✓ This divergent shape works like a venturi
AE 325 – MODULE 3: SECTIONS
OF A GAS TURBINE ENGINE
2 SECTIONS OF A GTE.
- Hot and Cold Sections
HOT SECTION.
- Includes combustion, turbine, and exhaust
COLD SECTION.
- Includes air inlet duct, compressor section
(1) MAJOR SECTION: AIR INLET
- One of the cold sections of gas turbine engine
- Built into the airframe or the forward part of the
nacelle installation
- Designed to provide a relatively turbulent free
supply of air to the face of the low pressure
compressor or fan
AIR INLET DUCT.
- Its design is vital to the performance of the engine
under all airspeeds or angles of attack to avoid
compressor stall
- Normally considered to be a part of the airframe
rather than the engine
FUNCTIONS OF THE AIR INLET.
- Recover as much of the total pressure of the free
airstream as possible and deliver this pressure to
the compressor – known as ram recovery or
pressure recovery
- Many inlets are shaped to raise the air pressure
above atmospheric pressure
- Provide a uniform supply of air to the compressor
so the compressor can operate eGiciently.
TYPES OF AIR INLET DUCTS.
1. Engine Mounted
✓ Usage: large commercial and military aircrafts
✓ In few cases, such as DC-10 and L-1011, uses a
combination of wing mounted and vertical
stabilizer mounted engines
2. Wings Mounted
✓ Feature air inlet ducts in the wing’s leading edge
✓ Examples: Aerospatiale Caravelle, de Havilland
Comet, and de Havilland Vampire
3. Fuselage Mounted
✓ Feature air inlet ducts near front of the fuselage
✓ Examples: early military aircrafts
4. Subsonic Inlets
✓ Consists of a fixed geometry duct whose
diameter progressively increases (front to back)
✓ As the air intake air spreads out, the velocity of
the air decrease and the pressure increases
✓ This added pressure contributes significantly to
engine eGiciency once the aircraft reaches its
design cruising speed
5. Supersonic Inlets
✓ This type of air inlet duct has either a fixed or
variable geometry whose diameter progressively
decreases, then increases from front to back
✓ This convergent-divergent shape is used to
slow the incoming airflow to subsonic speed
before it reaches the compressor
✓ The supersonic diGuser gradually decreases in
area from front to rear – this has the eGect reducing
the air velocity down to below Mach 1
✓ Further reduction of velocity is achieved by a
subsonic di0user which increases in area towards
the compressor face
✓ Control of shock waves that form on the air inlet
is important to correctly decelerate the air
✓ Use of variable geometry intakes allow the
correct control of intake shocks + may also
comprise spill doors to allow excess air to be
spilled from the inlet without having its velocity
changed
6. Bellmouth Inlets
✓ Have a convergent profile
✓ Designed for obtaining very high aerodynamic
eGiciency when stationary or in slow flight
✓ Used on helicopters, slow moving aircraft, and
on engines being run in ground test stands
✓ Short in length and has rounded shoulders
oGering very little air resistance
(2) MAJOR SECTION: COMPRESSOR
- Component that forces air into the engine
- Main objective: supply compressed air for
combustion in the combustion chamber
COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO.
- Outlet pressure divided by the inlet pressure
- Three (3) factors aGecting the amount of air passing
through the engine:
1. Compressor speed (rpm)
2. Forward speed of the aircraft
3. Density of the ambient (surrounding) air
- To be eGective, a modern compressor must
increase the intake air pressure 20 to 30 times
above the ambient air pressure; and
- Move the air at a velocity of 400 to 500 fps.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COMPRESSOR SECTION.
- Primary function: to supply air in suGicient quantity
to satisfy the requirements of the combustion
burners
- Secondary function: to supply bleed air/customer
bleed air for various purposes in the engine and the
aircraft
BLEED AIR.
- Taken from any of the various pressure stages of
the compressor.
 - Bleeding air from the compressor cause a small but
noticeable drop in engine power.
- Sometimes, power loss can be detected by
observing the engine pressure ratio (EPR)
indicator.
USES OF BLEED AIR.
- Cabin pressurization, heating, and cooling;
- De-icing and anti-icing equipment;
- Pneumatic starting of engines
TYPES OF COMPRESSOR.
- Centrifugal Flow (Centrifugal) and Axial Flow
CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSOR.
- Also called a radial outflow compressor
- One of the earliest compressor designs
- Used in smaller engines and auxiliary power units
- Consist of an impeller (rotor), di0user, manifold
- Pressure rise per stage: around 8:1
- Limited to two (2) stages due to eGiciency concerns
IMPELLER (ROTOR).
- Consists of a forged disk with integral blades
fastened by a splined coupling to a common power
shaft
- Function: to take air in and accelerate it outward by
centrifugal force.
SINGLE-STAGE COMPRESSORS.
- Compressors having only 1 impeller
DOUBLE-STAGE COMPRESSORS.
- Compressors having 2 impellers
DOUBLE SIDED / DOUBLE ENTRY IMPELLER.
- Two impellers are mounted back-to-back
- A single-stage, double-sided impeller allows a
higher mass airflow than that of a single-stage,
single-sided impeller
- Engines with double-sided impellers have a
smaller overall diameter
PROCESS OF COMPRESSION | (CENTRIFUGAL FLOW)
1. Air expelled into a divergent duct called a diGuser
after passing through the impeller.
2. DiXuser causes air to spread out, slow down, and
increase in static pressure.
✓ Purpose: prepare air for entry into the
combustion section at a lower velocity to sustain
