Introduction to Cellular Respiration:

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert biochemical energy from
nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This energy currency powers various
cellular activities. It occurs in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, although the
specific mechanisms may vary slightly.

Stages of Cellular Respiration:

Cellular respiration typically consists of three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid
cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation (including the
electron transport chain and chemiosmosis).

1. Glycolysis:

● Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen (it is anaerobic).
● It involves the breakdown of glucose (a six-carbon molecule) into two molecules
of pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule).
● ATP and NADH are produced during glycolysis.
● The net gain of ATP from glycolysis is 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):

● The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.

● Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted into acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid
cycle.
● Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, initiating a series of
enzymatic reactions.
● The cycle generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (a high-energy electron carrier).
● Each turn of the citric acid cycle produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2.

3. Oxidative Phosphorylation:

● Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

● It involves two main processes: the electron transport chain (ETC) and
chemiosmosis.
● NADH and FADH2 donate their high-energy electrons to the ETC, which consists
of protein complexes (I, II, III, IV) and coenzyme Q and cytochrome c as electron
carriers.
 ● As electrons move through the ETC, energy is released and used to pump protons
(H+) across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating an electrochemical
gradient.
● The flow of protons back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase
drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process
is called chemiosmosis.
● Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in the ETC, forming water when it
accepts electrons and protons.
● The overall process of oxidative phosphorylation produces the majority of ATP in
cellular respiration, yielding approximately 26-28 ATP molecules per glucose
molecule.

Anaerobic Respiration:

● In the absence of oxygen, cells can undergo anaerobic respiration to generate

ATP.
● Fermentation is a type of anaerobic respiration that occurs after glycolysis. It
regenerates NAD+ from NADH, allowing glycolysis to continue in the absence of
oxygen.
● Two common types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation (used by yeast
and some bacteria) and lactic acid fermentation (used by certain bacteria and
human muscle cells during strenuous exercise).

Significance of Cellular Respiration:

● Cellular respiration is essential for providing energy to fuel various cellular

processes, including growth, repair, and reproduction.
● It plays a central role in maintaining homeostasis by continuously supplying ATP
to meet the energy demands of cells.
● The carbon dioxide produced during cellular respiration is released as a waste
product, contributing to the carbon cycle.

Conclusion:

Cellular respiration is a fundamental metabolic process that enables cells to harness

energy from nutrients and convert it into a usable form (ATP). Through glycolysis, the
citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, cells efficiently generate ATP to sustain
life processes. Understanding the intricacies of cellular respiration is crucial for
comprehending the functioning of living organisms at the cellular level.