Unit 3

18MAB302T - DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
E. Suresh
Dept. of Mathematics
SRMIST
August 25, 2021
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Proposition
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Proposition
A declarative sentence, which is true or false but not
both is called proposition or statement.
Sentences which are exclamatory, interrogative or
imperative in nature are not propositions
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Proposition
Examples
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Proposition
Examples
New Delhi is capital of India
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Proposition
Examples
How beautiful is Rose?
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Proposition
Examples
2+2=3
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Proposition
Examples
2+2=3
What time is it?
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Proposition
Examples
2+2=3
What time is it?
X+Y=Z
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Proposition
Examples
2+2=3
What time is it?
X+Y=Z
Take a cup of coffee
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In the above statements (2), (4) and (6) are obviously not
proposition as they are not declarative in nature whereas
(1) and (3) are propositions. Also (5) is not Proposition,
since it is neither true nor false, as the value of X, Y and Z
are not assigned
Truth Value
If a proposition is true we say that truth value of the
proposition is true and denoted by T
If a proposition is false then the truth value issaid to be
false and denoted by F
Note : Propositions are represented by P, Q, R, S,....
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Atomic proposition
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Atomic proposition
A proposition consisting of only a single propositional
variable or a single propositional constant, is called an
atomic proposition or simply proposition.
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Atomic proposition
Compound Proposition
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Atomic proposition
Compound Proposition
A proposition obtained from the combinations of two or
more propositions by means of logical operators or
connectivesis referred as molecular or compound
proposition.
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Connectives
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Connectives
The word and phrases used to form compound
propositions are called connectives.
The following symbols are used to represent connectives
Symbol Connective Word Name

¬ not Negation
∧ and Conjunction
∨ or Disjunction
→ if...then... Implication or Conditional
↔ if and only if Bi-conditional
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Negation
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Negation
If P is any proposition then negation of P, denoted by ¬P
which is read as not P, is a proposition whose truth value
is false when P is true and true when P is false.
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Negation
Example : Consider the statement
Let P : Paris is in France
Then the negation of P is the statement.
¬P : It is not the case that Paris is in France
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Negation
Example : Consider the statement
Let P : Paris is in France
Then the negation of P is the statement.
¬P : It is not the case that Paris is in France
Normally it is written as
¬P : Paris is not in France Truth Table:
P ¬P
T F
F T
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1 Find the negation of the proposition ”All students are
intelligent”
Solution : Let P : All students are intelligent .
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intelligent”
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intelligent”
Then negation of P is given as
¬P : It is not the case that all students are intelligent
[OR]
¬P : Some students are not intelligent
[OR]
¬P : There exist a student who is not intelligent
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1 Find the negation of the proposition ”No student is
intelligent”
Solution : Let Q : No student is intelligent
Then the negation of Q is given as
¬Q : Some students are intelligent
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Conjunction
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Conjunction
If P and Q are two propositions then conjunction of P and
Q is the compound statement, denoted by P∧Q and read
as ”P and Q ”.
The truth value of P∧Q is true when both P and Q are
true, otherwise it is false.
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Conjunction
If P and Q are two propositions then conjunction of P and
Q is the compound statement, denoted by P∧Q and read
as ”P and Q ”.
The truth value of P∧Q is true when both P and Q are
true, otherwise it is false.
Truth table for conjunction of P and Q is given as
P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
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Example:
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Example:
Form the conjunction of P and Q for each of the following
(i) P :Ram is healthy ; Q : He has Blue Eyes
(ii) P : It is Cold; Q : It is raining
(iii) P : 5 x + 6 = 26; Q : x > 3
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Example:
Form the conjunction of P and Q for each of the following
(i) P :Ram is healthy ; Q : He has Blue Eyes
(iii) P : 5 x + 6 = 26; Q : x > 3
Solution : Conjunction of P and Q is P∧Q
(i) P∧Q : Ram is healthy and he has blue eyes
(ii) P∧Q : It is cold and raining
(iii) P∧Q : 5 x + 6 = 26 and x > 3
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Disjunction
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Disjunction
If P and Q are two propositions then disjunction of P and
Q is the compound statement, denoted by P ∨ Qand read
as ”P or Q”
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Disjunction
If P and Q are two propositions then disjunction of P and
Q is the compound statement, denoted by P ∨ Qand read
as ”P or Q”
Truth table for disjunction of P and Q is given as
P Q P∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
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Example:
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Example:
Form the disjunction of P and Q for each of the following
(i) P :Arjun will go to Delhi; Q : Arjun will go to Chennai
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Example:
Form the disjunction of P and Q for each of the following
(i) P :Arjun will go to Delhi; Q : Arjun will go to Chennai
Solution : Disjunction of P and Q is P∨Q
(i) P∨Q : Arjun will go to Delhi or Chennai
(ii) P∨Q : It is cold or raining
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Problems
If P : It is cold and Q : It is raining

Write simple verbal sentence which describes each of the
following statements
(i) ¬P (ii) P ∧ Q (iii) P ∨ Q (iv) P ∨ ¬Q
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Problems
If P : It is cold and Q : It is raining

