CHE2614

LU 5-10

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 Gravimetric methods

• Based on mass measurements.

• Quantitative analysis where the analyte is converted to an insoluble

form through a process of precipitation, isolation of the precipitate,
and weighing the isolated product in the original solution.

• The mass of the precipitate is the only important parameter in the

analyte determination.
 Types of gravimetric analysis

• Volatilization gravimetry
• involves separating the analyte from the sample mixture by
converting to a gas of known composition through heating or
chemically decomposing the sample.

• Precipitation gravimetry
• Uses a precipitation reaction to separate one or more parts of a
solution by incorporating it into a solid.
• Analyte is separated from sample solution as a precipitate and is
converted into a compound that can be weighed and is of known
composition.

• Electrogravimetry
• Amount of analyte is determined by converting it to a product that is
weighed as a deposit on one of the electrodes.
 Applications of gravimetric
analysis

• Elemental analysis of inorganic compounds.

• Analysis of ores and industrial chemicals.

 Principle of Precipitation gravimetry
• The analyte is converted to a sparingly soluble precipitate which can be filtered,
washed, dried and weighed.

• The principle behind the gravimetric analysis is that the mass of an ion in a pure
compound and can be determined.
•
• Later, used to find the mass percent of the same ion in a known quantity of an
impure compound.

Source: teachntest.wordpress.com/2017/10/30/gravimetry

From the mass and

A weighed An excess of a
The resulting precipitate is known composition of
sample is precipitating
filtered, dried (or ignited) and the precipitate, the
dissolved agent is added to
weighed amount of the original
this solution
ion can be determined
 Properties of an ideal precipitating
reagent

• Specific

• Selective
– AgNO3 in acidic medium only
precipitates Cl-, I-, Br-
– dimethyl glyoxime C4H6(NOH)2
 Properties of ideal precipitate

• Easily filtered and washed free of contaminants.

• Of low solubility so that no significant loss of the solid occurs

during filtration and washing.

• Unreactive with constituents of the atmosphere.

• Of known composition after it is dried or ignited.

 Properties of precipitates

• Precipitates can be classified as colloidal or crystalline.

•
• Precipitates with very small particle sizes or fine suspensions are
referred to as colloidal suspensions.

• Precipitates with very large particles are crystalline precipitates.

• Precipitates made up of large particles are generally desirable in

gravimetric work because they are easy to filter.

• Such precipitates are usually purer than are precipitates made up of

fine particles.
Factors that determine particle Size
of Precipitates

• Particle size of precipitates is determined by relative supersaturation

(RS) of the solution

Relative Supersaturation = (Q – S)/S

where Q is the concentration of the solute at any given moment

S is its equilibrium solubility

• When (Q – S)/ S is large, results in colloidal suspension.

when (Q – S) / S is small, results in crystalline precipitate.

Experimental variables that control
particle size
Experimental variables that lead to crystalline precipitates:

1. Precipitation using dilute solutions

2. Slow addition of precipitating agent with good stirring to keep Q

as low as possible

3. Elevated temperatures

4. Controlling the pH
 Mechanism of precipitation formation

• Upon addition of the first drops of the precipitating agent to the

sample solution
• supersaturation occurs
•
• Followed by nucleation - where every few molecules of precipitate
aggregate together forming a stable solid.

• Addition of extra precipitating agent will either form new nuclei or

will build up on existing nuclei to give a precipitate –
• (Particle growth)

•
• Nucleation and Particle growth always compete for molecules/ions
being precipitated.

• If nucleation is faster than particle growth:

a large number of small aggregates form resulting in colloidal suspensions

• If particle growth is faster than nucleation:

only a few, large particles form giving pure crystals

https://slideplayer.com/slide/4481676/
 Colloidal Precipitates

• Coagulation of Colloids: Coagulation can be hastened

by heating, stirring, and adding an electrolyte to the
medium.
• Colloidal suspensions are stable because all the particles
present are either positively or negatively charged.

• This charge results from cations or anions that are

bound to the surface of the particles. The process by
which ions are retained on the surface of a solid is
known as adsorption.
 Peptization of Colloids

• Peptization refers to the process by which a coagulated

colloid reverts to its original dispersed state.

