CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

ECOWAS came into existence through a treaty signed on May 28, 1975, in Lagos, Nigeria,

by fifteen West African States. Leaders from General Yakubu Gowon of Nigeria to Gnassingbe

Eyadema of Togo, and Sangoule Lamizana of Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), shared a

common vision for the formation of ECOWAS – to foster cooperation and integration for

economic growth and development in West Africa.¹ The primary objective of ECOWAS is to

promote cooperation and development across various economic sectors, including industry,

transportation, telecommunications, energy, agriculture, natural resources, commerce, monetary

and financial matters, as well as social and cultural affairs. This collective effort aims to elevate

the standard of living, ensure economic stability, strengthen relations among member states, and

contribute to the overall progress and development of the African continent.²

The concept of economic integration gained traction due to the challenging socio-economic

conditions faced by West Africa, compounded by the unfavorable international political

economy of the 1970s. Following the global oil price shock of 1973, many West African nations,

except for oil-producing Nigeria, encountered significant economic difficulties, including

external balance issues and a reliance on foreign financial support to sustain imports and foster

economic growth. In response, ECOWAS emerged as a pivotal multilateral institutional

framework equipped with dynamic strategies to address the economic underdevelopment

prevalent in West Africa.³ Economic integration was perceived as the most effective approach to

overcoming these challenges, based on the theoretical premise that such integration positively

impacts the Gross National Product (GNP) growth rates of participating countries. The benefits

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of economic integration as outlined by Jaber, highlighting how it leads to increased market size,

economic activity, efficiency, and trade harmonization. It also acknowledges potential challenges

such as polarization within integrated areas.⁴

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has emerged as a prominent

player in conflict prevention and management within the sub-region. Since 1990, initiatives like

the Standing Mediation Committee (SMC) and the Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in

Liberia have underscored ECOWAS's commitment to restoring peace in West Africa. However,

it's important to note that ECOWAS initially prioritized socio-economic development over peace

and security concerns, as reflected in its founding treaty which lacked security-related provisions.

This emphasis on economic cooperation was deliberate, aimed at avoiding divisive political

issues. Despite this focus, efforts were made to address security matters through protocols like

the Protocol on Non-Aggression (1978) and the Protocol Relating to Mutual Assistance on

Defence (1981).⁵ These protocols aimed to bolster security and defense across the sub-region.

Additionally, individual states within the region forged bilateral defense agreements to enhance

their security strategies. For instance, Guinea and Sierra Leone signed a defense agreement in

1971, leading to Guinean troops aiding Sierra Leone during coup attempts.⁶

The Senegambia confederation between Senegal and the Gambia also stemmed partly from

security concerns, with Senegal deploying troops to the Gambia to maintain law and order during

coup attempts. Similarly, Nigeria and Benin established a defense pact to provide mutual

assistance in defense matters. In 1984, five West African states, including Nigeria, Niger, Ghana,

Benin, and Togo, signed a quadripartite agreement focusing on security cooperation, customs,

extradition, and police cooperation. The push for greater cooperation in defense and security

arises from states' recognition of their vulnerability to internal disruptions and external

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influences. The rise of military interventions by states outside the region in conflicts within the

region, such as France and Libya's involvement in the Chadian civil war, has heightened

concerns about regional security. Additionally, Libya's aggressive search for alliance partners in

West Africa has raised alarm, highlighting the need for collective security measures within

ECOWAS.⁷

The 1978 Protocol of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

emphasized the imperative of maintaining peace and harmonious relations among member states.

It prohibited the use of force or aggression and condemned acts of subversion or hostility against

the territorial integrity or political independence of other member states. However, critics argued

that the protocol lacked institutional frameworks to address acts of aggression effectively,

especially in cases of internal insurrection supported by external actors or rebellion within the

community.⁸ To address these shortcomings, the 1981 Protocol aimed to establish a

comprehensive security framework for ECOWAS. It focused on dealing with internal armed

conflicts engineered and supported from outside the affected member state, posing a threat to

peace and security across the entire community. The protocol envisioned the creation of the

Allied Armed Forces of the Community (AAFC), comprised of designated units from existing

national armed forces, to deter security breaches and provide mutual assistance in case of

aggression.