Write simple verbal sentence which describes each of the
following statements
(i) ¬P (ii) P ∧ Q (iii) P ∨ Q (iv) P ∨ ¬Q
Solution :
(i) ¬P : It is not cold
(ii) P ∧ Q : It is cold and raining
(iii) P ∨ Q : It is cold or raining
(iv) P ∨ ¬Q : It is cold or it is not raining
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Conditional Proposition
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If P and Q are two propositions, the compound
proposition ”if P then Q”, denoted by P → Q , is called a
conditional proposition or implication.
The proposition P is called antecedent or hypothesis and
the proposition Q is called the consequent or conclusion.
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proposition ”if P then Q”, denoted by P → Q , is called a
conditional proposition or implication.
The proposition P is called antecedent or hypothesis and
the proposition Q is called the consequent or conclusion.
Truth table :
P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
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The alternative terminologies used to express P → Q are
the following
(i) P implies Q
(ii) P only if Q
(iii) Q if P or Q when P
(iv) Q follows from P
(v) P is sufficient for Q
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Example :
Form the conditional statement of P and Q for each of the
following
(i) P : Tomorrow is Sunday ; Q : Today is Saturday
(ii) P : It rains; Q : I will carry an umbrella
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Example :
Form the conditional statement of P and Q for each of the
following
(i) P : Tomorrow is Sunday ; Q : Today is Saturday
(ii) P : It rains; Q : I will carry an umbrella
Solution : Conditional statement of P and Q is P → Q
(i) P → Q : If tomorrow is Sunday then today is Saturday
(ii) P → Q : If it rains then I will carry an umbrella
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Bi-Conditional Proposition
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proposition ”P if and only if Q” denoted by P ↔ Q is
called a bi-conditional proposition.
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proposition ”P if and only if Q” denoted by P ↔ Q is
called a bi-conditional proposition.
Truth table :
P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
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Problem 1
Construct truth table for each of the following compound
proposition
(i) P ∧ (¬Q ∨ Q)
(ii) ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
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Problem 1
Construct truth table for each of the following compound
proposition
(i) P ∧ (¬Q ∨ Q)
(ii) ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
Solution : (i) Truth table for P ∧ (¬Q ∨ Q)
P Q ¬Q ¬Q ∨ Q P ∧ (¬Q ∨ Q)
T T F T T
T F T T T
F T F T F
F F T T F
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Solution : (ii) Truth table for ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
Let A ≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
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Solution : (ii) Truth table for ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
Let A ≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
P Q ¬P ¬Q P∨ Q ¬ ( P∨ Q) (¬ P ∧¬ Q) A
T T F F T F F F
T F F T T F F F
F T T F T F F F
F F T T F T T T
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Problem 2
Construct truth table for

(i) (P ∨ ¬Q) → P
(ii) (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P
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Problem 2

(i) (P ∨ ¬Q) → P
(ii) (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P
Solution : (i) Truth table for (P ∨ ¬Q) → P
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Problem 2

(i) (P ∨ ¬Q) → P
(ii) (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P
Solution : (i) Truth table for (P ∨ ¬Q) → P
P Q ¬Q P ∨ ¬Q (P ∨ ¬Q) → P
T T F T T
T F T T T
F T F F T
F F T T F
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Solution : (ii) Truth table for (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P Let A
≡ (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P
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Solution : (ii) Truth table for (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P Let A
≡ (¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R) → ¬P
P Q R ¬P P ∧ Q ¬(P ∧ Q) ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R A
T T T F T F T F
T T F F T F F T
T F T F F T T F
T F F F F T T F
F T T T F T T T
F T F T F T T T
F F T T F T T T
F F F T F T T T
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Problem 3
(¬(P ∨ (Q ∧ R)) ↔ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R))
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Problem 3
(¬(P ∨ (Q ∧ R)) ↔ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R))
Solution : Let A ≡ (P ∨ (Q ∧ R)) ; B ≡ (¬(P ∨ (Q ∧ R))
and C ≡ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R))
Truth table is
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Problem 3
(¬(P ∨ (Q ∧ R)) ↔ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R))
Solution : Let A ≡ (P ∨ (Q ∧ R)) ; B ≡ (¬(P ∨ (Q ∧ R))
and C ≡ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R))
Truth table is
P Q R Q∧R A B P∨Q P → R C B ↔ C
T T T T T F T T T F
T T F F T F T F F T
T F T F T F T T T F
T F F F T F T F F T
F T T T T F T T T F
F T F F F T
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T
Unit - 1
T T 22/180
T
Problem 4
Problem-4 : Construct truth table for
(i) (P ∨ Q) → R
(ii) (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
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Problem 4
Problem-4 : Construct truth table for
(i) (P ∨ Q) → R
(ii) (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
Solution :(i) Truth table for (P ∨ Q) → R is
P Q R (P ∨ Q) (P ∨ Q) → R
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T T T
T F F T F
F T T T T
F T F T F
F F T F
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Solution :(ii) Truth table for (P → R) ∧ (Q → R) is
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Solution :(ii) Truth table for (P → R) ∧ (Q → R) is
P Q R (P → Q) (Q → R) (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
T T T T T T
T T F F F F
T F T T T T
T F F F T F
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
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Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse
Let P → Q be conditional statement, then
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(i) Converse of P → Q is Q → P
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(ii) Contrapositive of P → Q is ¬Q → ¬P
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(ii) Contrapositive of P → Q is ¬Q → ¬P
(iii) Inverse of P → Q is ¬P → ¬Q
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Example
Find Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse for the
following conditional statement
(i) If it rains then the crops will grow
(ii) If Raja is a poet, then he is poor
(iii) Only if Ram studies well, he pass the test
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Example
Solution : (i) Let P : It rains and Q : The crops will grow
So, P → Q : If it rains then the crops will grow
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Example
Now converse Q → P : If the crops grow then there is rain
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Example
Contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P : If the crops do not grow then
there is no rain
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Example
Contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P : If the crops do not grow then
there is no rain
Inverse ¬P → ¬Q : If it does not rain then the crops will
not grow
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Solution : (ii) Let P : Raja is a poet and Q : Raja is poor
So, P → Q : If Raja is a poet then he is poor
Now converse Q → P : If Raja is poor then he is a poet
Contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P : If Raja is not poor then he is
not a poet
Inverse ¬P → ¬Q : If Raja is not a poet then he is not poor
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Solution : (ii) Let P : Raja is a poet and Q : Raja is poor
So, P → Q : If Raja is a poet then he is poor
Now converse Q → P : If Raja is poor then he is a poet
Contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P : If Raja is not poor then he is
not a poet
Inverse ¬P → ¬Q : If Raja is not a poet then he is not poor
Solution : (iii) Let P : Ram pass the test and Q : Ram
studies well
So, P → Q : If Ram pass the test then he studies well
Now converse Q → P : If Ram studies well then he pass
the test
Contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P : If Ram does not study well
then he will not pass the test
Inverse ¬P → ¬Q 18MAB302T-
: If Ram DM
does not pass the test27/180
Unit - 1
then he
Tautology
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Tautology
A statement that is true for all possible values of its
propositional variables is called a tautology or universely
valid formula or a logical truth
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Tautology
Contradiction
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Tautology
Contradiction
A statement that is always false is called a contradiction
or absurdity
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Tautology
Contradiction
A statement that is always false is called a contradiction
or absurdity
Note : If a proposition is neither a tautology nor a

