unless these
bonds are strengthened, the nation is in danger of falling separately, as happened, for
instance, in Pakistan from which Bangladesh broke absent. The state and its bureaucracy play
a significant part in strengthening these emotional bonds. Therefore national integration is
sought to be promoted through education, radio and television programs, development of
native languages, publication of good excellence literature in native languages, cultural and
sports activities in which persons from all parts of the nation participate, and so on. These
programs are often mannered through members of the bureaucracy.

In a country where the national bonds are weak, having a bureaucracy which is centrally
recruited and whose members serve in dissimilar parts of the country, also helps to hold the
nation jointly.

Political development is also promoted through strengthening interest groups, such as labor
unions. Legislation which sanctions and supports trade union activity therefore helps to bring
in relation to the political development. Insofar as the bureaucracy participates in the
formulation and implementation of such legislation, it has a role in political development.

Political parties also constitute a significant part of the political system. In some countries
nowadays political parties are provided with election funds through the state. This reduces the
dependence of the parties on the rich, helps to curb corruption, and promotes political
development. Elections constitute a significant part of the democratic political process. They
necessity be mannered with honesty and impartiality; otherwise the people will lose faith in
the system and it is likely to collapse sooner or later. Insofar as the bureaucracy conducts
elections honestly and efficiently, it helps to maintain and develop the political system; for, it
is through elections that new parties and leaders come to power and implement programs of
social change desired through the people.

Role of Bureaucracy in Policy Formulation

Till in relation to the fifty years ago it was whispered that in democratic government while
politicians formulated policy, the bureaucracy implemented it. Though, research work has
shown that this is not wholly true. The creation and implementation of policy are so deeply
interconnected that it is impossible to separate them. Therefore the formulation of new policy
requires an understanding of the causes for the successes and failures in regard to earlier
policies. This feedback can best be provided through members of the bureaucracy due to their
wide experience and knowledge. In other words, since members of the bureaucracy often stay
in their jobs longer than politicians, and since they have more detailed information, their
advice on policy matters comes to constitute a valuable contribution. Their role in policy
formulation has tended to gain importance also due to the expansion of the role of the state,
as discussed above.

Therefore, now it is well recognized that both in developed and developing countries, the
bureaucracy plays a significant role in policy formulation. What is notable is that its role in
policy formulation is much greater in developing countries than in developed ones. We shall
now discuss the causes for this.

Bureaucracy as a Channel of Communication

The society consists of dissimilar sections, such as those of fanners, landlords, workers, small
businessmen, big businessmen, and so on. Their interest’s disagreement to some extent. It is
the function of the state to bring in relation to the balance in the middle of their interests, so
that the interests of each section are fulfilled as distant as practicable in the given economic
situation. Hence the aspirations, needs, troubles and grievances of each section have to be
communicated to the government. This communication flanked by the government and the
several sections of the society takes place, to a large extent, through the bureaucracy.
Therefore, if the fanners in an area suffer from some problem, such as lack of water for
irrigation, they usually approach officials like the Deputy Commissioner, who communicates
the problem to higher stage of the administration: they may create proposals for irrigation
facilities in the five year plan and the budget. In this method communication through the
bureaucracy may help in the formulation of policy proposals for meeting the needs of the
people.

In developed countries there is another channel also. This channel, flanked by the people and
the government, runs through interest groups and political parties. An interest group may be
an association for putting forward the interests of a certain section. Therefore a trade union is
an interest group for articulating the interests of workers. After the demands of the several
sections have therefore been articulated, they are measured and composed jointly through
political parties in their election manifestos. Such aggregation of interest’s workers, as
articulated through trade unions and aggregated through political parties, has led to labor laws
in several countries. These laws contain the labor policies. In this method, communication
through interest groups and political parties leads to the formulation of policies for fulfilling
the demands of the several sections of the people.

In developing countries, though, interest groups and political parties are often either weak or
non-existent. Therefore in India, there are hardly any associations of landless labor, or of
artisans such as weavers and carpenters. Most political parties exist in villages only in name.
In towns also their offices seem to crop up only at the time of elections. Due to such
weaknesses of interest groups and political parties, articulation and aggregation of interests is
often not possible through them. Hence the bureaucracy often remnants the only mechanism
for the conversion of demands into policies. In this method, the bureaucracy plays a more
significant role in policy formulation in developing countries than in developed ones.
The Bureaucracy as a Repository of Information

The formulation of policy requires a lot of information. Therefore one needs to know why
certain policies failed earlier. For instance, suppose the policy of expanding secondary
education in villages failed earlier mainly because of poverty, boys and girls had to earn their
own upkeep and so parents could not afford to send them to school. This information helps in
devising a new policy which combines training in productive work with literary education, so
that the youth earn while they learn. The bureaucracy has the advantage of long experience,
while politicians come and go. The experience of the bureaucracy creates it a repository of
information in relation to the past. Further, the bureaucracy has access to information which
is contained in records, such as files. Such information can be much older than what any
person can keep in mind. Since officials consult these records often, they know in relation to
the old cases also. We also need information in relation to the differences in the several
regions, so that the policy may give for these. Therefore, irrigation facilities in the hills may
have to be dissimilar from those in the plains. Since officials are transferred from place to
place, they come to know in relation to the different areas. What is even more significant,
members of the bureaucracy have access to secret information; it can be information relating
to control of smuggling, conduct of foreign affairs and regulation of the economy. Since such
secret information is essential for policy formulation, the bureaucracy comes to have a
significant role. Therefore we note that since the bureaucracy has access to often secret
information relating to dissimilar timeframe and areas, its advice is measured through
ministers to be weighty, and therefore it comes to have a significant role in policy
formulation.