• When a coagulated colloid is washed, some of the electrolyte

responsible for its coagulation is leached from the internal
liquid in contact with the solid particles.

• Removal of this electrolyte has the effect of increasing the

volume of the counter-ion layer. The repulsive forces
responsible for the original colloidal state are then
reestablished, and particles detach themselves from the
coagulated mass.

• The washings become cloudy as the freshly dispersed

particles pass through the filter.
 coprecipitation

• Process in which normal soluble compounds are carried out of

solution by a precipitate.

• coprecipitaion causes impurities

– Change the chemical composition of the precipitate
– Creates errors in gravimetric analysis

4 types of coprecipitaion:
– Surface adsorption
– Mixed crystal formation
– Occlusion
– Mechanical entrapment
•
 Ways to Minimize Impurities on
colloids

• Digestion: allowing precipitate to stand in mother liquor

(precipitating solution), usually while being heated.

• Washing a coagulated colloid with solution containing volatile

electrolyte.
 DRYING AND IGNITION OF
PRECIPITATES
• After filtration, the precipitate is heated until its mass
becomes constant.

• Heating removes the solvent and any volatile species

carried down with the precipitate.

• Some precipitates are also ignited to decompose the

solid and form a compound of known composition.

• This new compound is often called the weighing form.

•
 The Gravimetric determination of
Nickel
• Nickel is precipitated as nickel dimethyl glyoxime by adding
dimethyl glyoxime C4H6(NOH)2 and then adding a slight
excess of aqueous ammonia solution.

• The formation of complex compound between nickel (II) ion

and dimethylglyoxime requires an alkaline condition

• When the pH is buffered in the range of 4 to 10, the

formation of the red precipitates occurs in a solution.

• After the complex formation of nickel dimethylglyoxime, the

solution is filtered using sintered glass crucible to remove the
excess reagents and other chemicals.

• The precipitate collected must then be heated, cooled and

weighed.
 Ni-DMG Complex

Reference of Images:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Ni(dmg)2.JPG

http://core.ecu.edu/chem/chemlab/exper19/images/strawberryPrecip.jpg

http://www.ginsbergscientific.com/images/200z002web.jpg
 Calculations in Analytical
chemistry
Defining the mole

• corresponds to the mass of a substance that contains 6.023

x 1023 particles.

• SI unit for the amount of chemical substance.

• Amount does not refer to the mass or volume of your

sample but the number of atoms, molecules, etc. in your
sample
 Mole concept

• Molar mass- mass in grams of a substance

• adding atomic masses of all atoms in the chemical formula

results in molar mass

• 1 mole of substance X = gram atomic mass of substance X

• E.g. Water (H2O) molecular mass 18.02 g/mol

Converting grams to moles
 Stoichiometry

• Stoichiometry: term used to describe quantitative

relationships in chemistry.

• Any question that is quantitative in nature is a

stoichiometric problem.

• Points to note:
– a balanced chemical equation.
– gives mole ratio between the reactants and products.
– relates the amounts of compounds in a reaction.
 1 mol CH4 : 2 mol O2
1 mol CH4 : 1mol CO2
2 mol O2: 1mol CO2
2 mol O2 : 2 mol H2O

When doing stoichiometric calculations, mole fractions are made to look like fractions.
if we begin with the mass of one species in the reaction and want
to know the mass of other species consumed or produced we have

to use 3 ratios.

1. ratio that uses molar mass of the substance given.

2. mole ratio of the balance equation.

3. ratio using the molar mass of the substance we want to find.

 Example

• In the combustion of methane, how many moles of O2

are required if 6.75 mol of CH4 is to be completely
consumed.
 Solution
• 1.Start with balanced chemical equation.
• 2. establish a mole ratio using stoichiometric coefficients.

• 3. use mole ratio to relate the amount.