contradiction, it is called a contingency
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Equivalences of Propositions
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Two compound propositions A and B are said to be

logically equivalent or simply equivalent, if they have
identical truth values
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i.e., if the truth value of A is equal to the truth value of B
for every one of the 2n possible sets of truth values
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i.e., if the truth value of A is equal to the truth value of B
for every one of the 2n possible sets of truth values
It is denoted as A ≡ B
Note : A ≡ B if and only if A ↔ B is a tautology
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Tautological Implications
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Tautological Implications
A compound proposition A is said to tautologically imply

or simply imply the compound proposition B, if and only
if, A → B is a tautology.
This is denoted by A ⇒ B, read as A implies B
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Problems
1 Determine which of the following compound

proposition are tautologies and which of them are
contradiction, using truth tables
(i) (¬Q ∧ (P → Q)) → ¬P
(ii) ((P → Q) ∧ (Q → R)) → (P → R)
(iii) ¬(Q → R) ∧ R ∧ (P → Q)
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Solution :(i) Truth table for (¬Q ∧ (P → Q)) → ¬P
Let A ≡ (¬Q ∧ (P → Q)) → ¬P
P Q ¬P ¬Q P → Q ¬Q ∧ (P → Q) A
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T
∴ (¬Q ∧ (P → Q)) → ¬P is a tautology
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Solution : (ii) Truth table for
((P → Q) ∧ (Q → R)) → (P → R)
Let A ≡ ((P → Q) ∧ (Q → R)) and
B ≡ ((P → Q) ∧ (Q → R)) → (P → R) ≡ A → (P → R)
P Q R P→Q Q→R A P→R B
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
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Solution : (iii) Truth table for ¬(Q → R) ∧ R ∧ (P → Q)
Let A ≡ ¬(Q → R) ∧ R
P Q R P→Q Q→R ¬(Q → R) A A ∧ (P → Q)

T T T T T F F F
T T F T F T F F
T F T F T F F F
T F F F T F F F
F T T T T F F F
F T F T F T F F
F F T T T F F F
F F F T T F F F
∴ ¬(Q → R) ∧ R ∧ (P → Q) is a contradiction
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1 Show that the propositions P → Q and ¬P ∨ Q are
logically equivalent
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Solution : To prove that : P → Q and ¬P ∨ Q are
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It is enough to prove that (P → Q) ↔ (¬P ∨ Q) is a
tautology
P Q ¬P (P → Q) ¬P ∨ Q (P → Q) ↔ (¬P ∨ Q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
(P → Q) ↔ (¬P ∨ Q) is a tautology
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It is enough to prove that (P → Q) ↔ (¬P ∨ Q) is a
tautology
P Q ¬P (P → Q) ¬P ∨ Q (P → Q) ↔ (¬P ∨ Q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
(P → Q) ↔ (¬P ∨ Q) is a tautology
⇒ P → Q and18MAB302T-
¬P ∨ QDMare Unit
logically
-1
equivalent
35/180
IMPORTANT LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
S.No Law
1 Idempotent P∨P ≡ P P∧P ≡ P
2 Identity P∨F ≡ P P∧T ≡ P
3 Dominant P∨T ≡ T P∧F ≡ F
4 Complement P ∨ ¬P ≡ T P ∧ ¬P ≡ F
5 Commutative P∨Q ≡ Q∨P P∧Q ≡ Q∧P
6 Associative (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R) (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R)
7 Distributive P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R) P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)
8 Absorption P ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P P ∧ (P ∨ Q) ≡ P
9 De Morgans ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ ¬P ∧ ¬Q ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ ¬Q
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EQUIVALENCES INVOLVING CONDITIONAL
S.No Formula
1 P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q
2 P → Q ≡ ¬Q → ¬P
3 P∨Q ≡ P → Q
4 P ∧ Q ≡ ¬(P → ¬Q)
5 ¬(P → Q) ≡ P ∧ ¬Q
6 (P → Q) ∧ (P → R) ≡ P → (Q ∧ R)
7 (P → Q) ∨ (P → R) ≡ P → (Q ∨ R)
8 (P → R) ∧ (Q → R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
9 (P → R) ∨ (Q → R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
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EQUIVALENCES INVOLVING BI-CONDITIONAL
S.No Formula
1 P ↔ Q ≡ (P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)
2 P ↔ Q ≡ ¬P ↔ ¬Q
3 P ↔ Q ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)
4 ¬(P ↔ Q) ≡ P ↔ ¬Q
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Problems
1 Without using truth tables, prove the following