Bureaucracy as a Group of Technical Advisers

The bureaucracy comes to have a significant role in policy formulation also because of the
technical knowledge possessed through it. There are three main causes for it: (i) growth of
science and technology, (ii) expanding role of the state, and (iii) rising complexity of the
administration. The growth of science and technology changes the nature of agricultural and
industrial production. Therefore agriculture nowadays requires the use of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, high yielding diversities of seeds, pump sets and tractors. The formulation of
agricultural policy requires knowledge of these. Such knowledge is possessed through
specialists in agricultural science. Likewise, specialists are required in areas like health,
education, industry, control of crime, and so on. Hence specialists of approximately all types
are nowadays recruited as members of the bureaucracy and their advice is depended upon
in the formulation of policies. The expansion in the role of the state creates for dependence
upon economists, accountants, lawyers and others since their advice is needed for regulation
of the economy: checking the growth of monopolies, providing employment, controlling
prices, and so on. As the role of the state expands, the administration tends to become bigger
and more intricate. Maintenance of administrative effectiveness and efficiency, then, requires
persons having specialized knowledge and experience of administration and management.
Therefore specialists of several types in the bureaucracy come to power policy formulation.
It needs to be emphasized that policies often take the form of laws. Therefore the sale of high
yielding diversities of seeds is controlled through the Seeds Act. Labor policy is contained in
laws like the Industrial Disputes Act. The policy relating to income-tax is contained in the
Income-Tax Act. Hence giving concrete form to a policy often only deciding upon its
ingredients but also formulating it in the form of laws. The drafting of laws and rules
necessarily requires specialists in the substantive area (such as agriculture, health or
economics) and also in law. Hence policy formulation, or giving the form of laws and rules to
policies, is largely done through specialists. It is true that laws and rules drafted through
specialist members of the bureaucracy are later examined and customized through ministers
and legislators. Though, ministers and legislators often do not have understanding of the
intricacies of scientific and legal matters. So they have to depend to a large extent upon
specialists in the bureaucracy. In this method the bureaucracy comes to power policy
formulation.

Bureaucracy as an Impartial Adviser

The society is made up of many sections, whose interests to some extent disagreement.
Therefore higher wages are in the interest of workers, but not in the interest of industrialists.
The government is expected to maintain a balance flanked by these conflicting interests. This
is what the government tries to achieve through its policies. Hence the formulation of policies
requires the advice of persons who are impartial, or neutral, flanked by the dissimilar
sections. Members of the bureaucracy are expected to function in this impartial or neutral
manner; line they come to be depended upon for advice relating to policies.

The bureaucracy is neutral in another sense also. Politicians come and go with elections, both
as legislators and as ministers. Though, civil servants continue to serve governments of
dissimilar parties. They are expected to serve and advise every government for bringing in
relation to the balance flanked by dissimilar interests. Hence civil servants are measured to be
neutral in a dual sense: flanked by contending interests and flanked by political parties. Their
advice on policy is measured to be especially valuable for being impartial.

Role of Bureaucracy in Policy Implementation

The main function of the bureaucracy is policy implementation that is, giving effect to
policies after they have been approved through the executive and legislative branches of the
government. This function also is performed under the overall control and supervision of
politicians in the executive and legislative branches; though, members of the bureaucracy
have to bear much of the responsibility for implementation. Policy implementation has four
stages, as follows:

Formulation of projects and programs

Project planning

Creation provision in the five year plan and the budget, and
 Execution of the programs

DISTRICT COLLECTOR

DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

The British Parliament was the first legislature with respect of India in modern times, they
created enactments and gave substance to the district head of administration, known variously
as the

Collector (in respect of revenue administration) District Magistrate (in respect of

administration of criminal justice)

Deputy Commissioner (in respect of General administration and special functions; powers
under local tenancy law)

PREVAILING ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE AND TASK OF DISTRICT

ADMINISTRATION

The overall administration structure presently prevailing at the district and sub‐ district levels
in the country consists of the following components‐

Administration of regulatory functions under the leadership of collector and DM, such as law
and order maintenance, land revenue/reforms, excise, registration, treasury management, civil
supplies and transport, social welfare.

District/ sub‐district level offices of the line departments of the State Government and their
agencies, such as PWD, irrigation, health, industries etc. i.e. coordination with various
agencies/departments.

Local bodies (Panchayati Raj Institutions and Municipal bodies) which after the 73rd and 74th
CAA, have become the third tier of the government.

As a crisis manager, electoral officer and undefined functions in terms of residuary functions ‐
‐> census, protocol.

NEED OF REFORMS IN DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

As stated above, the widespread functions of the District Collector without well‐defined roles
result in lack of clarity and diffusion of the Collector's responsibilities. Also, after the
establishment of PRIs/ULBs as the third tier of government, the (ARC) is of the view that
there is need to redefine the role and responsibilities of the Collector in a clear manner
because the office of collector and its widespread and vaguely defined functions are affecting
the following:

1. Union‐State and Local relations

2. Imperatives of development management‐ used in the sense of achievement and
objectives with optimum use of limited resources in manpower, finance, material time
and also active contribution to the clarification and reformation of policies and
objectives. Shift of focus from development administration ‐> development
management
3. Law and order administration
4. District administration and democratic decentralization
a. Bureaucratic resistance to delegation of power to PRIs
b. Vested interests of higher officials and middlemen take over in between
c. Elitist behavior and biasness among the bureaucrats and government officials
d. No incentive to the DC in development activities
5. Modernizing the office of the District Collector
a. Grievance and public feedback cell
b. Management Information System/ IT tools /E Governance
c. Vigilance cell
d. Civil Society and Medical cell
6. Functional and structural reforms etc.

IMPORTANCE

It plays vital role between Union‐State and local government and hence no removal of this
post.

Improvement on the issues of personnel management, performance and outcome evaluation,

effective citizen centric administration, use of ITs, process re‐engineering etc.

CHANGING ROLE OF THE DISTRICT MAGISTRATE

During the 71 years of independence, many institutions of Indian administration have

undergone changes‐ some minor and others quite radical. The institution of the District
Officer‐ variously called as D.C., D.M. and Deputy Commissioner in different parts of India
since the British days ‐ has undergone quite a big change over the last five decades.