Additionally, the protocol empowered the ECOWAS Authority to appoint a Force

Commander to lead the AAFC and established institutional bodies such as the Defence Council

and Defence Commission to oversee defense matters. Despite these advancements, the protocol

faced challenges, particularly opposition from Francophone member states who established their

defense agreement, ANAD, parallel to the ECOWAS protocol. Furthermore, institutional and

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financial limitations within ECOWAS delayed the development and implementation of these

frameworks. Consequently, when the Liberian crisis erupted in 1989, ECOWAS's defense

protocol was insufficient to facilitate effective intervention, highlighting the need for further

institutional and operational enhancements within the organization.⁹

The eruption of the Liberian civil war on December 24, 1989, led by Charles Taylor against

the government of Samuel Doe, presented a significant challenge for ECOWAS in conflict

management. Rooted in issues of bad governance, exploitative economic policies, and corruption,

the war symbolized the culmination of public dissatisfaction with Doe's repressive regime, which

stifled political freedoms and resorted to political assassinations to silence dissent. What began

as a perceived minor border skirmish escalated into a full-scale civil war, with Taylor's National

Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) launching attacks from Nimba County in eastern Liberia. As

the conflict intensified and rebel forces advanced towards Monrovia, both government and rebel

factions targeted civilians, resulting in widespread casualties and humanitarian crises. Foreign

embassies, including the Nigerian Embassy, became targets of attack, leading to the massacre of

thousands of West African nationals.¹⁰ The escalating violence and humanitarian disasters

signaled the urgent need for intervention to restore peace and security.

Recognizing the gravity of the situation, ECOWAS convened its 13th Summit in Banjul,

The Gambia, in May 1990, under the chairmanship of Blaise Compaore, President of Burkina

Faso. The summit resolved to establish a Standing Mediation Committee (SMC) to mediate the

Liberian crisis and called for immediate ceasefire, refugee evacuation, restoration of law and

order, and democratic processes.¹¹ Subsequently, the SMC decided to establish the ECOWAS

Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), composed of military contingents from ECOWAS

member states and additional support from Guinea and Sierra Leone. However, the decision to

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deploy ECOMOG was met with criticism, particularly from Francophone member states, who

argued that ECOWAS's mandate was primarily economic integration, not security-related

functions. Critics also questioned the legality of intervention under international charters and

ECOWAS protocols, citing the need for a formal request for assistance from Liberia's legitimate

head of state, as outlined in the 1981 Defense Protocol. Despite these challenges, ECOMOG's

intervention marked a pivotal moment in ECOWAS's involvement in peacekeeping and conflict

resolution within the region.¹²

Doubts linger over whether Samuel Doe sent a formal request for assistance, challenging

criticisms of ECOWAS intervention in Liberia. Proponents argue that economic integration and

political stability are interdependent, underscoring the need for regional security to facilitate

economic cooperation. ECOWAS's involvement in conflict resolution is justified by the

imperative of maintaining peace and security, as echoed by regional leaders and international

observers. Critics contesting ECOWAS intervention overlook the practicality of addressing

humanitarian crises and the regional implications of internal conflicts. The external support

received by rebel forces in Liberia poses a threat to sub-regional peace, justifying ECOWAS's

action under the 1978 Non-Aggression Protocol.¹³ Moreover, the absence of proper procedural

adherence in invoking the protocol highlights institutional shortcomings within ECOWAS. The

Liberian crisis exposed the lack of a robust security framework within ECOWAS, leading to ad-

hoc responses and criticisms. Similar challenges surfaced during ECOWAS intervention in

Sierra Leone, where Nigeria's military involvement raised legal and procedural questions. The

absence of formal ECOWAS authorization underscores the need for a structured security

framework to guide regional interventions.¹⁴

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 Lessons drawn from the volatile security landscape of West Africa underscore the

importance of democratic governance and political stability in achieving economic integration.

ECOWAS reaffirmed its commitment to political pluralism and human rights through the

adoption of the Declaration of Political Principles in 1991 and the Revised ECOWAS Treaty in

1993, emphasizing accountability, social justice, and the consolidation of democratic systems as

foundational principles for regional development and stability.¹⁵

However it is against this backdrop that the study aims to investigate the influence of the

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) on promoting peace and stability in

West Africa, focusing specifically on the political crisis in Ghana spanning from 1979 to 1993.