(i) (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q)) ≡ P ∧ Q
(ii) P → (Q → P) ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
(iii) ¬(P ↔ Q) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡
(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ Q)
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ((P ∧ P) ∨ Q) [By Associative]
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ Q) [By idempotent]
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ (P ∧ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ Q) [By commutative]
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ ((P ∧ Q) ∧ ¬P) ∨ ((P ∧ Q) ∧ Q) [By distributive]
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ (P ∧ Q ∧ ¬P) ∨ (P ∧ Q ∧ Q) [By commutative]
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Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ ((P ∧ ¬P) ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ (Q ∧ Q)) [By associative]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 40/180

Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ (F ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q) [By complement & idempotent]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 40/180

Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ F ∨ (P ∧ Q) [By dominant]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 40/180

Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ P∧Q [By dominant]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 40/180

Solution : (i)
LHS ≡ (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q))
≡ P∧Q [By dominant]
≡ RHS
Therefore (¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (P ∧ Q)) ≡ P ∧ Q
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 40/180
Solution :(ii) To prove : P → (Q → P) ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q → P) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q → P) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ P)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q → P) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (P ∨ ¬Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q → P) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ (¬P ∨ P) ∨ ¬Q
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q → P) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ (¬P ∨ P) ∨ ¬Q
≡ (T ) ∨ ¬Q
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

LHS ≡ P → (Q → P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q → P) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ P)
≡ ¬P ∨ (P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ (¬P ∨ P) ∨ ¬Q
≡ (T ) ∨ ¬Q
≡T —–¿ (1)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 41/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
≡ P ∨ (P → Q) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
≡ P ∨ (P → Q) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
≡ P ∨ (P → Q) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)
≡ (P ∨ ¬P) ∨ Q
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
≡ P ∨ (P → Q) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)
≡ (P ∨ ¬P) ∨ Q
≡ T∨Q
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
≡ P ∨ (P → Q) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)
≡ (P ∨ ¬P) ∨ Q
≡ T∨Q
≡T − − − −− > (2)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

RHS ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
≡ P ∨ (P → Q) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)
≡ (P ∨ ¬P) ∨ Q
≡ T∨Q
≡T − − − −− > (2)
From eqn (1) and (2), we have LHS ≡ RHS
Therefore P → (Q → P) ≡ ¬P → (P → Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 42/180

Solution : (iii)
Let A ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
B ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
C ≡ (P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ Q)
To prove : A ≡ B ≡ C
First we prove A ≡ B
i.e., to prove ¬(P ↔ Q) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 43/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
≡ ¬[((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ P)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
≡ ¬[((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ P) ∨ (Q ∧ P)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
≡ ¬[((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ P) ∨ (Q ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ F ∨ F ∨ (P ∧ Q)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
≡ ¬[((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ P) ∨ (Q ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ F ∨ F ∨ (P ∧ Q)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)] [By P ∨ F ≡ P]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
≡ ¬[((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ P) ∨ (Q ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ F ∨ F ∨ (P ∧ Q)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)] [By P ∨ F ≡ P]
≡ ¬[¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

LHS ≡ ¬(P ↔ Q)
≡ ¬[(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)]
≡ ¬[((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((¬P ∨ Q) ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ P) ∨ (Q ∧ P)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ F ∨ F ∨ (P ∧ Q)]
≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)] [By P ∨ F ≡ P]
≡ ¬[¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)]
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 44/180

Next we prove B ≡ C
i.e., to prove (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ (P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
≡ [(P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
≡ [(P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ [(F) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (F)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
≡ [(P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ [(F) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (F)]
≡ [(Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
≡ [(P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ [(F) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (F)]
≡ [(Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ (Q ∧ ¬P) ∨ (P ∧ ¬Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
≡ [(P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ [(F) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (F)]
≡ [(Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ (Q ∧ ¬P) ∨ (P ∧ ¬Q)
≡ (¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ ¬Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 45/180

LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ ¬Q)
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬P] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬Q]
≡ [(P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ [(F) ∨ (Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (F)]
≡ [(Q ∧ ¬P)] ∨ [(P ∧ ¬Q)]
≡ (Q ∧ ¬P) ∨ (P ∧ ¬Q)
≡ (¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ ¬Q)
≡ (P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ Q) ≡ RHS
Therefore A ≡ B ≡ C
Hence
¬(P ↔ Q) ≡ (P ∨ 18MAB302T-
Q) ∧ ¬(DM P∧Q ) ≡ (P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬
Unit - 1
P ∧ Q)
45/180
1 Without using truth tables, prove the following
(i) ¬P → (Q → R) ≡ Q → (P ∨ R)
(ii) P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
(iii) ¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
(iv) (P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
(v) (P ∧ (P ↔ Q)) → Q ≡ T
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 46/180

Solution : (i) To prove : ¬P → (Q → R) ≡ Q → (P ∨ R)
LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ P ∨ R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ P ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ (P ∨ R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ P ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ (P ∨ R)
≡ Q → (P ∨ R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

LHS ≡ ¬P → (Q → R)
≡ P ∨ (Q → R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ P ∨ R
≡ ¬Q ∨ (P ∨ R)
≡ Q → (P ∨ R)
≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 47/180

