UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD

INTRODUCTION TO AGRONOMY
(AGR - 104)

Prepared by
Dr. Smt. Ganajaxi Math
Dr. Sudha T.
Dr. Rajkumara, S.

2019-20

DEPARTMENT OF AGONOMY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD
Theory

Agronomy and its scope, seeds and sowing, tillage and tilth, crop density and
geometry, crop nutrition, manures and fertilizers, nutrient use efficiency, water
resources, crop water requirement, WUE, irrigation scheduling, criteria and
methods, quality of irrigation water, water logging, drainage, weeds- importance,
classification, crop weed competition, concepts of weed management principles
and methods, herbicides. Growth and development of crops, factors affecting
growth and development, crops and cropping systems, crop rotation and its
principles, crop management technologies, harvesting and threshing of crops.

Practical
Identification of crops, seeds, fertilizers, herbicides and tillage implements. Effect
of sowing depth on germination and seedling vigour. Identification of weeds in
crops, methods of herbicide and fertilizer application, study of yield contributing
characters and yield estimation, numerical exercises on fertilizer requirement, plant
population, herbicides and water requirement. Use of tillage implements –
reversible plough, one way plough, harrow, leveller, seed drill, methods of
irrigation

Ref:

Gopal Chandra De, 1999, Fundamentals of Agronomy, Oxford and IBH

Publishing Company
Singh, S. S. 1988, Crop management under irrigated and rainfed conditions.
Kalyani Publishers

Reddi and Reddy, 1995, Efficient use of irrigation water. Kalyani Publishers
Lecture - 1

Agriculture – Meaning and Scope of Agronomy

The term agriculture is derived from the Latin words “ager” or “agri” meaning
“soil” and ‘cultra’ meaning ‘cultivation’. Agriculture is a very broad term
encompassing all aspects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry
etc. Agriculture may be defined as the art, the science and the business of
producing crops and livestock for man’s use and employment. Agriculture is the
cultivation of lands for production of crops for a regular supply of food and other
needs for progress of the nation. Agriculture is influenced by a large number of
factors, some of which can be controlled by man (soil and irrigation) which others
are beyond the control (climate).

The term “Agronomy” is derived from Greek words “Agros” meaning “field” and
“nomos” meaning “to manage” Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science
which deals with principles and practices of soil, water and crop management.
Agronomy deals with methods which provide favourable environment to the crop
for higher productivity. Importance of basic sciences for development of
Agricultural science
Basic science is the study of basic principles and fundamentals of the respective
subject.
Applied science is the study in which the basic principles and fundamentals of
respective subject are applied in a practical field.

Agricultural sciences are essentially applied sciences and are dependent on basic
sciences of Botany, Physiology, Bio-chemistry, Ecology, Zoology, Chemistry,
Physics, Mathematics, Economics etc.

For example

1. Knowledge of Botany is essential for Plant breeding and Genetics people to

develop newer and different varieties in crops suitable to particular agro-climatic
condition.
2. The knowledge of zoology (basic science of entomology) is helping the
scientist/student/farmer to identify the insect pests which are responsible for
damage to agricultural produce.
3. Soil chemistry helps in understanding the plant nutrient status in the soil and the
deficiency symptoms in plants.
4. Physics helps in understanding the weather phenomena and soil conditions

5. Mathematics is helpful in agricultural research and experimentation through

statistics and Agricultural economics.

6. Study of economics is helpful in estimating the costs and returns and existing
conditions of farmers in villages for suggesting cost effective improvements.
Without basic science there can be no development in applied science. In the field
of Agriculture basic and applied sciences are interrelated to each other.

Scope of Agronomy

Agronomy is a dynamic discipline with the advancement of knowledge and better

understanding of plant and environment, agricultural practices are modified and
new practices developed for high productivity, for example availability of chemical
fertilizer has necessitated the generation of knowledge on the method, quantity and
time of application of fertilizers.

