DC GENERATOR

An electrical Generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or

power) into electrical energy (or power).

Principle: It is based on the principle of production of dynamically (or motionally) induced

e.m.f (Electromotive Force). Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced
e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This
e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric generator are :

A magnetic field and

A conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.

Construction:

A single-turn rectangular copper coil abcd moving about its own axis in a magnetic field
provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are
joined to two split-rings which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two
collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip rings.
 AC GENERATOR

Principle:

A.C. generators or alternators (as they are usually called) operate on the same
fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction as D.C. generators.
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in the magnetic field or by
rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil. The value of the voltage generated
depends on-
The number of turns in the coil.
Strength of the field.
The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one

circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in
current.
Principle :
In brief, a transformer is a device that
Transfers electric power from one circiut to another.

It does so without a change of frequency.

It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and

Where the two circuit are in mutual inductive influence of each

other.

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

The direction of induced current may be found easily by applying either Fleming's
Right-hand Rule or Lenz's Law

Electromagnetically induced current always flows in such direction that the action of
the magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very cause which produces it.

Faraday’s Law

First Law:

Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always
induced in it.

Or

Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.

Second Law:

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Introduction

Whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is

immediately brought into existence in the space surrounding the conductor. It can be said
that when electrons are in motion, they produce a magnetic field. The converse is also true
i.e. when a magnetic field embracing a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it
produce a flow of electrons in the conductor. This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and
hence current is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is
known as electromagnetic induction.

DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy.

Principle:

It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a

magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-
hand rule and whose magnitude is given by

Force, F = B I l newton

Where B is the magnetic field in weber/m2.

I is the current in amperes and

l is the length of the coil in meter.

The force, current and the magnetic field are all in different directions.

If an Electric current flows through two copper wires that are between the poles of a
magnet, an upward force will move one wire up and a downward force will move the other
wire down.
 Figure 2 : Magnetic Field in DC
Figure 1: Force in DC Motor
Motor

Figure 4 : Current Flow in DC

Figure 3 : Torque in DC Motor
Motor

The loop can be made to spin by fixing a half circle of copper which is known as
commutator, to each end of the loop. Current is passed into and out of the loop by brushes
that press onto the strips. The brushes do not go round so the wire do not get twisted. This
arrangement also makes sure that the current always passes down on the right and back on
the left so that the rotation continues. This is how a simple Electric motor is made.

Electric Meter

The live and neutral wires first pass through this electricity meter. This meter measures
the amount of electrical energy used in the home.
 Earthing

Look at the iron in the figure. It is not earthed. If a loose live wire touches the case, it
would be raise to 240 V. If you touch the case, this voltage could drive enough current
through your body to kill you. If the case is properly earthed contact with live wire would
cause a large current to pass along the earth wire into the ground. The fuse in the plug
would melt, cutting off the electricity supply. It is best to earth electrical equipment that is
meant to be handled.

Equipment such as electric kettles, irons, guitars, cookers, table lamps, washing
machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators and electric heaters should be securely connected
to the earth. Some equipment that carries the label is double insulated. This need not
be earthed.

Domestic wiring
 The mains supply is delivered to houses using a three core wiring called the live
neutral and the earth . The live wire is brown in colour and brings in the current. the
neutral coloured Blue is the return wire . The earth is coloured green or yellow.
These wire supply electricity to separate circuits within the house . Two separate circuit are
used. One of 15A for Appliance with higher power ratings and the other of 5A ratings for
others . The earth wire is usually connected to a metal plate deep in the earth near the
house. It is safety measure and does not in any way affect the supply .

Overloading

The current in a circuit depends on the rating of the appliances connected to it. The
choice of wires depends upon the maximum current estimated to pass through them. If the
total power rating of the appliances exceeds this permitted limit, they tend to draw a large
current. This is known as overloading.
 Overloading Precautions

Don't use more power things than the capacity of the source.
 Always use good material like Fuse, MCB, Electric Wire, Plugs etc.

Short Circuit

Sometimes, the live and neutral wires come in the direct contact due to defective or
damaged wiring. When this happens, the resistance of the circuit becomes almost zero and
a very large current flows through it. This is known as Short Circuit.

Fuse
What is Fuse ?

Fuse is a piece of wire of a material with a very low melting point. When

a high current flows through the circuit due to or a

, the wires gets heated and melts. As a result, the circuit is

broken and current stops flowing.

It must be remembered that fuse wire is always connected to the LIVE wire.
 Properties Of Reliable Fuse:-

Fuse must be of correct value. For example, In a 15A circuit, the fuse wire used is
thick and of 15A rating.

Hazards of electricity
As we know that there are a lot of benefits of electricity, but sometimes electricity
may be dangerous for the human being. Some Hazard's of electricity are given below:-

Do not plug anything into light sockets except light bulbs.

Make sure leads are not worn, frayed, cut or show bare wire at any point.

Do not overload sockets.

 Do not run extension leads into the bathroom.

Pull out the plug before changing fuses or filling an electric kettle. Do not trust
sockets. Switches can go wrong and "OFF" may still be "ON".

Do not poke into sockets or electrical equipment.

 A common requirement for both the Ammeter and Voltmeter is that the current
flow through these should not disturb the electric circuit, i.e. should not change the current
flowing in or voltages across various parts of circuits.