Solution : (ii) To prove :
P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (¬P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (¬P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (¬P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R
≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

P → (Q → R) ≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
LHS ≡ P → (Q → R)
≡ P → (¬Q ∨ R) [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (¬P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R
≡ (P ∧ Q) → R
≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 48/180

Solution : (iii) To prove :
¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ (¬Q ∧ Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ (¬Q ∧ Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ F] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ (¬Q ∧ Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ F] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ P ∨ (P ∧ Q)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ (¬Q ∧ Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ F] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ P ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡P [By Absorption law]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

¬((¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)) ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P
LHS ≡ ¬[(¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ ¬[¬P ∧ (Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ ¬(Q ∨ ¬Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ (¬Q ∧ Q)] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ [P ∨ F] ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡ P ∨ (P ∧ Q)
≡P [By Absorption law]
≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 49/180

Solution : (iv) To prove :
(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ R [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ R [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ R [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ (¬P ∨ R) ∧ (¬Q ∨ R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ R [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ (¬P ∨ R) ∧ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

(P ∨ Q) → R ≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
LHS ≡ (P ∨ Q) → R
≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ R [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ R
≡ (¬P ∨ R) ∧ (¬Q ∨ R)
≡ (P → R) ∧ (Q → R)
≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 50/180

Solution : (v) To prove : (P ∧ (P ↔ Q)) → Q ≡ T
LHS ≡ (P ∧ (P ↔ Q)) → Q
≡ ¬[P ∧ (P ↔ Q)] ∨ Q [P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q]
≡ ¬[P ∧ ((P → Q) ∧ (Q → P))] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[(P ∧ (¬P ∨ Q)) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[((P ∧ ¬P) ∨ (P ∧ Q)) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[((F) ∨ (P ∧ Q)) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[(P ∧ Q) ∧ (¬Q ∨ P)] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[((P ∧ Q) ∧ ¬Q) ∨ ((P ∧ Q) ∧ P)] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[(P ∧ F) ∨ (P ∧ Q)] ∨ Q
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 51/180

≡ ¬[F ∨ (P ∧ Q)] ∨ Q
≡ ¬[P ∧ Q] ∨ Q
≡ (¬P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ Q
≡ ¬P ∨ (Q ∨ ¬Q)
≡ ¬P ∨ (T )
≡T
≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 52/180

1 Prove (¬P ∧ (¬Q ∧ R)) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ R) ≡ R
without using truth tables
Solution : To prove :
(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∧ R)) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ R) ≡ R
LHS ≡ (¬P ∧ (¬Q ∧ R)) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ R)

≡ [(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∧ R] ∨ [(Q ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ R)] [By Associ
≡ [¬(P ∨ Q) ∧ R] ∨ [(Q ∨ P) ∧ R] [By De Morg
≡ [¬(P ∨ Q) ∧ R] ∨ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ R] [By commuta
≡ [¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∨ Q)] ∧ R [By Distribu
≡ T∧R [By Compleme
≡R [By Identi
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 53/180

≡ RHS
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 54/180

Problem-4 :Prove
((P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R))) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬R)
is a tautology
Solution : To prove :
((P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R))) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬R)
is a tautology
i.e., to prove ((P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R))) ∨ (¬P ∧
¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬R) ≡ T
LHS ≡ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R))) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬

≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ ¬(Q ∧ R))] ∨ [¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ ¬(P ∨ R)]
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ (Q ∧ R))] ∨ ¬[(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)]
≡ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R))] ∨ ¬[(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)]
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 55/180
≡ [((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ Q)) ∧ (P ∨ R)] ∨ ¬[(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)]
≡ [((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)] ∨ ¬[(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)] ≡ T
Hence
((P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R))) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬R)
is a tautology
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 56/180

THEORY OF INFERENCE
Inference theory is concerned with the inferring of a

conclusion from certain hypotheses or basic assumptions,
called premises, by applying certain principles of
reasoning, called rules of Inference
Rules of inference
Rule P :
A given premise may be introduced at any step in the
derivation
Rule T :
A formula S may be introduced in a derivation, if S is
tautologically implied by one or more preceding formulas
in the derivation
Rule CP:
If a formula S can be derived from another formula R and
a set of premises, then the statement R → S can be
derived from the set of premises alone.
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 99/180

Note : If the conclusion is of the form R → S, we will take
R as an additional premise and derive S using the given
premises and R
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Inconsistent Premises :
A set of premises( or formulas ) H1 , H2 , ....Hn is said to be

inconsistent, if their conjunction implies a contradiction.
ie., if H1 ∧ H2 ∧ .... ∧ Hn ⇒ F
A set of premises is said to be consistent, if it not

inconsistent
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Indirect method of proof
Let the premises be H1 , H2 , ....Hn and conclusion be C.
In order to show that a conclusion C follows from the

premises H1 , H2 , ....Hn by this method, we assume that C
is false and include ¬C as an additional premise. If the
new set of premises is inconsistent leading to a
contradiction, then the assumption that ¬C is true does
not hold good. Hence C is true whenever H1 , H2 , ....Hn is
true. Thus C follows from H1 , H2 , ....Hn
Therefore, in order to prove H1 ∧ H2 ∧ .... ∧ Hn ⇒ C,

it is enough to prove that H1 ∧ H2 ∧ .... ∧ Hn ∧ ¬C ⇒ F
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 102/180