continuous combustion.
✓ High velocity air passing through combustion
section could extinguish the flame.
3. Compressor manifold distributes air smoothly to
the combustion section.
✓ Manifold diverts air flow from the diGuser to
combustion chambers.
✓ Manifold has one outlet port for each chamber
for even distribution of air.
ADVANTAGES | (CENTRIFUGAL FLOW)
1. Simplicity in Manufacture
2. Relatively Low Cost
3. Low Weight
4. Low Starting Power Requirements
5. Operating eGiciency over a wide range of rotational
speed
DISADVANTAGES | (CENTRIFUGAL FLOW)
1. Large frontal area required for a given airflow
increases aerodynamic drag;
2. Practical limits on the number of stages restrict its
usefulness when designing larger and more
powerful engines
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR.
- In this type of compressor, airflow is along the
horizontal axis of the compressor
- 2 main elements: rotor and stator
- Objective: raise air pressure rather than air velocity
ROTOR BLADES | AXIAL FLOW
- Rows of blades fixed on a rotating spindle
- Have an airfoil shape
- Angle and airfoil contour of the blades forces air
rearward in the same manner as a propeller
- Usually made of stainless steel with latter stages
being made of titanium
- Common designs of blade attachment to the roto
disks: bulb-type or fir-tree methods, dovetail.
SHROUD.
- Applied in long fan blades; mid-span
- Advantage: Helps support the blades, making
them more resistant to the bending forces created
by the airstream
- Disadvantage: Block some of the airflow and
create additional aerodynamic drag
TWIST.
- Rotor blades used in an axial flow compressor have
an airfoil cross-section with a varying angle of
incidence or twist.
- This compensates for the blade velocity variation
caused by its radius.
STATOR VANES | AXIAL FLOW
- Arranged in fixed rows between the rows of rotor
blades and act as diGusers at each stage,
decreasing air velocity and raising pressure
- Have an airfoil shape like the rotor blades
- Angle of attack: fixed or variable
- Normally constructed out of steel or nickel
because these metals have high fatigue strength
- Often shrouded at their tips to minimize vibration
INLET GUIDE VANES.
- Set of stator vanes immediately in front of the first
stage rotor blades
- Vanes that direct airflow into the first stage rotor
blades at the best angle while imparting a swirling
motion in the direction of engine rotation
- This improves the aerodynamics of the compressor
by reducing the drag on the first stage rotor blades
VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES.
- Used by axial compressors with high compressor
pressures; along with several stages of variable
stator vanes
- These stators and guide vanes automatically
reposition to maintain proper airflow through the
engine under varying operating conditions
OUTLET VANE ASSEMBLY.
- Last set of vanes the compressor air passes
through
- Straighten the airflow and eliminate any swirling
motion or turbulence
- The air velocity of the compressed air must be
slowed before it enters the combustion chamber
- The divergent shape of a diGuser slows compressor
discharge while, at the same time, increasing air
pressure to its highest value in the engine
PRESSURE STAGE.
- Each consecutive row of rotor blades and stator
vanes constitutes a pressure stage
- Number of stages is determined by the amount of
air and total pressure rise required
- Single stage in an axial flow compressor is
capable of producing a compressor pressure ratio
of only 1.25:1
- High compressor pressure ratios are obtained by
adding more compressor stages. In order to add
more compressor stages, multi-spool
- compressors are created.
PROCESS OF COMPRESSION | AXIAL FLOW.
1. The air from the air inlet is guided by the inlet guide
vanes to the rotors and stators.
2. Each compressor stage raises the pressure of the
incoming air while the air's velocity is alternately
increased then decreased as airflow proceeds
through the compressor.
3. The rotor blades slightly accelerate the airflow then
the stator vanes diGuse the air, slowing it and
increasing the pressure.
4. The overall result is increased air pressure and
relatively constant air velocity from compressor
inlet to outlet.
5. The outlet guide vanes will now guide the
compressed air into the diGuser to prepare the air
mass for combustion.
6. This process will repeat depending on the number
of spools the compressor have.
MULTI SPOOL COMPRESSORS.
- Overcome the limitations of single-spool
compressors by splitting the compressor into two
or three sections.
- Each section is connected to a portion of the
turbine section by shafts that run coaxially, one
within the other.
DUAL SPOOL COMPRESSORS.
LOW PRESSURE/LOW SPEED/N1 COMPRESSOR
✓ Front section of a dual-spool compressor
✓ Typically driven by a two-stage turbine at the rear
of the turbine section
HIGH PRESSURE/HIGH SPEED/N2 COMPRESSOR
✓ Second section of a twin-spool compressor
✓ Typically driven by a single-stage high-pressure
turbine at the front of the turbine section
TRIPLE SPOOL COMPRESSORS.
FAN
✓ Referred to as LOW SPEED or N1 COMPRESSOR
✓ Compressor next in line is referred to as the
INTERMEDIATE or N2 COMPRESSOR
✓ Innermost compressor is the HIGH PRESSURE
or N3 COMPRESSOR
ADVANTAGES | AXIAL FLOW.
1. High peak eGiciencies
2. Small frontal area
3. Straight through flow, allowing high ram eGiciency
4. Increased pressure rise by increasing number of
stages, with negligible loses
DISADVANTAGES | AXIAL FLOW.
1. Good eGiciencies over only narrow rotational
speed range
2. DiGiculty of manufacture and high cost
3. Relatively high weight
 4. High starting power requirements