During this period, Ghana experienced significant political upheavals, including coups, regime

changes, and periods of instability. Against this backdrop, ECOWAS emerged as a regional

organization committed to fostering cooperation and integration among West African states, with

the ultimate goal of promoting peace, stability, and economic development in the region. The

study will delve into ECOWAS's interventions and initiatives aimed at addressing the political

crisis in Ghana.¹⁶ It will examine the strategies employed by ECOWAS to mediate conflicts,

facilitate dialogue among political factions, and promote democratic governance in Ghana.

Additionally, the study will assess the effectiveness of ECOWAS's interventions in mitigating

the political crisis and restoring peace and stability in Ghana. This analysis will involve

evaluating the outcomes of ECOWAS-mediated negotiations, peacekeeping efforts, and

diplomatic initiatives in the Ghanaian context. Furthermore, the study will consider the broader

implications of ECOWAS's involvement in Ghana for regional peace and stability in West Africa.

It will explore how ECOWAS's actions in Ghana may have influenced political dynamics and

conflict resolution efforts in neighboring countries within the ECOWAS region.

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1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to examine the impact of ECOWAS on peace in West Africa: A case

study of Ghana political crisis, 1979-1993, while the objectives are to;

i. analyze the historical context and dynamics of the Ghanaian political crisis from 1979 to

1993;

ii. investigate the interventions and initiatives undertaken by ECOWAS during the Ghanaian

political crisis, including diplomatic efforts, peacekeeping operations, and mediation

attempts;

iii. assess the effectiveness and outcomes of ECOWAS interventions in mitigating conflict,

fostering dialogue, and promoting peace and stability within Ghana and the broader West

African region! and

iv. identify the challenges, limitations, and lessons learned from ECOWAS's engagement in

addressing the Ghanaian political crisis.

1.3 Statement of Problem

The statement of the problem highlights the need to delve into the intricacies of the political

crisis in Ghana spanning from 1979 to 1993. This era was marked by significant upheavals,

including coups, civil unrest, and transitions in governance, which greatly impacted the stability

of the region. Amidst this tumultuous backdrop, ECOWAS emerged as a potential actor capable

of exerting influence and facilitating peace within West Africa. However, the specific impact and

effectiveness of ECOWAS interventions in resolving the Ghanaian political crisis remain

ambiguous. To address this gap in understanding, the study aims to thoroughly examine the role

played by ECOWAS during the Ghanaian political crisis. By analyzing the various initiatives,

diplomatic engagements, and interventions undertaken by ECOWAS in response to the crisis, the

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research seeks to elucidate the extent to which ECOWAS contributed to peacebuilding efforts in

West Africa. This entails exploring the mechanisms through which ECOWAS intervened, the

challenges encountered, and the outcomes achieved.

Through a comprehensive examination of ECOWAS's involvement in the Ghanaian

political crisis, the study seeks to provide insights into the effectiveness of regional organizations

in addressing conflict and fostering stability within the West African context. By shedding light

on the successes, limitations, and lessons learned from ECOWAS's engagement in Ghana, the

research aims to contribute to broader discussions on peacebuilding, regional cooperation, and

conflict resolution in Africa.

1.4 Scope and limitations of the Study

The scope of this study encompasses a thorough examination of the Ghanaian political

crisis from 1979 to 1993, with a particular emphasis on the role and impact of the Economic

Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in promoting peace and stability within the

region. The research delves into various aspects of the crisis, including coups, civil unrest, and

transitions in governance, to understand the complexities of the situation. However, it's important

to acknowledge certain limitations. Firstly, the study's focus is confined to the Ghanaian political

crisis during the specified timeframe, limiting the generalizability of findings to other contexts or

periods of conflict. Additionally, the availability and reliability of data and sources may pose

constraints on the depth and comprehensiveness of the analysis. Furthermore, the study's reliance

on existing literature, archival documents, and secondary sources may introduce potential biases

or gaps in information.

Despite these limitations, the researcher addressed the problem by employing a

comprehensive research methodology. This included conducting extensive literature reviews,

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archival research, and analysis of primary documents to gain insights into the Ghanaian political

crisis and ECOWAS interventions. By triangulating data from multiple sources and employing

rigorous analytical frameworks, the researcher aimed to mitigate potential biases and enhance the

validity of findings. Furthermore, the researcher adopted a critical approach to data interpretation,

acknowledging the complexities and nuances of the Ghanaian political crisis and ECOWAS's

role therein. By considering alternative perspectives and engaging in reflexivity, the researcher

sought to ensure a balanced and nuanced analysis of the topic.