Rules of Inference
S.No Rules Name

1 P, Q ⇒ P Simplification
2 P, Q ⇒ Q Simplification
3 P, Q ⇒ P ∧ Q Conjunction
4 P, P → Q ⇒ Q Modus Ponens
5 ¬Q, P → Q ⇒ ¬P Modus Tollens
6 P → Q, Q → R ⇒ P → R Hypothetical Syllogism
7 P ∨ Q, ¬P ⇒ Q Disjunctive Syllogism
Note : P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q and P → Q ≡ ¬Q → ¬P
PROBLEMS
1 Show that the premises P → Q, R → ¬Q and R lead
to the conclusion ¬P
Solution : Premises are P → Q, R → ¬Q and R
Conclusion is ¬P
S.No Statement Reason

1 R Rule P
2 R → ¬Q Rule P
3 ¬Q Rule T, Modus Ponens, 1 & 2
4 P→Q Rule P
5 ¬Q → ¬P Rule T, Contra positive, 4
6 ¬P Rule T, Modus Ponens, 3,5
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2 Using rules of inference, Show that S ∨ R is
tautologically implied by P ∨ Q, P → R, Q → S
Solution : Premises are P ∨ Q, P → R, Q → S
Conclusion is S ∨ R

1 P∨Q Rule P
2 ¬P → Q Rule T, 1
3 Q→S Rule P
4 ¬P → S Rule T, HS, 2,3
5 ¬S → P Rule T, Contra positive, 4
6 P→R Rule P
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7 ¬S → R Rule T, HS,5,6
8 S∨R Rule T, 7
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3 Show that T ∧ S can be derived from the premises
P → Q, Q → ¬R, R, P ∨ (T ∧ S)
Solution: Premises are P → Q, Q → ¬R, R, P ∨ (T ∧ S)
Conclusion is T ∧ S
1 P→Q Rule P
2 Q → ¬R Rule p
3 P → ¬R Rule T, HS,1,2
4 R → ¬P Rule T, Contra positive, 3
5 R Rule P
6 ¬P Rule T, MP, 4,5
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7 P ∨ (T ∧ S) Rule P
8 ¬P → (T ∧ S) Rule T, 7
9 T∧S Rule T, MP,6,8
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4 Show that (P → Q) ∧ (R → S), (Q → T ) ∧ (S → U ),
¬(T ∧ U ) and P → R ⇒ ¬P
Solution: Premises are (P → Q) ∧ (R → S),
(Q → T ) ∧ (S → U ), ¬(T ∧ U ) and P → R
Conclusion is ¬P

1 (P → Q) ∧ (R → S) Rule P
2 P→Q Rule T, 1
3 R→S Rule T, 1
4 (Q → T ) ∧ (S → U ) Rule P
5 Q→T Rule T, 4
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6 S→U Rule T, 4
7 P→T Rule T, HS, 2, 5
8 R→U Rule T, HS, 3, 6
9 P→R Rule P
10 P→U Rule T, HS, 8, 9
11 ¬(T ∧ U ) Rule P
12 ¬T → ¬P Rule T, Contra positive, 7
13 ¬U → ¬P Rule T, Contra positive, 10
14 (¬T ∨ ¬U ) → ¬P Rule T, 11, 12
15 ¬(T ∧ U ) → ¬P Rule T, 14
16 ¬P Rule T, MP, 11, 14
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 110/180

5 Show that (A → B) ∧ (A → C), ¬(B ∧ C), (D ∨ A) ⇒
D
Solution: Premises are (A → B) ∧ (A → C), ¬(B ∧ C),
(D ∨ A)
Conclusion is D
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1 (A → B) ∧ (A → C) Rule P
2 A→B Rule T, 1
3 A→C Rule T, 1
4 A → (B ∧ C) Rule T, 2, 3
5 ¬(B ∧ C) → ¬A Rule T, Contra Positive, 4
6 ¬(B ∧ C) Rule P
7 ¬A Rule T, MP,5, 6
8 D∨A Rule P
9 ¬D → A Rule T, 8
10 ¬A → D Rule T, Contra Positive, 9
11 D Rule T, MP, 7, 10
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 112/180

6 Prove that the premises A → (B → C), D → (B ∧ ¬C)
and (A ∧ D) are inconsistent
Solution: Premises are A → (B → C), D → (B ∧ ¬C)
and (A ∧ D)
Conclusion is F

1 A∧D Rule P
2 A Rule T, 1
3 D Rule T, 1
4 A → (B → C) Rule P
5 B→C Rule T, MP, 2, 4
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 113/180

6 ¬B ∨ C Rule T,5
7 D → (B ∧ ¬C) Rule P
8 ¬(B ∧ ¬C) → ¬D Rule T, Contra Positive, 7
9 (¬B ∨ C) → ¬D Rule T, 8
10 ¬D Rule T, MP, 6, 9
11 D ∧ ¬D Rule T, 3, 10
12 F Rule T, 11
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 114/180

7 Show that P → Q, P → R, Q → ¬R and P are
inconsistent
Solution: Premises are P → Q, P → R, Q → ¬R and P
Conclusion is F

1 P→Q Rule P
2 Q → ¬R Rule P
3 P → ¬R Rule T, HS, 1,2
4 P Rule P
5 ¬R Rule T, MP, 3, 4
6 P→R Rule P
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7 ¬R → ¬P Rule T, Contra Positive, 6
8 ¬P Rule T, MP, 5, 7
9 P ∧ ¬P Rule T, 4, 8
10 F Rule T, 9
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8 Show that B can be derived from the premises A → B,
C → B, D → (A ∨ C) and D by the indirect method
Solution: By indirect method, we consider negation
of the conclusion as an additional premise
Premises are A → B, C → B, D → (A ∨ C), D and ¬B
Conclusion is F
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 117/180