In the olden days, the D.C. was the imperial government to the people. Ramsay McDonald
once described the D.M. as "the tortoise which supports the elephant upon which rests the
Government of India". District administration headed by the D.M. was marked by ‐
paternalistic approach and discretionary authority and what is, perhaps, most important‐ a
direct bridge between town and country. The intrepid civilian used to tour throughout his area
on foot, bicycle or horseback to have an intimate idea of the State of affairs in the district.
The institution of collectorate did not confine the role to only collection of land rents. But
circumstances in the post ‐ independence India did not encourage the D.M. to devote as much
time and energy to scholarly work and establish a rapport with their charges.
In the 21st century, India also may think seriously if the system of district administration
especially in the context of 73rd and 74th constitution amendments needs substantial change
and reorientation. But so long as the Rule of law as the basic principle of democratic
governance cannot be ensured, the role and responsibilities of the D.M. must not be divided.
Atleast the politico‐administrative experience in Punjab, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, North
East and elsewhere during the last two decades have amply shown that the district
administration headed by the

D.M. needs to be strengthened by re‐defining the powers and responsibilities of the D.M. in
his favor, otherwise political chaos and administrative mismanagement are sure to negate
India's advance in other fields of nation‐building.

REINVENT THE COLLECTOR: A DISTRICT CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER?

We are rightly puzzled by the question: what exactly the D.C. collects? As we enter the 21st
century and the third millennium, this much‐maligned and much‐admired, and peculiarly
Indian, institution merits closer scrutiny.

But first, to address the above query, literally, land revenue is not of course, any longer a
major source of state income.

Nevertheless, in these days of vast fiscal imbalances, revenue collection continues to be a

major objective of the D.C. The government expects him to exercise his vast authority and
influence to ensure that all major revenue‐collecting departments meet their targets. The
collector also spearheads the small savings drive, an increasingly important resource for state
governments.

The government reposes great confidence in the institution of the D.C. is apparent from the
fact that all schemes and programs to which government attaches importance ultimately
become his responsibility at the cutting edge of administration. His performance is
consequently assessed on a broad range of parameters, including inter alia, revenue
collection, family welfare programs, development schemes and law and order. Since the
expectations of the people are also unrealistically high, the responsibility on his young
shoulders is tremendous. His drive and initiative can make a material difference to the
performance of the administration.

The powers of the collector, like his objectives, are largely undefined and nebulous, and
based on convention and precedence, which extend far beyond the letter of the law. He has no
formal administrative control over the innumerable offices that have proliferated in the
district over the past few decades. It is the halo and mystique surrounding the institution of
the collector, sanctified by history and tradition, which gives him the de facto authority of
distinct head of administration, and owes its origin to the 'steel‐frame of the Raj'.

And for this reason the institution of D.C. has come under criticism as 'a colonial vestige',
with no role in a development oriented democratic society, where power rests, or ought to
rest, with the people and their representatives.
There is something to be said for the criticism that the institution of D.C. is increasingly
becoming adrift.

The ICS had some brilliant and outstanding officers, as indeed the IAS has today, but the
former never sought to undermine system by their brilliance‐ rather they built upon existing
institutions contributed immensely to set up systems which have survived long after they
have gone.

In sharp contrast, every other collector today tries to introduce something distinctive, which
would bear the indelible stamp of his brilliance, outside the existing administrative
framework.

Such innovations, no matter how good intrinsically, cannot become institutionalized, as

average tenures are short and in any case the likelihood is that another newcomer would
overturn the innovations with his own. Meanwhile, the old system languishes on account of
too little attention being bestowed on it.

The Collector's role as the leader of a team needs to be testified.

When even heads of States and Chief Ministers are reinventing themselves as CEOs, there is
something to be said for having in place a district CEO, with clear measurable objectives.

One of the chief weaknesses of the current process of economic liberalization and structural
adjustment is that it has still to penetrate the rural hinterland. The collector could become the
nodal point to manage the process at the cutting edge.

Since fiscal concerns are at the center of structural adjustment; revenue collection would, of
course, be a major criterion but so would his ability to unlock the value of the vast sovereign
assets in the district.

Elected local bodies are exceedingly loath to levy and collect taxes and the institution of the
collector could provide an invaluable correction.

Expenditure management should be another major area, especially since there is so much
infructuous expenditure at the cutting edge, which is incurred simply because it is budgeted.

He must also effectively address bottlenecks coming in the way of translating major
investment approvals into projects on ground, such as handing over land, speedy provision of
power connection, infrastructure development, regulatory clearances including associated law
and order (power‐theft) and environmental problems.

And finally, as government withdraws from direct eco. Activities and concentrates on its core
sovereign functions, the delivery system of welfare schemes, social safety nets, primary
education, disaster management and Medicare, should be major foci of the CEO.

How the District CEO is to be positioned with respect to emerging local self-government
institution, however, needs to be carefully considered.
The idea is not to thrust new responsibilities on an already over‐ worked D.C. All the
objectives outlined above are eminently

Achievable by a DC today, provided he is suitable focused.

In any case, the formal authority of the collector is limited and he would largely be using his
informal authority and leadership qualities to attain these objectives.

The re‐invention would involve an entirely different perspective and measurement of success,
in place of the existing bundle of targets that do not achieve very much when seen in totality.

District Collector

District as a basic unit of field administration has been in existence through the ages. It is
surprising to know that it has not changed substantially, since the times of Mauryan Era to
Mughals to British era. Historically the district, in some form or the other has been the most
important unit of administration in the Indian sub-continent.

The British Parliament was the first legislature with respect of India in modern times, they
created enactments and gave substance to the district head of administration, known variously
as the Collector (in respect of revenue administration), the District Magistrate (in respect of
administration of criminal justice) or the Deputy Commissioner (in respect of General
Administration and special functions / powers under local tenancy laws).

Hence this system continued and since independence, the District in India is acting as the
cutting edge of administration. The District administration is headed by the District
Collector/Deputy Commissioner, drawn from IAS and he is responsible among others for the
general control and direction of the police.