 Example

• Tetraphosphorus trisulfide, P4S3, is used in the manufacture of stike

anywhere matches. Elemental phosphorus and sulphur react directly to
form P4S3

• 8 P4 + 3S8 → 8 P4S3

• If we have 153 g of S8 and an excess of phosphorus, what mass of P4S3 can

be produced by this reaction.
 Strategy
if we begin with the mass of one species in the reaction and want to know the mass of other

species consumed or produced we have to use 3 ratios.

1. ratio that uses molar mass of the substance given.

2. mole ratio of the balance equation.

3. ratio using the molar mass of the substance we want to find.

 Solution

Chemical equation
Mass given (g) Molar mass ratio ratio
(1mol/g)

Molar mass of
desired species

153 g S8 x = 3.50 x 102 g P4S3

 Exercise
• A certain welding operation requires at least 86.0 g of
iron each time a weld is made. What is the minimum
mass (g) of iron (III) oxide that must be used for each
weld?

• 2 Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) → Al2O3 + 2 Fe

Strategy
 Solution

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 159.7 𝑔𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3

86.0 g Fe x ( )x( ) x( ) = 123 g Fe2O3
55.85 𝑔 𝐹𝑒 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3
Gravimetric calculations
 Exercise

• What mass of Cu(IO3)2 can be formed from 0.650 g of CuSO4.5H2O ?

Solution
 Exercise
• Treatment of a 0.2500 g sample of impure potassium chloride with
excess AgNO3 resulted in the formation of 0.2912 g AgCl.
• Calculate the percentage of KCl in the sample.
Solution
 Exercise

• The mercury in a 1.0451 g sample was precipitated with excess of

paraperiodic acid, H5IO6:
• 5Hg2+ + 2H5IO6 → Hg5(IO6)2 + 10H+
•
• The precipitate was filtered, washed free of precipitating agent,
dried and weighed and 0.5718 g was recovered. Calculate the
percentage of Hg2Cl2 in the sample.
Solution
 Titrations in Analytical Chemistry
It is a procedure for determining the amount of substance A by adding
a carefully measured volume with a known concentration of B until the
reaction of A and B is just complete.

A solution of known concentration (the titrant or standard solution)

delivered from a burette into the analyte solution until the substance
being analyzed is consumed.

2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or
otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
 Terminology
• When you carry out a simple acid-base titration, you use an
indicator to tell you when you have the acid and alkali mixed in
exactly the right proportions to "neutralise" each other.

• When the indicator changes color, this is often described as the end
point of the titration.

• In an ideal world, the color change would happen when you mix the
two solutions together in exactly the same proportions.
• equivalence point.
– The equivalence point - often signalled by the color change of an indicator.
– Amount of titrant is chemically equivalent to amount of analyte in sample.
• Primary standard: ultrapure reagent (99.9 pure) that serves as
reference material in titration methods.

• number of moles are accurately known.

•
• Requirements for primary standard
– High purity
– Modest cost
– Solubility in titration medium
– Large molar mass (minimize the relative error associated with weighing).
– Atmospheric stability.

secondary standard: is less pure and is chemically more reactive than

primary standards
 Properties of ideal standard solution

• Stable

• React rapidly with the analyte.

• React completely with analyte.

•
• Selective reaction with the analyte.
Useful relationships in volumetric
calculations
 Example 13-4 SWHC
• A 50.00 mL portion of HCl solution required 29.71 mL of 0.01963 M
Ba(OH)2 to reach an end point with bromocresol green indicator.
Calculate the molar concentration of HCl.
•
• Ba(OH)2 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + H2O
Solution
Info:
Vba(OH)2 = 29.71 mL

Cba(OH)2 = 0.01963 M
VHCl = 50.00 mL

CHCl = ?
Exercise
 Solution
1mol HgO : 2 mol OH-
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔𝑂 or 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻 −
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻 − 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔𝑂

use 3 ratios

1. ratio that uses molar mass of the substance given

2. mole ratio of the balance equation

3. ratio using the molar mass of the subatance we wish to find

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔𝑂 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻− 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂4 1000 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂4

0.4008 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
216.59 𝑔 𝐻𝑔𝑂 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔𝑂 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻− 𝑚𝑜𝑙
43.75 𝑚𝐿
= 0.08459 𝑀 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂4
 Titration curves
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations

▪ Titration (pH) curve: Plots the pH of the solution being analyzed as a

function of the amount of titrant added.
▪ Shows change in pH as volume of titrant is added.
▪ pH meter is used to monitor that change.