Similarly availability of herbicides for the control of weeds has led to development
of knowledge about selectivity, time and method of application of herbicides. To
overcome the problems different management practices are developed.
Population pressure is increasing but area under cultivation is static, therefore
more number of crops has to be grown on the same piece of land to increase the
yield. As a result, intensive cropping has come into practice. New technology has
to be developed to overcome the effect of moisture stress under dryland
conditions. As new varieties of crops with high yield potential become available
package of practices have to be developed to exploit their full potential.
Restoration of soil fertility, preparation of good seed bed, use of proper seed rates,
correct dates of sowing for each improved variety, proper conservation and
management of soil moisture and proper control of weeds are agronomic practices
to make our limited land and water resources more productive. Relation of
Agronomy to other sciences Agronomy is a synthesis of several disciplines like soil
science, Agricultural chemistry, crop physiology, plant ecology, biochemistry and
economics. Soil physical, chemical and biological properties have to be understood
thoroughly to effect modification of soil environment. Similarly it is necessary to
understand the physiology of crops to meet their requirements. Advances in
economic analysis helped in production of crops economically. Agronomist aims
to obtain maximum production at minimum cost. He exploits the knowledge
developed by basic and applied science for higher crop production. The research
findings of other scientists have to tested by the Agronomist for their suitability in
the field and accept them finally and also judge the reactions of farming
community. He is a key person with working knowledge of all agricultural
disciplines and coordinator of different subject matter specialists.

The fundamental principles of agronomy are;

Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of land,
labour, capital, sunshine, rain water, temperature, humidity, transport and
marketing facilities

Choice of crops, varieties adaptable to the particular agroclimate, land situation,

soil fertility, season and method of cultivation

Proper field management – tillage, bunds, irrigation channels, drainage lines,

checking soil and water erosion, levelling etc.,

Adoption of multiple cropping/intercropping/relay cropping according to

different situations
Timely application and management of manures, fertilizers, biofertilizers, organics,
crop residues, weed and water management
Adoption of need based plant protection measures, harvesting and processing
Lecture -2

Seeds and sowing

Seed: Seed may be defined as a fertilized ovule constituting of intact embryo,

staved food and seed coat which in viable and has got a capacity to germinate.

When water is plenty, the seeds imbibe water and this is imbibition. The water
activates special proteins called enzymes and seed growth starts.

In the beginning of seed germination, first the seed grows in to a root to access soil
moisture present in the soil. Later shoot appears above the ground.

Seed material: 1. Seeds (grains used for sowing) 2. Veg propagules (stem cutling’s
rooted slips, tubers, rhizomes, etc) Stem cutlings – sugarcane, rose Rooted slips –
forage crops. (Fodder crops) Tubers – potato Rhizomes – turmeric
Quality of seeds is determined by following factors

1. Purity: Free from rogues (off types), other crop seeds, weed seeds and inert
material.
2. Fully matured and well developed. free from storage pests and seed borne
diseases Ex. Red rot in sugarcane, Tikka leaf spot in groundnut.
3. Free from dormancy (seen in groundnut, rice, sunflower). Viable (soybean
looses viability quickly).
4. High percentage of germination (98-99%) (germination percentage in many
grasses is 20-25%).

Prerequisites for sowing:

1. Well prepared soil wood tilth

2. Optimum soil moisture at sowing depth
3. Manures, fertilizers and seeds

Sowing: Placing of seed in soil at proper depth to obtain better germination and
uniform plant stand of the crop.

METHODS OF SOWING

______________ǀ______________________
ǀ ǀ
Direct seeding Transplanting
___________ǀ____________

Broad casting Line sowing

________________ǀ____________________
ǀ ǀ
Drilling Dibbling

Time of sowing:
1. Sowing very early in the season may not be advantageous.

Ex: sowing rainfed ground nut early may result in failure of crop if there is a
prolonged dry spell from the 2nd week of June to 2nd week of July.
2. Delayed sowing invariably reduces yields

a. Rainfed sorghum yields are reduced due to delay in sowing beyond June season
– sorghum sown late is subjected to severe attack of sorghum shoot borer.
b. In rainfed groundnut sowing beyond July reduced the yields of all varieties at
Tirupathi.
3. Advancing sowing of Rabi sorghum from November-September to October.
Increase the yields considerably as more moisture would be available for early
sown crop.
4. Sowing the crop at optimum time. Increases yields due to suitable environment
at all the growth stages of the crop.
a. Optimum time of sowing for Kharif crop – June or July
b. Optimum time for Rabi crop - last week of October to first week of November
c. Summer crop - First fortnight of January.
Depth of Sowing

Uneven depth of sowing results in uneven crop stand. Plants will be of different
sizes and ages and finally harvesting is a problem as there is uniformity in maturity.