COMPRESSOR STALL.

- Occurs when the compressor blades' angle of

attack exceeds the critical angle of attack
- Can be described as an imbalance between the
two vector quantities: inlet velocity and
compressor rotational speed

CAUSE OF COMPRESSOR STALL.

1. Compressor stalls typically occur when the engine
inlet air becomes turbulent or disrupted when an
aircraft flies in severe turbulence or performs
abrupt flight maneuvers.
2. Excessive fuel flow produced by a sudden engine
acceleration, accompanied by incompatible
engine rpm and airflow combinations.
3. Contamination or damage to compressor blades,
stator vanes, or turbine components can also
cause a compressor stall.
HUNG STALLS.
- Severe stalls that can significantly impair engine
performance, cause loss of power, and can
damage the engine
(3) MAJOR SECTION:
COMBUSTION SECTION
- Located directly between the compressor diGuser
and turbine section
- Elements: one or more combustion chambers
(combustors), a fuel injection system, an ignition
source, and a fuel drainage system.
- Function: to burn the fuel/air mixture, thereby
adding heat energy to the air
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (COMBUSTORS).
- Where the fuel and air are mixed and burned
TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS.
1. Multiple Can Type | Tubular
✓ Consists of a series of individual combustor cans
which act as individual burner units
✓ Well suited to centrifugal compressor engines
because of the way compressor discharge air is
equally divided at the diGuser
✓ Major Advantage: Can be individually removed
for inspection
✓ The individual combustors are interconnected
with small flame propagation tubes
✓ (1) Combustion starts in two cans with igniter
plugs; (2) Flame travels through tubes igniting
fuel/air mixture in other cans
✓ 8 or 10 cans

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM.