• POINTS TO NOTE :

• preequivalence: [unreact acid]

• pH = -log [H+]

• equivalence: pH = 7.00

• postequivalence: [excess base]: pH = pKw - pOH = 14.00 – pOH

 Example 14-1 SWHC
• A 50.00 mL of 0.0500 M HCl was titrated with 0.1000 M NaOH.
Calculate the pH after addition of (i) 0,00 mL, (ii) 10.00 mL (iii)
25.10 mL NaOH.
Solution
The pH at the equivalence point is 7.0 for the reaction of a strong acid and a
strong base
 Titrations of Weak Acids with
Strong Bases

• Unlike a strong acid-base titration, the titration curve for a weak acid or
base is quite a bit more complex to calculate.

• For example, if we were to titrate a weak acid with a strong base:

• the starting pH of the acid depends on the Ka value for the weak acid

• the salt formed during neutralization will hydrolyze and thus form a buffer
solution with the acid.

• These complications make it more difficult to generate a spreadsheet for a

weak-acid or weak-base titration..
 Titrations of Weak Acids with
Strong Bases
• POINTS TO NOTE :

• The starting pH of the acid depends on the Ka value for the weak acid

• For a strong acid-weak base or weak acid-strong base titration, the pH will
change rapidly at the very beginning and then have a gradual slope until near
the equivalence point.

• The gradual slope results from a buffer solution being produced by the
addition of the strong acid or base, which resists rapid change in pH until the
added acid or base exceeds the buffer's capacity and the rapid pH change
occurs near the equivalence point.

• The pH at the equivalence point does not equal 7.00.

• (The equivalence point for a weak acid-strong base titration has a pH > 7.00).
 Titrations of Weak Acids with Strong
Bases

• POINTS TO NOTE :
• When solving a titration problem with a weak acid and a strong base
there are certain values that you want to attain, these includes:

• the initial pH
• the pH after adding a small amount of base,
• the pH at the half-neutralization,
• the pH at the equivalence point,
• the pH after adding excess base.
 Titrations of Weak Acids with Strong
Bases

• Example:

Generate a curve for the titration of 50.00 mL of 0.100 M acetic acid with
0.100 M NaOH. Calculate the pH
.

(a)What is the initial pH before any amount of the NaOH solution has been
added? Ka = 1.8 × 10−5 for CH3CO2H.

(b) Calculate the pH after 5.0 mL of the NaOH solution has been added.

(c) Calculate the pH after 50.00 mL of the NaOH solution has been added.

(d) Calculate the pH after 60.0 mL of the NaOH solution has been added.
Titrations of Weak Acids with Strong Bases

• Solution:

The reaction can be represented as:

(a) At 0 .0 mL NaOH
(b) After the addition of 5.0 mL of NaOH solution has been introduced

Since the amount of the added base is smaller than the original amount of
the acid, the equivalence point has not been reached, the solution is buffer
and we can use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
 b) After 50.00 mL of NaOH are added, the number of moles of NaOH and
CH3CO2H are equal because the amounts of the solutions and their
concentrations are the same. All of the acetic acid is converted to

The concentration of acetate will be

The solution is similar to one formed by dissolving NaOAC in water

The equilibrium that must be focused on now is the basicity equilibrium for weak base
so we must determine Kb for the base by using the ion product constant for water:

Since Kw = [H+][OH−]:
 pH = 14.00- 5.28 = 8.72

Note that the pH at the equivalence point of this titration is significantly greater
than 7.
d) After the addition of 50.10 mL of NaOH solution has been introduced

pH =14.00-(-log 9.99 X10-5 ) = 10.00

2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or
otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
 Exercise

A 50.00 mL aliquot of 0.1000 M HCl is titrated with 0.1000 M NaoH.