1 A→B Rule P
2 C→B Rule P
3 (A → B) ∧ (C → B) Rule T, 1, 2
4 (A ∨ C) → B Rule T, 3
5 D → (A ∨ C) Rule P
6 D→B Rule T, HS, 4, 5
7 D Rule P
8 B Rule T, MP, 6, 7
9 ¬B Rule P
10 B ∧ ¬B Rule T, 8, 9
11 F Rule T, 10
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 118/180

9 Derive P → (Q → S) using the CP-rule, from the
premises P → (Q → R) and Q → (R → S)
Solution: By CP-rule, we consider P as an additional
premise and the conclusion as Q → S
Premises are P, P → (Q → R) and Q → (R → S)
Conclusion is Q → S
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 119/180

1 P Rule P
2 P → (Q → R) Rule P
3 Q→R Rule T, MP, 1, 2
4 Q → (R → S) Rule P
5 ¬Q ∨ (¬R ∨ S) Rule T, 4
6 ¬R ∨ (¬Q ∨ S) Rule T, 5
7 R → (Q → S) Rule T, 6
8 Q → (Q → S) Rule , HS,3, 7
9 ¬Q ∨ (¬Q ∨ S) Rule T, 8
10 ¬Q ∨ S Rule T, 9
11 Q→S Rule T, 10
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 120/180

10 Show that the following premises are inconsistent
If Jack misses many classes through illness, then he
fails high school.
If Jack fails high school, then he is uneducated
If Jack reads a lot of books, then he is not uneducated.
Jack misses many classes through illness and reads a
lot of books.
Solution: Let P : Jack misses many classes through
illness
Q : Jack fails high school
R : Jack reads a lot of books
S : Jack is uneducated
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Premises are P → Q, Q → S, R → ¬S, P ∧ R
Conclusion is F
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1 P→Q Rule P
2 Q→S Rule P
3 P→S Rule T, HS,1, 2
4 P∧R Rule P
5 P Rule T, 4
6 R Rule T, 4
7 S Rule T, MP, 3, 5
8 R → ¬S Rule P
9 ¬S Rule T, MP, 6, 8
10 S ∧ ¬S Rule T, 7, 9
11 F Rule T, 10
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 123/180

11 Test the validity of the following argument. If I study,
I will not fail in Mathematics. If I do not play Basket
ball, then I will study. But I failed in Mathematics.
Therefore I must have played Basket ball.
Solution : Let P : I will study
Q : I will not fail in Mathematics
R : I do not play Basket ball
Premises are P → Q, R → P, ¬Q
Conclusion is ¬R
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 124/180

1 R→P Rule P
2 P→Q Rule P
3 R→Q Rule T, HS, 1, 2
4 ¬Q → ¬R Rule T, Contra positive, 3
5 ¬Q Rule P
6 ¬R Rule T, MP, 4, 5
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 125/180

12 Construct an argument using rules of inference to
show that the hypotheses ”If it does not rain or if it is
not foggy, then the sailing race will be held and the
life saving demonstration will go on”, ”If the sailing
race is held, then the trophy will be awarded”, and
”The trophy was not awarded” imply the conclusion
”It rained”
Solution: Let P : It rains
Q : It is foggy
R : The Sailing race will he held
S : The lifesaving demonstration will go on
T : The trophy will be awarded
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Premises are (¬P ∨ ¬Q) → (R ∧ S), R → T and ¬T
Conclusion is P
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1 (¬P ∨ ¬Q) → (R ∧ S) Rule P
2 (¬P → (R ∧ S)) ∧ (¬Q → (R ∧ S)) Rule T, 1
3 (¬P → (R ∧ S)) Rule T, 2
4 P ∨ (R ∧ S) Rule T, 3
5 (P ∨ R) ∧ (P ∨ S) Rule T, 4, Distributive
6 (P ∨ R) Rule T, 5
7 ¬P → R Rule T, 6
8 ¬R → P Rule T, Contra positive, 7
9 R→T Rule P
10 ¬T → ¬R Rule T, Contra positive, 9
11 ¬T Rule P
12 ¬R Rule T, MP,10, 11
13 P Rule T, MP,8, 12
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 128/180

13 Show that the hypotheses ”It is not sunny this
afternoon and it is colder than yesterday”, ”we will
go swimming only if it is sunny”, ”if we do not go
swimming, then we will take a canoe trip, and If we
take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset
leads to the conclusion that we will be home by
sunset. Solution : Let P : It is sunny this afternoon
Q : It is colder than yesterday
R : We will go swimming
S : We will take a canoe trip
T : We will be home by sunset
Premises are ¬P ∧ Q, R → P, ¬R → S, S → T
conclusion is T
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1 ¬P ∧ Q Rule P
2 ¬P Rule T, 1
3 R→P Rule P
4 ¬P → ¬R Rule T, Contra positive, 3
5 ¬R Rule T, MP, 2, 4
6 ¬R → S Rule P
7 S Rule T, MP, 5, 6
8 S→T Rule P
9 T Rule T, MP, 7, 8
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 130/180

14 Show that the hypotheses ”If you send me an e-mail
message, then I will finish writing the program”, ”If
you do not send me e-mail message, then I will go to
sleep early”, and ”If I go to sleep early then I will
wake up feeling refreshed” leads to the conclusion
that, ”If I do not finish writing the program, then I
will wake up feeling refreshed”
Solution : Let P : You send me an e-mail message
Q : I will finish writing the program
R : I will go to sleep early
S : I will wake up feeling refreshed
Premises are P → Q, ¬P → R, R → S
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Conclusion is ¬Q → S
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1 P→Q Rule P
2 ¬Q → ¬P Rule T, Contra positive, 1
3 ¬P → R Rule P
4 ¬Q → R Rule T, HS, 2, 3
5 R→S Rule P
6 ¬Q → S Rule T, HS, 4, 5
18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 133/180