Measuring of Voltage

Voltmeter is a high resistance Galvanometer. It has the Multiplier resistor in series

with the meter. A voltmeter is connected across the two points between which the potential
difference is to be measured. An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance.
 Measuring of Current
Ammeter is a low resistance Galvanometer. It has the shunt resistor to bypass most of
the current around the coil. An ammeter, since it is to measure the current flowing through
a circuit element, is connected in series with it. An ideal ammeter should have zero
resistance.

Electric Current
If we place two objects, say electroscopes, charged to different potential side by side,
charges will not move from one to the other, Now if the two are connected using a wire or
a conductor, the flow of charges takes palace. Charge will flow as long as there is a
difference of potential between the two conductors. The flow stops as soon as their potential
become equal. This flow of electric charge is called electric current. The potential difference
(P.D.) of one volt between two points is the measure of work done in moving one coulomb
of charge across them.

Derived Formula & Unit Of Potential difference : -

Potential Difference (P.D.) = Work Done / Charged Moved = W/Q =

Joule/ Coulomb = Volt.
 A common requirement for both the Ammeter and Voltmeter is that the current flow
through these should not disturb the electric circuit, i.e. should not change the current
flowing in or voltages across various parts of circuits.

Measuring of Voltage
Voltmeter is a high resistance Galvanometer. It has the Multiplier resistor in series with
the meter. A voltmeter is connected across the two points between which the potential
difference is to be measured. An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance.

Measuring of Current

Ammeter is a low resistance Galvanometer. It has the shunt resistor to bypass most of
the current around the coil. An ammeter, since it is to measure the current flowing through
a circuit element, is connected in series with it. An ideal ammeter should have zero
resistance.
 Current
If electric charge flows through some region, say a wire of copper, we say that there is
an electric current in that region. e. g. through the copper wire.

Electric current, namely the flow of electric charge, can be described by the amount of
charge flowing through a particular area in a unit time, or as the rate of passes through a
given cross section or a area in a short time t . The electric current I (or current ) is given
by

I = lim t -->0 ( Q/ t ) = dQ / dt. SI Unit

1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb / second Measurement of Current

Voltage
A Magnetic field ( or Magnetic flux ) that changes with time produces an
emf or Voltage. The emf is exactly equal to the potential difference between its
ends.

Resistance

Symbol

When a source of emf is connected to a wire of any other object (called conductor)
allowing the passage of electric charge, there is a voltage drop V across the conductor and
a steady or direct current (say I) flows through it (and source of emf ). The ratio of the two,
namely ( V / I ) is called the electric resistance of the conductor. SI Unit

Electric resistance is the ratio of one volt and one ampere. Or We can say that Ohm is
the unit of Electric resistance.

Ohm’s Law

In 1828, George Simon Ohm, a German physicist, found that for many substances,
the electrical current I flowing through them is proportional to the voltage V across their
ends.

The empirical relationship

V µI
is called Ohm's Law. The constant of proportionality, called the resistance and given the
symbol R, is independent of V or I, but depends only on the substances and its shape and
size. Thus Ohm's Law is

V=R*I

Unit of Resistance:-

Volt per ampere OR Ohm ( W )

Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff's laws are particularly useful:

(a) in determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated network of

conductors and

(b) for calculating the current flowing in the various conductors.

The two laws are :

Point law or current law (KCL) :-

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or
junction ) is zero.

i.e. the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering that junction.

(a)

Assuming the incoming current to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we
have

I1 + ( - I2 ) + ( - I3 ) + I4 + (- I5) = 0

Or I1 - I 2 - I 3 + I 4 - I 5 = 0
 Or I1 + I4 = I 2 + I3 + I 5

Or Incoming currents = Outgoing Currents

We express the above conclusion thus

n
∑ Ij = 0 ........................at a junction
j=1

Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL) :-

The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistance in each of the conductors
in any closed path ( or mesh ) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that
path is zero.

In other words,

∑ I R + ∑ e. m. f. = 0 .............................round a mesh

If one starts from a particular junction and goes round the mesh till one comes back to
the starting point, then one must be at the same potential with which one started. Hence, it
means that all the sources of e. m. f. meet on the way must necessarily be equal to the
voltage drops in the resistance, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.

Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors connected as shown. The voltage source can be
applied across either A and D or B and C. The variable resistance is adjusted until the potential
difference V0 between B and C is zero. This is called balancing the bridge. When the bridge is
balanced, the products of the opposite resistors are equal.
 R1 Rvar = R2 R3

As the value of the variable resistor is changed, the potential difference V0, as well as the
current in this branch, will change proportionally.

The galvanometer ideally acts as a short circuit forcing points B and C to the same potential.
When the bridge is not balanced a current will flow through the galvanometer due to this
imbalance.

Some Applications:

The Wheatstone bridge can be used in conjunction with many sensors to make ohmmeters,
pressure gauges, anemometers, flow meters, and many other measuring devices. A thermistor,
for example, may be placed in the circuit as the variable resistance. This device changes
resistance with varying temperature. The bridge will unbalance with changes in temperature.
Over a linear range, the current through the galvanometer will be proportional to this temperature
change creating a "thermometer".