Until the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution, the governance structure of India
was two-tiered comprising the Union Government and the State Governments. At the district
level, apart from discharging the responsibilities cast by specific enactments, the Collectors
performed such administrative tasks as were assigned to them by the State governments.
After independence, the single greatest accretion to the responsibilities of the district
administrator came through expansion of rural development programs. As the number of
activities, institutions and departments involved in rural development increased, the
coordinating and synthesizing role of the Collector in the development efforts of the
government assumed greater importance.

Prevailing Administrative Structure

The overall administrative structure presently prevailing at the district and sub-district levels
in the country consists of the following three components-

a) Administration of regulatory functions under the leadership of the Collector and District
Magistrate, such as law and order, land revenue / reforms, excise, registration, treasury, civil
supplies and social welfare.

b) District / Sub-district level offices of the line departments of the State Government and
their agencies, such as PWD, irrigation, health, industries etc.

c) Local bodies (Panchayati Raj Institutions and Municipal bodies) which, after the 73rd and
74th amendment of the Constitution, have become the third tier of government.

With the constitutionally mandated establishment of Panchayati Raj Institutions and

Municipal bodies, it has become necessary to re-examine and re-define the role of the district
administration. It is imperative that the devolution of decision making to local levels should
face no impediments. It is equally imperative that the unique administrative experience,
expertise and credibility of the office of the District Collector built up over a period of two
hundred years are properly utilized.

Role of the Collector in District Administration

The post of District Collector has been the most important feature of field administration in
India for the last two hundred years. Before Independence, when the economy was primarily
agrarian, the Collector as head of the land revenue, administration also enjoying wide powers
under criminal laws. He was considered as the ultimate guardian figure - responsible for the
well-being of residents in his jurisdiction - the representative of the British Empire, capable
of doing anything and everything. In the post-Independence era, when the economy
diversified, and the pace of industrialization and growth of tertiary activities picked up, other
functionaries too gained in importance. But, even now, in most parts of the country,
excepting metropolitan/mega cities, the Collector is the most recognized face of the
administration; he is considered to be the principal representative of the government at the
district level, who could be approached to solve virtually all problems ranging from land
disputes, to scarcity of essential commodities, to inadequacy of relief in times of crisis, to
community disputes and even to issues of family discords.

Functions of Collector

Main functions of the Collector include:

The DC has three major functions namely revenue, magisterial and developmental. Apart
from these major functions, a large number of miscellaneous functions are also entrusted to
him by State and Central governments like conduct of elections, dealing with calamities,
supervising local government institutions, etc. Collector was mainly entrusted with revenue
administration, however, since Independence with the considerable change in the nature of
the state from police rule to development and welfare, his role have shown a shift in the
direction of development as he implements all the development programs. Since he is a
Generalist, he coordinates the activities of overall departments under Specialists like
Engineers, doctors, etc. by holding meetings among them at periodic intervals. He is also
acting as the Friend, Philosopher and Guide of the Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Need of Reforms in District Administration

as stated above, the widespread functions of the District Collector without well-defined roles
result in lack of clarity and diffusion of the Collector’s responsibilities. Also, after the
establishment of PRIs / ULBs as the third tier of government, the Administrative Reform
Commission (ARC) is of the view that there is need to redefine the role and responsibilities
of the Collector in a clear manner because the office of the collector and its widespread and
vaguely defined functions are affecting the followings-

a) Union-State and Local relations: One must take note that the District Collector is a
Union/Central officer and it has been systemized in such a manner so that the DC functions in
a neutral and unbiased manner, without any fear, regarding his/her duties and responsibilities,
and implementation of welfare/development activities of both the Centre and the state in the
respective district he/she has been assigned to, but he has to eventually proceed from the
states to the Centre in his career graph, he has to first prove his mettle at the state level, and at
this level he works under the supervision of the state government and reports to them
regarding discharge of his functions. Secondly, coordination between Centre-State is
important for proper supervision of implementation of these schemes and programs to
achieve the welfare policies. However, there are issues plaguing this system.

b) Imperatives of development management: The term development management is used

in the sense of achievement and objectives with optimum use of limited resources in
manpower, finance, material, time and also active contribution to the clarification and
reformation of policies and objectives. India specifically needs to shift its focus from
development administration to a more efficient development management perspective and
practice in order to remain in the League of Nations competing for implementation of
International development programs. For this many courses as well as programs are being
rolled out by the country's education system as well as sponsored by the international
organizations. Also, there should be a lot more emphasis on re-training of administrators in
service to develop these management skills and become more efficient to achieve these goals
and objectives.

c) Law and order administration: Law and order (Judiciary, Police, etc.) administration is
one of the most important function performed by the Government. In fact, the survival of
administration depends upon maintenance of law and order in a country. Unfortunately, in
view of the prevailing atmosphere of violence in the country, attention to law and order is
called for, but the sad part is that this is being neglected in favor of development
administration.

Therefore, it is imperative that law and order is given adequate attention and it is built up
both on the infrastructural as well as intelligence and implementation level and its grievances
and issues sorted out if we want a sound welfare state where development and law and order
go hand in hand otherwise development will be stalled.

d) District administration and democratic decentralization: Democratic decentralization

here is used in reference to the 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts of 1992 that set up rural and
urban local government bodies, viz. Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Municipalities,
respectively. The PRIs were set up to move decision making centers closer to the people by
transferring the powers of decision making from higher authorities to them, all development
schemes and its funds to be channelized through them, inculcating leadership qualities among
the rural masses, encouraging people's participation in planning and policy making, etc.
However the ground realities are:

i) Bureaucratic resistance to delegation of power to PRIs.

ii) Vested interests of higher officials and middlemen take over in between.

iii) Elitist behavior and biasness among the bureaucrats and government officials.

iv) No incentive to the DC in development activities.

However, there has been constant debate as to whether the District Collector who represents
the Centre and states be a part of this or he should simply supervise as the minds of the rural
people are constantly suspicious towards them. This causes a lot of problems in effective
administration and implementation of programs. Another aspect to this debate is that with so
much of responsibility, the DC will be distracted from his other major functions like law and
order, etc.