Calculate the pH of the solution after addition of (i) 0.00 , (ii) 10.00 (iii)
25.00 , (iv) 40.00, (v) 55.0 mL NaOH

Calculate pH after addition of 0.00 , 5.00, 15.00, 25.00 , 40.00, 55.0

mL NaOH in the titration of 50.00 mL lactic acid
 COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATION

• Complexometric titrations are titrations based on complex

formation
• the formation of a colored complex is used to indicate the
end point of a titration

• useful for the determination of a mixture of different metal

ions in solution.

• An indicator capable of producing an unambiguous color

change is usually used to detect the end point of the titration.
• Complexometrix titrations are based on the reaction of a metal ion with a
chemical agent to form a metal-ligand complex.

• The metal ion is known as Central metal atom.

• The anion or neutral molecule is known as Ligand (L) or chelating agent

• M+ + L ML
Metal Ligand Metal-Ligand Complex

• The metal ions act as the Lewis acids whereas the ligands behave as
Lewis base.
 Types of complexing agents

• Monodentate/unidantate ligands-have single donor group

• Examples: NH3 , CN - , Cl - , I - , Br - ,
• (capable of donating only one unshared pair of electrons)

• are not satisfactory for complexometric titration.

• Low complex stability leading to indistinct end point
• Complex formation involves two or more intermediate species

• multidentate ligands are generally the most successful complexing agents.

• React more completely with cations thus provide sharper end points
• React with metals in a single step (Stoichiometry is 1:1 regardless
of the ion charge)

A: tetradentate ligand; B: bidentate ligan

unidentate ligand
 Ethylenediaminteetracetic acid
(EDTA)
• One of the most common chelating agents used for complexometric
titrations in analytical chemistry

• EDTA molecule has 6 potential sites for bonding a metal ion

• 4 carboxylic groups and two amino groups

• It reacts with most cations to form soluble stable complexes.

• The formed complexes contain the metal and EDTA in the ratio of
1:1 irrespective to the charge of the metal ion.
• EDTA is not a selective chelating agent.
• forms stable complexes with most cations

• Three methods employed to overcome this problem are:

• Chemical separations

Control of pH
•
• Masking agent ( reagents form complex reagentses with interfering ions which are more stable than complexes
formed with EDTA)
• The various EDTA species are often
abbreviated as H4Y, H3Y-, H2Y2-, HY3- and Y4-

• The five species vary as a function of pH.

• H2Y2- species predominate from pH 3-6.

• The Y4- form of EDTA is the predominate

form at pH values greater than 10.

• The most basic form (Y4-) is the one which

primarily reacts with metal ions.
Complexes of EDTA and metal
ions

[Y 4− ] = Y 4− CT 
CT is the total concentration of all the free EDTA species in the solution

CT = [ Y4-] + [H3Y-] + [H2Y2-] + [H3Y3-] + [H4Y]

aY4- is dependent on pH

[ MY n- 4 ]
Kf =
[ M n + ] Y 4- [C T ]
 Conditional formation constant
Used to calculate equilibrium concentration of the metal ion and the complex at
the equivalence point and where there is an excess reactant.

At a given pH the value Y4- is a constant that can be combined with Kf

[ MY n- 4 ]
K = K = K f  Y 4-
'
=
[ M n+ ][C T ]
f

Y4- and K’f becomes smaller with a decrease in pH

This in turn means that the metal-EDTA complex become less
stable at low pH’s for cations e.g. Ca2+

Cations with larger formation constant provide sharp end

points even in acidic media
 EDTA Titration curves
• The titration curve of metal ion with EDTA is similar to strong acid (Mn+) with weak base (EDTA)

• Prior to equivalence point, the metal ion (Mn+) is in excess

– Before the equivalence point, the [Mn+] is equal to the concentration of excess unreacted Mn+.
– Initial pM is calculatetd from intial [Mn+]

pM = − log[ M n + ]

• At equivalenace point,
– [Mn+] = [EDTA]
– Some free Mn+ generated by
– MYn-4  Mn+ + EDTA
– The concentration of Mn+ , is determined by the dissociation of the MYn-4

• Remember:
[ MY n- 4 ]
K = K = K f  Y 4-
'
=
[ M n+ ][C T ]
f
• After the equivalence point (excess EDTA)
• All the metal ion is in MYn-4 form
A small amount of free Mn+ sexists in equilibrium with MYn-4 and EDTA.
 EDTA Titration Techniques

• Direct titration: analyte is titrated with standard EDTA with

solution buffered at a pH where Kf’ is large

• Back titration: known excess of EDTA is added to analyte. Excess

EDTA is titrated with 2nd metal ion.