1.5 Research Methodology

The research methodology for this study relies primarily on secondary sources to gather

information and insights into the Ghanaian political crisis from 1979 to 1993 and the role of the

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in addressing it. Secondary sources

include scholarly articles, books, reports, and archival documents related to the political history

of Ghana, regional politics in West Africa, ECOWAS interventions, and peacebuilding efforts.

The researcher conducts extensive literature reviews to gain a comprehensive understanding of

the historical context, dynamics, and key events of the Ghanaian political crisis. This involves

analyzing academic journals, books, and other publications that offer insights into the causes,

actors, and consequences of the crisis. Additionally, the researcher reviews reports and

documents produced by ECOWAS, as well as analyses and evaluations of ECOWAS

interventions in West Africa during the specified timeframe. These documents provide valuable

information on the organization's policies, strategies, and activities related to conflict resolution

and peacebuilding in the region.

1.6 Literature Review

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 Isaac et al, in The Role of ECOWAS on Peace and Conflict Resolution in Nigeria and

Gambia.¹⁷ The article delves into the political conflicts that have unfolded in Nigeria and Gambia,

examining the root causes and dynamics at play in each context. It sheds light on the role of the

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in maintaining peace and security

across the West African region, drawing on examples of ECOWAS-led peacekeeping efforts in

countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Cote d'Ivoire. The findings of the article reveal

significant factors contributing to political instability in Nigeria and Gambia. In Nigeria, tensions

between the North and South are identified as a major driver of insecurity, exacerbated by the

activities of groups like Boko Haram. Meanwhile, in Gambia, the actions of President Jammeh,

particularly his refusal to accept election results, are highlighted as triggers for political conflict.

The article advocates for the implementation of early warning mechanisms to detect and address

potential sources of conflict before they escalate.

In another work by The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): the

Challenges to the Implementation of the Protocol on the Free Movement of Goods, Persons and

Establishment,¹⁸ The article explores the challenges hindering the implementation of the

'ECOWAS' Protocol on the Free Movement of goods, services, persons, and capital. It identifies

various obstacles such as the absence of political commitment, administrative barriers, civil

conflicts, wars, and terrorism as significant barriers to the effective implementation of the

Protocol across West Africa. In its findings, the paper underscores how these challenges

undermine the objectives of the Protocol and impede the free flow of goods, services, persons,

and capital within the ECOWAS region. The article sheds light on the complexities and realities

that hinder regional integration efforts in West Africa. Moreover, the article offers

recommendations aimed at addressing these obstacles and enhancing the prospects for successful

10
implementation of the Protocol. It emphasizes the need for ECOWAS leaders to prioritize efforts

to overcome these challenges, urging concerted action to strengthen political commitment,

mitigate administrative restrictions, and address underlying issues such as civil conflicts, wars,

and terrorism.

Amadu, in ECOWAS and the limits of peacemaking in West Africa,¹⁹ the article discusses

the historical context preceding the establishment of the Economic Community of West African

States (ECOWAS) and the significant impact it has had on the region since its inception. It

highlights the prevalence of authoritarian regimes and political instability in West Africa before

ECOWAS, emphasizing the need for a regional organization to address governance, peace, and

security challenges. ECOWAS is portrayed as a transformative force in West Africa, credited

with mitigating the effects of Cold War rivalries through diplomatic efforts and mediation. The

organization's role in facilitating political reconciliation and preventing hostilities among

member states is underscored as a crucial achievement over the past four decades. Additionally,

the article acknowledges the influence of external models, particularly the European Union (EU),

in inspiring and encouraging West African leaders to pursue regional integration efforts. The

economic success of the BRICS countries is also cited as further motivation for regional

cooperation in West Africa.

Gills in The Role of ECOWAS in Managing Political Crisis and Conflict The Cases of

Guinea and Guinea-Bissau,²⁰ delves into the involvement of the Economic Community of West

African States (ECOWAS) in addressing political and security challenges in Guinea and Guinea-

Bissau. It emphasizes ECOWAS's political will and commitment to utilizing established

protocols for conflict prevention and resolution, including dispatching missions, appointing

mediators, and condemning human rights violations. However, the passage also highlights the

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limitations and challenges faced by ECOWAS in addressing the root causes of instability in both

countries. Despite temporary efforts to calm tensions, the recurrent crises underscore the

difficulty of building legitimate and capable states capable of ensuring citizen security. This

involves far-reaching reforms in the security sector, curtailing military involvement in crime, and

improving economic management to restore state credibility.