Recommendations

i) Role of District Collector:

a) There is need to realign the functions of the Deputy Commissioners/ District Collector so
that he concentrates on the core functions such as land and revenue Administration,
maintenance of law and order, disaster management, public distribution and civil supplies,
excise, elections, transport, census, protocol, general administration, treasury management
and Coordination with various agencies/ departments.

b) A well-defined set of exclusive activities both statutory as well as non-statutory as a

functionary of the State Government should be added in his job profile.

c) His job profile should also include the general work of coordination with various
departments / agencies of the State and the Union Governments at the district level and

ii) Modernizing the Office of the District Collector:

a) Grievance & Public Feedback Cell-Grievance redressal of citizens and implementation of
citizen charters should be an integral part of the Collector’s office.

b) Management Information Systems / IT tools /E-Governance for effective monitoring and

evaluation of programmer/projects which are directly under the charge of the Collector, there
needs to be computerized/MIS attached to his office.

c) A Vigilance Cell should be there.

d) Tours Inspection Notes and Institutional Memory.

e) Civil Society & Media Cell should be there.

iii) Functional and Structural Reform:

a) Formation of Institutions of Local Governance at the District Level.

b) Each district should have a District Council comprising of representatives of both rural and
urban bodies.

c) The District Collector should have a dual role in this government structure. He should
work as the Chief Officer of the District Council and should be fully accountable to the
District Council on all local matters.

d) The District Officer would also be fully accountable to the State Government on all
regulatory/other matters not delegated to the District Government.

iv) Other Reforms:

a) There is need to strengthen the compliance machinery at the district level to enforce
provisions of the RTI Act and to reduce the element of delay and subjectivity in the
functioning of the lower level formations of the government. This should be done by creating
a special RTI Cell in the office of the Collector.

b) Officers may be posted as District Magistrates early in their career, but in complex and
problem-prone districts an IAS officer should be posted as DM only on completion of 10-12
years of service.

c) Steps should be taken to ensure that the Collector plays an effective coordination role in
activities and programs of other departments at the district level.

Although there is a debate going on that whether we need office of district collector or not, it
plays a vital role in the district administration as the bridge between union-state and local
government. Therefore there is no question of removing the post of district collector. There
are some flaws in the district administration system but reiterating the recommendations on
the issues of personnel management, performance and outcome evaluation, effective citizen
centric administration, use of information technology, process re-engineering etc. made
above, it is believed that if these recommendations are expeditiously implemented where
applicable to the district administration would make India developed with bottom up
approach and better outcome.

DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES (DRDA)

District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)

The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) has traditionally been the principal organ
at the District level to oversee the implementation of different anti- poverty programs. Since
its inception, the administrative costs of the DRDAs were met by way of setting apart a share
of the allocations for each programmer. However, of late, the number of the programs had
increased and while some of the programs provided for administrative costs of the DRDAs,
others did not. There was no uniformity among the different programs with reference to
administrative costs. Keeping in view the need for an effective agency at the district level to
coordinate the antipoverty effort, a new Centrally Sponsored Scheme for strengthening the
DRDAs has been introduced with effect from 1st April 1999. Accordingly, the administrative
costs are met by providing separate budget provisions. This scheme which is funded on a
75:25 basis between Centre and States, aims at strengthening and professional sing the
DRDAs. The funding ratio in respect of NE States has been revised to 90:10 with effect from
the financial year 2008-2009.

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

(DRDA)

If effective programmer design is critical to successful implementation of rural development

programs, so is an effective delivery agency. None of the anti- poverty programs can have
impact unless they are implemented with clarity of purpose and a commitment to the task. It
is here that the DRDAs play a critical role. The DRDAs are not the implementing agencies,
but can be very effective in enhancing the quality of implementation through overseeing the
implementation of different programs and ensuring that necessary linkages are provided. To
this extent the DRDAs are a supporting and a facilitating organization and needs to play a
very effective role as a catalyst in development process.

The District Rural Development Agency is visualized as a specialized and a professional

agency capable of managing the anti-poverty programs of the Ministry of Rural Development
on the one hand and to effectively relate these to the overall effort of poverty eradication in
the District. In other words, while the DRDA will continue to watch over the
implementation of RD Program to ensure effective utilization of the funds intended for
antipoverty programs, it will need to develop a far greater understanding of the processes
necessary for poverty alleviation/eradication. It will also need to develop the capacity to build
synergies among different agencies involved for the most effective results. It will therefore
need to develop distinctive capabilities rather than perform tasks that are legitimately in the
domain of the PRIs or the line departments. The role of the DRDA will therefore be distinct
from all the other agencies, including the Zilla Parishad.

DRDAs must themselves be more professional and should be able to interact effectively with
various other agencies. They are expected to coordinate with the line departments, the
Panchayati Raj Institutions, the banks and other financial institutions, the NGOs as well as
the technical institutions, with a view to gathering the support and resources required for
poverty reduction effort in the district. It shall be their endeavor and objective to secure inter-
sectoral and inter- departmental coordination and cooperation for reducing poverty in the
district. It is their ability to coordinate and bring about a convergence of approach among
different agencies for poverty alleviation that would set them apart.

The DRDAs are expected to coordinate effectively with the Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Under no circumstances will they perform the functions of PRIs.

The DRDAs will maintain their separate identity but will function under the chairmanship of
the Chairman of the Zilla Parishad. They are expected to be a facilitating and supporting
organization to the Zilla Parishad, providing necessary executive and technical support in
respect of poverty reduction efforts. Wherever the Zilla Parishads are not in existence or are
not functional, the DRDAs would function under the Collector/District Magistrate/Deputy
Commissioner, as the case may be.