- Meters the appropriate amount of fuel through the

fuel nozzles into the combustors
- Fuel nozzles are located in the combustion 2. Annular Type | Basket Type Combustor
chamber case ✓ Consists of a housing and perforated inner liner,
- Fuel is delivered through the nozzles into the liners or basket
in a finely atomized spray to ensure thorough ✓ Must be removed as a single unit for repair or
mixing with the incoming air replacement
✓ Commonly used in both small and large engines
IGNITION SOURCE. ✓ Ignition source consists of two spark igniters
similar to the type found in multiple-cans
- Typical source in a GTE is called a high-energy
✓ Airflow enters at the front and exits at the rear
capacitor discharge system
✓ Similar primary and secondary airflow setup as
- High-energy capacitor discharge system consist
in the multiple-can design
of an exciter unit, two high-tension cables, and two
spark igniters
- This ignition system produces 60 to 100 sparks per
minute, resulting in a ball of fire at the igniter
electrodes

FUEL DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

- Accomplishes the important task of draining the

unburned fuel after engine shutdown
- Draining the unburned fuel helps to prevent gum
deposits in the fuel manifold, nozzles, and
combustion chambers which are caused by fuel 3. Can-Annular Type Combustor | Tuboannular
residue ✓ Represent a combination of the multiple-can
combustor and the annular type combustor
✓ Invented by Pratt & Whitney
 ✓ Consists of a removable steel shroud that
encircles the entire combustion section
✓ Each can and liner is removed and installed as
one unit for maintenance
✓ Design: combines easy overhaul and testing of
multiple-can setup with compactness of
annular combustor
CHARACTERISTICS: GOOD COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
1. Mix fuel and air eGectively in the best ratio for good
combustion.
2. Burn the mixture as eGiciently as possible.
3. Cool the hot combustion gases to a temperature
the turbine blades can tolerate.
4. Distribute hot gases evenly to the turbine section.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AIR.
- Combustor divides airflow into primary and
secondary paths.
- About 25-35% of air is primary, used for
combustion. While 65-75% is secondary.
- Primary air or combustion air goes inside the liner
(front end of a combustor) to support combustion.
- Secondary airflow creates a cooling blanket
around the liner and centers the flames away from
it. Secondary airflow also cools the hot gases
before they enter the turbine.
FLAMEOUT.
- A situation wherein an excessively high velocity
airflow could literally blow the flame out of the
engine/combustion chamber.
TYPES OF FLAMEOUT.
1. Lean Die Out
✓ occurs at high altitude where low engine
speeds and low fuel pressure form a weak
flame that can die out in a normal airflow
2. Rich Blow Out
✓ occurs during rapid engine acceleration when an
overly-rich mixture causes the fuel temperature
to drop below the combustion temperature or
when there is insuGicient airflow to support
combustion
COMBUSTION PROCESS (SIMPLIFIED VERSION).
1. Air from the engine compressor enters the
combustion chamber at high velocity up to 500 fps,
then diGused (slows down) and its pressure
increases (static).
2. A flame tube (combustion liner) with airflow
distribution devices ensures proper fuel and air
ratio. The air/fuel ratio typically ranges from 45:1 to
130:1 during normal operation.
3. About 20% of the air enters through the snout and
goes into the primary combustion zone, while the
rest circulates around the flame tube – the air not
picked up by the snout flows into the annular space
between the flame tube and the air casing.
4. Additional air, around 20%, enters through
secondary holes, creating a low velocity
recirculation area.
5. Conical fuel spray from nozzles intersects the
recirculation vortex, aiding in fuel-air mixing along
with the general turbulence in the primary zone.
6. Combustion must finish before dilution air enters
the flame tube to prevent cooling and incomplete
combustion.
7. Igniter plug electrically sparks to initiate
combustion, then flame becomes self-sustaining.
8. Fuel is injected into the airflow. The most common
is the injection of a fine atomized spray into the
recirculating airstream through spray nozzles.
(4) MAJOR SECTION: TURBINE
- Transforms a portion of the kinetic energy in the hot
exhaust gases into mechanical energy to drive the
compressor and accessories
- Located downstream of the combustion section
- Elements: a case, a stator, a shroud, and a rotor.
CASE.
- Encloses the turbine rotor and stator assembly,
giving either direct or indirect sup-port to the stator
elements.
- A typical case has flanges on both ends that
provide a means of attaching the turbine section to
the combustion section and the exhaust assembly.
TURBINE STATOR.
- Referred to as the turbine nozzle, turbine guide
vanes, or the nozzle diaphragm
- Located directly aft of the combustion section and
immediately forward of the turbine wheel.
- Exposed to the highest temperatures.
- Purpose: to collect the high energy airflow from the
combustors and direct the flow to strike the turbine
rotor at the appropriate angle.
- Turbine nozzle vanes are angled to create
converging nozzles. They convert pressure energy
of exhaust gases into velocity energy.
- Nozzle vanes are designed to accommodate
thermal expansion.
SHROUD.
- Turbine nozzle assembly has inner and outer
shrouds. Shrouds retain and enclose the turbine
nozzle vanes.
- Nozzle vanes are firmly welded or riveted to inner
and outer shrouds.
 - To accommodate expansion, the inner or outer
shroud ring is segmented.