Furthermore, the article underscores the importance of substantial investment in human and

financial resources to bolster ECOWAS's capacity to address complex situations effectively. It

stresses the need for prioritizing actions and strategies based on imminent threats to peace and

security while avoiding a proliferation of disparate initiatives that could dilute strategic efforts.

In addition, the passage emphasizes the role of external partners in supporting ECOWAS's

efforts while also advocating for strengthening national institutions and ensuring accountability

of political authorities in member states. It underscores the collective action of citizens in

holding political leaders accountable and preserving peace and security within the region.

Furthermore, Ani and Amusan, in ECOWAS, Peace and Conflict Management in West

Africa,²¹ the article discusses the establishment of the Economic Community of West African

States (ECOWAS) in the twentieth century with the aim of fostering cooperation to promote

peace and sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa. It highlights the paradox of persistent

civil wars, internal conflicts, and terrorism hindering the achievement of peace despite

ECOWAS's objectives. Furthermore, the article explores the challenges facing regional peace in

West Africa, emphasizing the detrimental impact of recurring conflicts on sustainable

development efforts. It acknowledges ECOWAS's efforts in managing conflicts in countries like

Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, and Cote d'Ivoire, while also noting the policies and

programs implemented to address these challenges. Finally, the article calls for a multi-track

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approach to tackle various issues such as terrorism, revolution, multi-dimensional conflicts, and

political crises in the region. It suggests that a comprehensive strategy involving multiple levels

of intervention is necessary to effectively combat these challenges and achieve lasting peace and

development in West Africa.

Likewise, according to Adewale in the politics of succession crisis in West Africa: the case

of Togo,²² the article discusses the establishment of the Economic Community of West African

States (ECOWAS) in the twentieth century with the aim of fostering cooperation to promote

peace and sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa. It highlights the paradox of persistent

civil wars, internal conflicts, and terrorism hindering the achievement of peace despite

ECOWAS's objectives. Furthermore, it explores the challenges facing regional peace in West

Africa, emphasizing the detrimental impact of recurring conflicts on sustainable development

efforts. It acknowledges ECOWAS's efforts in managing conflicts in countries like Sierra Leone,

Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, and Cote d'Ivoire, while also noting the policies and programs

implemented to address these challenges. Finally, it calls for a multi-track approach to tackle

various issues such as terrorism, revolution, multi-dimensional conflicts, and political crises in

the region. It suggests that a comprehensive strategy involving multiple levels of intervention is

necessary to effectively combat these challenges and achieve lasting peace and development in

West Africa.

The role of ECOWAS Parliament in combating insecurity in West Africa by Kolawole,²³

The paper delves into several interconnected themes regarding the role of the ECOWAS

Parliament in addressing insecurity within West Africa. Firstly, it identify impediments

hindering the Parliament's effectiveness despite the presence of external peacekeeping efforts, it

sheds light on the prevalent security issues gripping West Africa, ranging from political conflicts

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in countries like Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, to religious and terrorist attacks in

Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Mali. The article presents findings indicating that insecurity in the

region is multifaceted, encompassing religious, political, social, and economic dimensions. It

also acknowledges the ECOWAS Parliament's significant contributions to conflict prevention,

democracy promotion, and governance enhancement within member states. However, despite

these contributions, the article identifies various factors inhibiting the Parliament's effectiveness,

including democracy and governance deficits, sovereignty concerns, language barriers,

xenophobia, and external interference. The article offers recommendations to address these

challenges, such as institutionalizing a permanent military institution like ECOMOG, severing

economic and defense ties with former colonial powers, and empowering the Parliament with

full legislative authority.

Finally, Isiaka, in Managing Arms in Peace Processes: ECOWAS and the West African

Civil Conflicts,²⁴ discusses the issue of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) proliferation in

Africa, particularly focusing on West Africa. The article also examines the significance of

SALW proliferation in the context of West African security and the efforts of the Economic

Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to address this issue through initiatives such as

the ECOWAS Moratorium on the Importation, Exportation, and Manufacture of SALW.