• Displacement titration: For metals without a good indicator ion,

the analyte can be treated with excess Mg(EDTA)2-. The analyte
displaces Mg, and than Mg can be titrated with standard EDTA

• Indirect titration: Anions can be analyzed by precipitation with

excess metal ion and then titration of the metal in the dissolved
precipitate with EDTA
 Back titration
• A titration method in which the excess of standard solution used to
consume an analyte is determined by titration with the second standard
solution.

• We use two reagents (titrants)

•
– one, that reacts with the original sample (titrant A), and second (titrant B),
that reacts with the first reagent

– The second titration's result shows how much of the excess reagent was used
in the first titration
 Argentometric titrations
Titration methods where silver nitrate is used as a precipitating agent.

use silver ion for the determination of halides (Cl−, Br−, I−)

• Precipitation titrations
– Based on reactions that yield ionic compounds of limited solubility.
 Types of argentometric titrations

Method Indicator

Mohr Chromate ion

Fajans Adsorption indicator e.g. fluorescein

Volhard Ferric ion

 Volhard method
Cl- is precipitated by excess AgNO3
Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl (s) (white precipitate) Ksp = 1.82 x 10-10

Titrant 1

• ‘excess‘ - the moles of silver nitrate added are known to exceed the moles of
chloride ions present in the sample so that all the chloride will react

Excess Ag+ is titrated with KSCN in the presence of Fe3+

Ag+(aq) + SCN-(aq) → AgSCN (s) (white precipitate) Ksp = 1.1 x 10-12

Titrant 2

When Ag+ has been consumed, a red complex forms

Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq) → FeSCN2+(aq) (red precipitate)
The AgCl precipitate must be separated from the thiocyanate to prevent
the reaction:

AgCl(s) + SCN- D AgSCN + Cl-

Since AgCl is more soluble than AgSCN , equilibrium will shift to the
right causing a negative error for the chloride analysis. (i.e. Ksp AgCl is
greater than that of AgSCN).
(because of overconsumption of SCN-)

To eliminate this error, AgCl must be filtered or add nitrobenzene before

titrating with thiocyanate; nitrobenzene will form an oily layer on the
surface of the AgCl precipitate, thus preventing its reaction with
thiocyanate.
Low results for chloride can be overcome by :

1. Filtering the AgCl precipitate, thus protecting the precipitate from coming
in contact with the added SCN- solution (before titrating with SCN-).

2. addition of nitrobenzene or chloroform, which surrounds the precipitate

and shields it from the aqueous medium.
• The titration is usually done in acidic pH medium to prevent precipitation of
iron hydroxides, Fe(OH)3.

• Carbonate, oxalate and arsenate ions do not interfere.

 Back titration calculations
•
• with argentometry calculations, all the substances used react on the 1:1 ratio.

• First we have to calculate number of moles of silver nitrate initially added to the
chlorides sample.

• to calculate amount of the analyte we have to subtract amount of titrated excess

from the initial amount of reactant used.
 Example

• A 4.912 g sample of petroleum product was burned in tube

furnace and the SO2 produced was collected in 3% H2O2.
• SO2 (g) + H2O2 → H2SO4
• A 25.00 mL portion of 0.00873 M NaoH was introduced into
the solution of H2SO4, following which the excess base was
back titrated with 15.17 mL of 0.01102 M HCl. Calculate the
sulphur concentration in the sample in ppm.
 Solution

Total mmol NaoH = 25.00 mL x 0.08873 mmol/mL = 0.21825 mmol NaoH

mmol HCl added = 15.17 mL x 0.01102 mmol/mL = 0.16171 mmol HCl

mmol NaOH consumed by the analyte = 0.21825 - 0.16171 = 0.05108