INTRODUCTION TO PROOFS
1 Direct proofs
2 Proof by contra-positive (or) Indirect proof
3 Proofs by contradiction
Procedure for Direct proofs

Step (i) Hypothesis : First we assume that P is true
Step (ii) Analysis : Starting with the hypothesis and
employing the rules/laws of logic and other known facts,
infer that Q is true
Step (iii) Conclusion : P → Q is true.
P MANOKARAN, Asst. Prof/Maths, VEC Predicate Calculus 166/180

PROBLEMS
1 Give a direct proof of the statement ”The square of an
odd integer is an odd integer”
Solution: To prove : The square of an odd integer is
an odd integer
i.e., to prove : If n is an odd integer , then n2 is an odd
integer
Let P : n is an odd integer and Q : n2 is an odd integer
By assuming that ”n is an odd integer” we need to
prove that ”n2 is also an odd integer ”
Since n is an odd integer, we have n = 2k + 1 where k
is some integer

Now, n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
which is an odd integer
Hence the proof.

2 Give the direct proof of ”sum of two odd integers is
even”
Solution: To prove :”Sum of two odd integers is even”
i.e., to prove : If n is odd and m is odd then n + m is
even integer
Let P: n is odd integer and m is odd integer
Q: n + m is even integer
By assuming that n is odd integer and m is odd
integer we need to prove that n + m is even integer
Since n and m are odd integer, we have n = 2k + 1
and m = 2u + 1 where k and u are some integers
Now, n + m = (2k + 1) + (2u + 1) = 2k + 2u + 2 =
2(k + u + 1) which is an even integer

Hence the proof.

Proof by Contraposition (or) Indirect proof
This method will make use of the fact that the
conditional statement P → Q can be proved by
showing that its contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P is true
Procedure for Proof by contraposition (or) Indirect proof
Step (i) Hypothesis : Statement P → Q its
contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P are logically equivalent
So we assume that ¬Q is true
Step (ii ) Analysis : Starting with the hypothesis and
employing the rules/laws of logic and other known
facts, infer that ¬P is true
Step (iii) Conclusion : ¬Q → ¬P is true

3 Prove that if n is an integer and 5n+2 is odd, then n is
odd by contraposition method.
Solution: Let P: n is an integer and 5n+2 is odd
integer
Q: n is odd integer
To prove : P → Q is true
It is enough to prove ¬Q → ¬P is true, since
P → Q ≡ ¬Q → ¬P
Let us assume that ¬Q is true.
i.e., n is an even integer
So, n = 2k where k is some integer
Now, 5n + 2 = 5(2k) + 2 = 10k + 2 = 2(5k + 1)
which is an even integer

⇒ ¬P is true.
Hence, if 5n + 2 is odd then n is an odd integer

4 Prove that if n is an integer and n3 + 5 is odd, then n
is an even by contraposition method
Solution: Let P: n is an integer and n3 + 5 is odd
integer
Q: n is an even integer
To prove : P → Q is true
It is enough to prove ¬Q → ¬P is true, since
P → Q ≡ ¬Q → ¬P
Let us assume that ¬Q is true.
i.e., n is an odd integer
So n = 2k + 1 where k is some integer

Now, n3 + 5 = (2k + 1)3 + 5
= ((2k)3 + 3(2k)2 (1) + 3(2k)(1)2 + (1)3 ) + 5
= (8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1) + 5
= 8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 6
= 2(4k3 + 6k2 + 3k + 3) which is an even integ
⇒ ¬P is true.
Hence, if n3 + 5 is odd then n is an even integer

Procedure for Proofs by contradiction
A proof by contradiction establishes by assuming
that the hypothesis P is true and that the conclusion
Q is false and then, using P and ¬Q as well as other
axioms, definitions
The lines of argument in this method of proof of the
statement P → Q are as follows
Step (i) Hypothesis : Statement P → Q is false. That
is, assume that P is true and Q is false
Step (ii ) Analysis : Starting with the hypothesis that
Q is false and employing the rules/laws of logic and
other known facts, infer that P is false. This is
contradicts the assumption that P is true

Step (iii) Conclusion : Because of the contradiction
arrived in the analysis, we infer that P → Q is true

√
5 Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof using
contradiction
√
Solution : Assume that 2 is not irrational number
√
⇒ 2 is rational number
√
Let 2 = ba , b 6= 0 [a and b have no common factors
other than 1]
a2
⇒2= b2
,b 6= 0
⇒ 2b2 = a2 − − − − − − − − − > (1)
⇒ a2 = 2b2
⇒ a2 is an even integer
⇒ a is an even integer

Let a = 2k where k is some integer
(1) ⇒ 2b2 = a2 = (2k)2 = 4k2
⇒ b2 = 2k2
⇒ b2 is an even integer
⇒ b is an even integer
Thus, we have proved that both a and b are even
Therefore, they have 2 as a common factor.
This contradicts our assumption that a and b have no
√
common factor other than 1, ⇒ our assumption 2 is
rational is false
√
∴ 2 is irrational number

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18MAB302T - DISCRETE

August 25, 2021

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Construct truth table for

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Construct truth table for

18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 20/180

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18MAB302T- DM Unit - 1 21/180

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