Furthermore, the article raises questions regarding the effectiveness of the ECOWAS

Moratorium and the challenges associated with controlling SALW during peace support

operations and peace processes in West Africa. It also explores the role of ECOWAS as a sub-

regional organization in maintaining regional peace and security, tracing its evolution from an

institution for economic integration to one involved in regional security issues. Additionally, the

14
article discusses the establishment of the ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG)

and its role in peacekeeping efforts in countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Cote d'Ivoire.

..

15
Notes and References

1. Olaniyan, R. O "Integration in the ECOWAS: Some Basic Issues." In Modupeola Irele

(eds.), The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): A Bibliography and
Source Book. Lagos: The Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1990.
2. Ministry of External Affairs, Federal Republic of Nigeria (eds.). Nigeria and the
ECOWAS since 1985: Towards a Dynamic Regional Integration. Enugu/Lagos: Fourth
Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd./the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1991.
3. Ibid
4. Aning, K. E. "Peacekeeping Under ECOMOG: A Sub-regional Approach." In Jakkie,
Cilliers and Greg, Mills (eds.), From Peacekeeping to Complex Emergencies: Peace
Support Missions in Africa., Johannesburg and Pretoria: The South African Institute of
International Affairs (SIIA), and the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), 1999.
5. Ibid
6. Adisa, J. "The Politics of Regional Military Cooperation: The Case of ECOMOG." In
Vogt, M.A. (ed.), The Liberian Crisis and ECOMOG: A Bold Attempt at Regional
Peacekeeping, Lagos: Gabumo Publishing, 1992.
7. Ibid
8. Ibid
9. Ohanwe, C. Augustine. The United Nations and Post-Cold War Conflicts in Africa:
Liberia and Somalia as Two Case Studies. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of
Political Science, University of Helsinki, 2000.
10. Kuffor, K. O., "The Legality of the Intervention in Liberian Civil War by the Economic
Community of West African States." African Journal of International and Comparative
Law, vol. 5, no. 3, 1993.
11. Ofuatey-Kodjoe, W. "Regional Organisations and Resolution of Internal Conflict: The
ECOMOG Intervention in Liberia." International Peacekeeping, vol. 1, no. 3, 1994.
12. Adisa, J. "The Politics of Regional Military Cooperation: The Case of ECOMOG." In
Vogt, M.A. (ed.), The Liberian Crisis and ECOMOG: A Bold Attempt at Regional
Peacekeeping, Lagos: Gabumo Publishing, 1992.

16
13. Adisa, J. "Nigeria in ECOMOG: Political Undercurrents and the Burden of Community
Spirit." In Jide, Owoeye (ed.), Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: College Press
Ltd, 1993.
14. Dorina, A.et. al., Appraising Efforts to Improve Conflict Management in West Africa.
Accra, Ghana: IPA, ECOWAS, and KAIPTC Conference Report, 2004.
15. Ibid
16. Ibid
17. Isaac T. T et al., The Role of ECOWAS on Peace and Conflict Resolution in Nigeria and
Gambia," IRA-International Journal of Management and Social Sciences, Vol. 12, No.3,
2018, pp.55-61.
18. Esekumemu,.V. C., The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): the
Challenges to the Implementation of the Protocol on the Free Movement of Goods,
Persons and Establishment, Developing Country Studies, Vol. 4, No 3, 2014, pp. 124-131.
19. Amadu. S. "ECOWAS and the limits of peacemaking in West Africa," Journal of African
Studies, Vol. 6, No.2, 2020.
20. Gills. Y. O., The Role of ECOWAS in Managing Political Crisis and Conflict The Cases
of Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Abuja: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2010.
21. Ani. J. A., and Amusan. L., "ECOWAS, Peace and Conflict Management in West Africa,'
Journal of African Foreign Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2016, pp. 19-32
22. Adewale., B. The Politics of Succession Crisis in West Africa: the Case of Togo,
International Journal on World Peace, Vol. 25, No. 2, 2008, pp. 33-55
23. Kolawole, W. L., The role of ECOWAS Parliament in combating insecurity in West
Africa," Dissertation, National Institute for Legislative and Democratic
Studies/University of Benin Post Graduate Programmes, March 2021.
24. Isiaka. A. B., Managing Arms in Peace Processes: ECOWAS and the West African Civil
Conflicts," 2009, available online @www.africanos.eu (Accessed on March, 24, 2024)

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