The DRDAs are expected to oversee the implementation of different anti- poverty programs
of the Ministry of Rural Development in the district. This is not to be confused with actual
implementation, which will be by the Panchayati Raj and other Institutions. The DRDAs will
monitor closely the implementation through obtaining of periodic reports as well as frequent
field visits. The purpose of the visit should be to facilitate the implementing agencies in
improving implementation process, besides ensuring that the quality of implementation of
programs is high. This would include over-seeing whether the intended beneficiaries are
receiving the benefits under the different programs.

The DRDAs shall keep the Zillah Paris had, the State and the Central Government duly
informed of the progress of the implementation of the programs through periodic reports in
the prescribed formats. Special report, as and when called for, shall be provided.

It shall be the duty of the DRDAs to oversee and ensure that the benefits specifically
earmarked for certain target groups (SC/ST, women and disabled) reach them. They shall
take all necessary steps to achieve the prescribed norms.

The DRDAs shall take necessary step to improve the awareness regarding rural development
and poverty alleviation particularly among the rural poor. This would involve issues of
poverty, the opportunities available to the rural poor and generally infusing a sense of
confidence in their ability to overcome poverty. It would also involve sensitizing the different
functionaries in the district to the different aspects of poverty and poverty alleviation
programs.

The DRDAs will strive to promote transparency in the implementation of different

antipoverty programs. Towards this end, they shall publish periodically, the details of the
different programs and their implementation.

Keeping in view, the substantial investment that are being made in poverty alleviation
programs, the DRDAs shall ensure financial discipline in respect of the funds received by
them, whether from Central or State Governments. They shall also ensure that the accounts
are properly maintained including in respect of the funds allocated to banks or implementing
agencies in accordance with the guidelines of different programs.

Thus the role of the DRDA is in terms of planning for effective implementation of
antipoverty programs; coordinating with other agencies- Governmental, non-Governmental,
technical and financial for successful program implementation; enabling the community and
the rural poor to participate in the decision making process, overseeing the implementation to
ensure adherence to guidelines, quality, equity and efficiency; reporting to the
prescribed authorities on the implementation; and promoting transparency
indecision making and implementation.

In addition the DRDAs shall coordinate and oversee the conduct of the BPL Census and such
other surveys that are required from time to time.

The DRDAs shall also carry out / aid in carrying out action research/or evaluation studies that
are initiated by the Central/State Governments.

The DRDAs should deal only with the anti-poverty programs of the Ministry of Rural
Development. If DRDAs are to be entrusted with programs of other ministries or those of the
State governments, it should be ensured that these have a definite anti-poverty focus.
Entrusting of any program to the DRDAs, other than anti-poverty programs of the Ministry,
be it of any other Ministry of Government of India or the respective State Government will
have to be done with the approval of the Secretary, Rural Development of the respective
State(s), who should examine such request in consultation with the Ministry of Rural
Development, Government of India. In such cases, it must be ensured that adequate provision
is made for requisite staffing needed for proper implementation of the program.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE DRDAs

Each district will have its own District Rural Development Agency. Ordinarily it would be a
society registered under a Societies Registration Act. In respect of such states where DRDA
does not have a separate identity a separate cell should be created in Zilla Parishad which
maintains a separate identity and separate accounts, so that the accounts are capable of being
audited separately. This Cell should be directly under the charge of CEO or alternatively an
officer who has the qualifications to be a Project Director. The accounts of DRDAs should
under no circumstances be merged or amalgamated with those of the Zilla Parishads.
In order to be effective, the DRDA must have an appropriate staffing structure as well as
suitable personnel policy. Keeping in view the role and functions of the DRDA listed in the
previous chapter, the staffing structure of DRDA must include positions for Planning for
poverty alleviation, Project formulation, Social organisation and Capacity building, Gender
concerns, Engineering supervision and Quality control, Project monitoring, Accountancy and
Audit functions as well as Evaluation and Impact studies. An indicative staffing structure is
given in Annexure and is also detailed below. The State Government may modify the
structure suitably, but without altering the basic design, to take care of the needs of individual
districts keeping in view their size as well as specificity. However, this will also be subject to
the overall ceiling of administrative costs admissible to the DR DAs in the State. By and
large the staff appointed should be dedicated to DRDA-related works and should not be
frequently transferred. The Staffing structure will be as follows :

PROJECT DIRECTOR

i) Each DRDA should be headed by a Project Director, who should be of the rank of
an Additional District Magistrate. The Project Director should preferably be a
senior scale officer of the All India Services or a senior officer of the State
Service, eligible for appointment to the All India Services. He would be in overall
charge of the activities of the DRDA and responsible for interaction with the
District/State administration as well as with the Government of India. The PD
should be exclusively for the DRDA work.
ii) In some States, such as Maharashtra, the CEO of the Zilla Parishad is the
Chairman of the Zilla Parishad. Government of India have suggested to all the
State government that the chairman, Zilla Parishad should be the chairman of the
governing body of the DRDA. In the light of this, in such states, the C EO of the
Zilla parishad could also be designated as the Project Director of the DRDA.
iii) Each DRDA should have the following wings :
a. Self- employment Wing;
b. Women’s Wing;
c. Wage employment Wing;
d. Engineering Wing
e. Accounts Wing;
f. Monitoring and Evaluation Wing; and
g. General Administration Wing

SELF-EMPLOYMENT WING

i) The self-employment Wing, shall be headed by a Project Officer and should have APOs in
the field of planning, social mobilisation, credit and Technology. The Project officer may be
specifically responsible for any of these four functions. The APO (Planning) would look after
the activity clusters, district/block/village group plans, guiding the BDOs and others in plan
preparation, planning for infrastructure including marketing infrastructure. He would
coordinate with the district officers, the banks as well as other institutions in the district. The
APO (Social Mobilisation) would look after group formation, capacity building, monitoring
of groups, choice of activities for groups, release of revolving funds and coordination.
The APO (Credit), who should be from the commercial banking sector, would coordinate
with the banks in all matters relating to credit, including the interface between the bankers
and the beneficiaries/beneficiary groups, loan disbursements as well as loan recovery. The
APO (Technology) would look after issues concerning Technology upgradation as well as
transfer of technology.

ii) The DRDAs would be drawing up projects for specific activities under the Self-
employment programs. It would be necessary to have suitable experts to oversee the
successful implementation of such projects. As part of the overall program management, the
DRDAs may take outside experts on a consultancy basis. Secretary, Rural Development of
each state should develop guidelines for selection of consultants so as to avoid any wrong use
of such provisions and to see that only those who have a proven practical expertise are
engaged. Such experts to be engaged on project specific basis will function under the overall
control and supervision of the Project Officer, self-employment programs.