TURBINE ROTOR.

- Rotating elements: shaft and turbine rotor (wheel)

- Turbine wheel is a dynamically balanced unit
consisting of blades attached to a rotating disk.
- Turbine disk is the anchoring component for the
turbine blades and is bolted or welded to the main
shaft.
- High-speed gases passing through turbine nozzle
hit turbine blades, causing the turbine wheel to
spin. Multiple turbine stages are often used, each
comprising a turbine nozzle and wheel. SHROUDED TURBINE BLADES.

GROWTH OR CREEP. - Turbine blades can be open or shrouded at their

- A phenomena in which extreme stress on turbine
blades may cause the turbine blades to grow in
length due to severe centrifugal loads imposed by
high rotational speeds.
ends. Shroud is attached to the tips of the turbine
blades to reduce vibration.
COOLING OF THE TURBINE SECTION.
- The most common way of cooling the components
of turbine section is the use of engine bleed air
- Two types of blade cooling: convection
cooling/film cooling and transpiration cooling.

TYPES OF BLADE COOLING.

1. Convection Cooling / Film Cooling

✓ compressor bleed air is typically directed in
through the hollow blades and out through
holes in the tip, leading edge, and trailing edge.
2. Transpiration Cooling
✓ only used on stationary nozzle vanes, bleed air is
ducted into the vanes and exits through the
TURBINE BLADES. porous material.

- Airfoil shaped components ACTIVE TIP CLEARANCE CONTROL (ACC).

- Designed to extract the maximum amount of
- Controls the thermal expansion rate of the turbine
energy from the flow of hot gases
case by regulating the flow of cooling air around the
- Fit loosely into a turbine disk when an engine is
turbine case.
cold, but expand to fit tightly at normal operating
temperatures
- Turbine blades are typically attached using fir tree
slots cut into the turbine disk rim and matching
bases on the blade or machined into the turbine
blade base.
- Can be classified as impulse blades, reaction
blades, and impulse-reaction blades

TYPES OF TURBINE BLADES.

1. Impulse Turbine Blades

✓ blades merely change the direction of airflow
coming from the turbine nozzle and cause
COUNTER ROTATING TURBINES.
relatively no change in gas pressure or velocity
2. Reaction Turbine Blades
✓ They create a turning force through aerodynamic
action. They do this by forming series of
converging duct that boost gas velocity and
reduce pressure.
3. Impulse-Reaction Turbine Blades
✓ Combination of impulse and reaction blades, the
workload along the length of the blade is evenly
distributed. The blade base is impulse shaped
while the blade tip is reaction shaped.
- Chosen by engine designers for their eGectiveness
in dampening gyroscopic eGects and reducing
engine vibration, not for aerodynamic reasons.
(5) MAJOR SECTION: EXHAUST
- Extends from the rear of the turbine section to the
point where the exhaust gases leave the engine
- Purpose: must direct the flow of hot gases rearward
in such a manner as to prevent turbulence and, a
the same time, impart a high final or exit velocity to
the gases
- Elements: exhaust cone, exhaust duct or
tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle
 - It is operated with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric
controls.