WOMEN’S WING

In order to ensure that women receive adequate attention in all the anti-poverty programs, a
Women’s Cell should be set up in each DRDA. This Cell would establish necessary synergy
with Departments such as Women & Child Development, Education and health Departments
to ensure that women not only receive their due share in the antipoverty programs but are also
able to receive benefits of other programs. The Women’s wing will be headed by an Asst.
Project officer, who will function under the overall co-ordination of the Project Officer of the
self-employment wing.

WAGE EMPLOYMENT WING

The Central concern of the DRDA in the wage-employment programs should relate to
planning, monitoring and vigilance by a technical wing. The DRDA should not concern itself
with the actual implementation and execution of works which can be done by the line
department/engineers or the Panchayati Raj Institutions. At the same time, the magnitude of
the wage employment wing, with a Project officer assisted by a small complement of staff.

WATERSHED WING

A Watershed Wing will be set up in the DRDA in all such districts where IWDP/DPAP/DDP
is in operation. This wing should consist of a Project Officer, assisted by a small complement
of staff. This staff would be independent of the program support in the form of PIAs or
Watershed committees.

ENGINEERING WING

Each DRDA should have a technical wing, which should also be responsible for innovations
in design or use of materials, as well as training of the engineering personnel of the line
departments or the PRIs. This wing should be manned by an Executive Engineer assisted by
one or two Assistant/Junior Engineers.
ACCOUNT WING

i) Wherever it has not been done, the DRDAs should shift over to commercial accounting
systems from the existing government account system. They should publish an annual report
along with balance sheet. The accounts wing of the DRDA should be headed by a Sr.
Accounts Officer, either on deputation or by engaging the services of a chartered accountant.
He should be supported by an Accounts Officer each for self-employment programs and
wage employment programs duly assisted by accountants. Wherever the Watershed programs
(IWDP/DPAP/DDP) are under implementation, an additional post of Accounts Officer may
by sanctioned. For Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana, one Accoutant at the district level should
be available to monitor the progress of the program and the accounts. ii) One of the Accounts
Officers should perform the role of internal audit.

MONITORING WING

There should be a separate Monitoring and Evaluation wing headed by a Project Economist
and functioning directly under the supervision of the Project Director. Apart from monitoring
the progress of all the programs, this wing should also carry out evaluation/impact studies
regularly by independent institutions/experts including NGOs. The cost of such studies will
be met from the respective program funds. This wing should also monitor issues relevant to
poverty in the district.

ADMINISTRATION OF DRDAs

As indicated, the role of the DRDA is to perform tasks which are distinctly different from
other institutions/departments. However, the DRDAs are very much a part of the district.
They shall function accordingly.

The DRDA shall be a registered society registered under a Societies Registration Act or a
distinct cell in the Zilla Parishad having a separate identity. The chairman of the Zilla
Parishad shall be the chairman of governing body of the DRDA. The Executive and financial
functions shall however lie with CEO, Zilla Parishad/District Collector who shall be
designated as the Chief Executive Officer or Executive Director. It shall be his responsibility
to ensure that the administration of DRDA and the programs are conducted in accordance
with the guidelines. Wherever the Zilla Parishads are not in existence or are not functional,
the DRDAs would function under the Collector/District Magistrate/Deputy Commissioner of
the District, as the case may be.

The administration of the DRDA shall be carried out by a governing body. The Governing
Body of the DRDA will provide policy directions, approve the annual plan and also review
and monitor the implementation of the plan, including the different programs. They shall give
such directions to the DRDA as may be necessary from time to time. The Governing Body of
the DRDA will meet once in a quarter.

The composition of the governing body shall be as follows :

1. Chairman of Zilla Parishad - Chairman;

2. All MPs and MLAs and MLCs of the District;

3. 1/3rd of Panchayat Samiti Chairpersons to be nominated by rotation in alphabetical order

for a tenure of one year, one of whom must belong to SC/ST and another a woman;

4. CEO of Zilla Parishad/District Collector - Chief Executive Officer/ Executive Director;

5. Head of the Central Cooperative Bank of the District;

6. Chairman, Regional Rural Bank;

7. District Lead Bank Officer;

8. Representative of the Reserve Bank of India at district level.

9. NABARD representative at district level.

10. General Manager, DIC;

11. Representative of KVIB;

12. District Officer, in charge of Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes Welfare;

13. District Women & Child Welfare officer;

14. District officer dealing with welfare of the disabled;

15. One representative from technical institutions;

16. Two representatives of NGOs;

17. Two representatives of the weaker sections, one of whom may be drawn from SCs and
STs;

18. One representative of rural women;

19. Project Director, DRDA

- Member Secretary Wherever the Zilla Parishads are not in existence, the State Governments
may nominate elected members of the State Legislature from the concerned districts to act as
Chairman of the Governing Bodies of the DRDAs.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (EC)

All executive and financial powers of the DRDA shall be exercised by the executive
committee as per a scheme of delegation of financial and executive powers to be determined
by each State/UT Government and this Committee will be fully accountable in all matters of
DRDA to the governing body as well as to the Government. The Executive Committee of
DRDA shall be headed by the Chief Executive Officer/Executive Director and shall consist
of all the District level officers and any other officer deemed necessary for planning and
implementation of the anti-poverty programs. The Project Director DRDA will be the
Member- Secretary of the E C. The Executive Committee will meet at least once in a month.

FINANCIAL PROCEDURES

The scheme of ‘DRDA Administration’ shall be a centrally sponsored scheme. The funds
required under this program shall be shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of
75:25 Funds will be released directly to the DRDAs, in accordance with the guidelines under
this program. The funding ratio in respect of NE States has been revised to 90:10 with effect
from the financial year 2008- 2009.

The Centre will release funds in two installments.

RELEASE OF FIRST INSTALMENT

i) The release of first installment can be made without any formal request if the second
installment in the previous year had been released without any condition. If latter installment
was not released at all or was released with some conditions, formal requests for release of
first installment are required from the DRDAs after the conditions have been fulfilled/reasons
for non-release of the second installment have been met. For the first year i.e./1999-2000 all
the DRDAs will be released first installment on an adhoc basis. ii) The release of the first
installment should ordinarily be completed by the end of the second month of the financial
year.

RELEASE OF SECOND INSTALMENT

i) The quantum of the second installment shall be subject to actual requirement within the
overall ceiling. The second installment of Central funds shall be released on the request of the
DRDAs in the prescribed proforma on fulfillment of the following conditions :

1) Budget provision for the current year may be indicated by the State Government. The
Central release will not exceed it proportionately.

2) The State Government should have released its contribution during the previous year.
Deficiency in release of its share will be deducted from the second installment. Also the
contribution of the State Government for the first current year should have been released.

3) Available funds including carry forward funds should have been utilized at least to 60%

4) The opening balance of the DRDAs should not exceed 10% of the allocation of the year in
which funds are being released. In case, the opening balance exceeds this limit, the Central
Share of the amount by which it exceeds this limit will be deducted at the time of release of
second installment.

5) Audit reports, utilization certificates for the previous year should be furnished. This will
not be required in the first year i.e., 1999-2000. 6) Any other terms and conditions imposed at
the time of the last release should have been met. ii) The DRDA shall maintain the fund
under the head. ‘DRDA administration’, in a separate bank account in any of the nationalized
bank. Interest earned on the funds will necessarily be used only for admissible items of
expenditure under DRDA administration. They shall not be used for any program funding or
non-admissible items of expenditure, such as construction of building and purchase of
vehicles.

MAINTENANCE OF ACCOUNTS

i) Principles Separate account shall be maintained of this scheme and each other scheme
under which the DRDA receives funds. Such maintenance of accounts is governed by the
principles that the expenditure incurred is not repugnant to the objective of the scheme and is
made, in accordance with the prescribed procedures. DRDA accounts are to be maintained on
double entry system. The accounting procedure for DRDAs has been described in detail in
the Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development Publication entitled “Revised
Accounting Procedure for District Rural Development Agencies/ Societies’, 1984 and
subsequent instructions issued/to be issued from time to time. Internal Audit Cells should be
specifically charged with the responsibility of overseeing and the observance of these
principles. One of the Accounts Officers should perform the role of internal audit.

AUDIT OF THE ACCOUNTS

i) The Project Director should cause the annual accounts of the DRDA to be
prepared by a date not later than 30th June comprising Receipt and Payment
Account, Income and Expenditure Account and Balance Sheet. After approval by
the Governing Body, he shall have the accounts audited by the Chartered
Accountant or any other auditor appointed for the purpose. A copy of such audit
report (duly signed by auditor) along with the annual statement of accounts
certified by the auditor and the Chairman of the DRDA thereon should be
furnished simultaneously to Government of India and the State Government not
later than 30th September.
ii) The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has the right to conduct the audit of
the accounts of the society and for this purpose shall have the right of access to the
books of accounts and other relevant records of the DRDA. For this purpose a
copy of the annual accounts along with the audit report and the comments of the
DRDA thereon shall be sent to the audit office nominated by CAG.
iii) The account of the DRDA shall also be open to inspection by such individual or
parties as are nominated to carry out such inspections by the Ministry of Rural
Development at the State level or at the level of the Government of India. All
Officers of and above the level of Under Secretary in the Ministry of Rural
Development, Government of India and such officer as may be authorized by the
State Government may also inspect the accounts.
iv) A Statement showing the schedule of Fixed Assets held by the DRDA/ Agency at
the end of the financial year should be sent to the State Government and
Government of India with the form prescribed along with the annual statement of
accounts. No depreciation should be charged and value of assets to be shown at
the original cost in the accounts.
 v) All the Agencies should send a utilization certificate to the Government of India
(Department of Rural Development) in the prescribed proforma along with annual
statement of accounts. The utilization certificate must be prepared strictly on the
basis of the Receipts and Payment Accounts and opening/closing balance in both
Receipts and Payment Accounts Utilization Certificate must also tally.
vi) The above provisions are in addition to the statutory requirements under relevant
law under which the DRDAs are registered.

FIELD LEVEL AGENCIES

Field service agency generally refers to any one of the following USDA agencies that
administer programs and provide services to farmers and other rural residents through an
extensive network of state and local offices: the Farm Service Agency, Risk Management
Agency, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Rural Housing Service, Rural Business-
Cooperative Service, and Rural Utilities Service. The Foreign Agricultural Service, because
of its overseas offices, also is considered a field service agency under the Administrative
Convergence plan being developed by USDA in 1998. Although other USDA agencies and
mission areas also have field offices nationwide and overseas, they generally are not
considered field service agencies by the Department.

Heeding recent calls for more studies on micro-practices and institutional change, this study
reports a collaborative case study to elucidate the micro-practices and legitimating strategies
that make field-level institutions a part of organizations. Building on institutional theories and
using Enterprise Architecture (EA) as an example of field-level institutions, the study
explores how two distinct organizations adopted EA, the impediments they experienced, and
the strategies used to make EA an acceptable part of organizations. The findings suggest
three change mechanisms that enact field-level institutions in organizations: the creation of
shared spaces for knowledge exchange between organization members, the importance of
role shifting within shared spaces to effectively engage with other organization members, and
the need for lexical shifts in communication to better resonate with users. The findings
deepen our understanding of institutional elements that impede change, as well as the
legitimating strategies that enact field-level institutions.