AFTERBURNERS.

- Used to accelerate the exhaust gases, which in

turn, increases thrust.
- Components: fuel manifold, an ignition source,
and a flame holder.

THRUST REVERSERS.
EXHAUST CONE.
- Most turbojet and turbofan powered aircraft are
- Consists of an outer duct, or shell, an inner cone,
fitted with thrust reversers to assist in braking.
or tail cone, three or more radial hollow struts, and
- Thrust reversers redirect the flow of exhaust gases
a group of tie rods
to provide thrust in the opposite direction.
- Purpose: to channel and collect turbine discharge
gases into a single jet NOISE SUPPRESSORS.

TAILPIPE. - Used on the ground include portable devices which

can be positioned near the rear of an engine
- An extension of the exhaust section that directs
whenever prolonged ground operation is
exhaust gases safely from the exhaust cone to the
anticipated.
exhaust, or jet nozzle
- Internal noise due to fan, compressor, turbine
- Used almost exclusively with engines that are
blades is also suppressed by the design of the
installed within an aircraft's fuselage to protect the
compressor and turbine blades - appropriate
surrounding airframe
spacing between the blades and vanes to reduce
EXHAUST NOZZLE. wake and turbulences.

- Also referred to as jet nozzle ACCESSORY SECTION.

- Purpose: provides the exhaust gases with a final
boost in velocity
- Two types of exhaust nozzle: converging design
and the converging-diverging design.
TYPES OF EXHAUST NOZZLE DESIGNS.
1. Converging Exhaust Nozzle
✓ The convergent shape produces a venturi that
accelerates the exhaust gases and increase
engine thrust.
2. Converging-Diverging Exhaust Nozzle
✓ The converging portion of the exhaust nozzle
accelerates the turbine exhaust gases to
supersonic speed at the narrowest
part of the duct
✓ They are accelerated further in the nozzle's
divergent portion, so the exhaust gases exit the
nozzle well above the speed of sound.
- Also referred to as accessory drive
- Primary function: Used to power both engine and
aircraft accessories such as electric generators,
hydraulic pumps, fuel pumps, and oil pumps.
- Secondary functions: acting as an oil reservoir, or
sump, and housing the accessory drive gears and
reduction gears.
- Located include the engine's midsection, or the
front or rear of the engine.
SET OF BEVELED GEARS.
- Used to drive an accessory shaft which, in turn,
drives an accessory gearbox.
REDUCTION GEARING.
- Since turbine engines operate at a relatively high
rpm, this is necessary in the accessory drive
system to provide appropriate drive speeds for the
accessories.
- In some installations, an intermediate or transfer
gearbox is necessary to obtain the appropriate
reduction gearing necessary for the accessories.

MIXER UNIT.

- Fan or bypass engines have two gas streams: hot

gases from the turbine and cool air mass moved
rearward from the fan.
- In low bypass engines, a mixer unit combines the
hot and cool air streams before exiting the engine.

VARIABLE GEOMETRY NOZZLE.

- Can have either a fixed or variable area.

- Sometimes necessary on engines that utilize an
afterburner.
AUXILIARY POWER UNITS (APUs).

- A constant speed gas turbine engine

- A self-contained unit, which enables the aircraft to
be independent of external pneumatic and
electrical power sources
- Large turbine aircraft have auxiliary power units
(APUs) to provide ground power when engines are
oG, like for passenger amenities such as lighting,
entertainment, and food preparation.

APUs provide:

1. Electrical power for the aircraft systems,

2. Bleed air for engine starting and air conditioning on
the ground,
3. Bleed air for air conditioning / pressurization and
wing anti-ice in flight