The thumb rule is to sow seeds to a depth approximately 3-4 times their diameter.
The optimum depth of sowing for most of field crops ranges between 3-5 cm.
Shallow depth of sowing of 3-5 cm is enough for small seeds like sesamum finger
millet and pearl millet. Very small seeds like tobacco are placed at a depth of 1 cm.
Bold seeded crops like castor, groundnut, cotton, and maize etc. 6-7 cm.
Lecture - 3

Tillage and Tilth

Tillage is as old as agriculture. Jethro Tull is considered as Father of tillage. He

wrote the Horse Hoeing Husbandry. After the harvest of crop the soil will be
usually hard and compact because of beating action of rain drops, irrigation and
subsequent drying, movement of implements and labourers.

Tillage - It is the physical manipulation of soil with tools and implements to result
in good tilth for better germination and subsequent growth of crops.

Tilth - It is the physical condition of soil resulting from tillage.

Characteristics of good health
A soil should be mellow, friable, crumbly and adequately aerated.

A soil in good tilth is porous. Capillary and non capillary pores are equal. This
facilitates free movement of air and water. Higher percent of larger aggregates
(more than 5 mm in diameter) are necessary for irrigated agriculture, while higher
percentage of smaller aggregates (1 to 2 mm diameter) are desirable for dry land
agriculture.

Tilth can be coarse or fine. For sandy soils fine kind of tilth is required and
for heavy black soils rough cloddy conditions or coarse tilth is enough. With very
fine tilth the surface gets caked up when it dries after a rain. Because of this the
soil is unable to absorb rain water and it results in runoff loses.

Objectives of Tillage:
1. To produce a satisfactory seed bed for good germination and good crop growth.
2. To make the soil loose and porous.
3. To aerate the soil
4. To control weeds
5. To remove the stubbles. (that may harbour pests)
6. To expose the soil inhabiting pathogens and insect pests to sun and kill them.
7. To break hard pans in the soil
8. For deep tillage and inversion of soil
9. For incorporating bulky organic manures
10. To warm up the soil
11. To increase infiltration rate.
Effects of Tillage on soil physical properties:
Soil Structure: Arrangements of soil particles with crumbly and granular nature is
considered good. Best size of soil aggregate for good growth of crop is (1-5mm)
smaller aggregates may clog soil pores and larger ones may have large pore space.
Tillage improves soil structure when done at optimum soil moisture level. Tilling a
soil when it is too wet spoils the structure. Ploughing a dry soil is difficult and will
not help in improving structure.

Soil texture: Relative proportion of different soil particles namely sand, silt and
clay. Tillage has no effect on soil texture.
Coarse sand - 2.0 - 0.2 mm.
Fine sand - 0.2 - 0.02 mm.
Silt - 0.02 - 0.002 mm.
Clay - <0.002mm.

Pore space: When a field is ploughed the soil particles are loosely arranged and
pore space is increased. When the soil is in good tilth the capillary and non
capillary pores would be roughly equal. This facilitates free movement of air and
moisture in soil.

Bulk density (B.D): When the soil is loosened, the soil volume increase without
any affect on weight. BD of Clay soils is low (1.05 Mg/m3 and that of sandy soils is
high (1.25 – 1.30 Mg/m3) and Bulk density of tilled soil is less than that of untilled
soil. Particle density is always more than BD.

Particle density: Particle density is not altered by tillage.

Soil Colour: Organic matter is mainly responsible for the dark brown to dark grey
colour of the soil. Tillage increases oxidation and decomposition of organic matter
resulting in fading of colour.

Types of Tillage
Tillage operations are grouped into two types based on the time at which they are
carried out.

1. Preparatory cultivation – which is carried out before sowing the crop

2. After cultivation – That is practiced after sowing the crop. → Primary tillage –
Ploughing → Secondary tillage – harrowing → Seed bed preparation – country
plough can be used.
Factors influencing preparatory tillage:
1. The previous crop grown: Stubble of previous crop influence the tillage
(Redgram, cotton stubbles are very deep rooted and require deep tillage to remove
them).

2. The crop to be grown: Crops like sorghum can be grown with rough tilth for
very small seeded. Crops like tobacco, chilles etc fine tilth is required. Deep tillage
is required for crops like tuber crops and sugarcane.

3. Types of soil: Clay soil can be ploughed with a narrow range of soil moisture
and the power or drought required is high. Light textured soils can be ploughed
under a wide range of soil moisture and require less drought.

4. Climate: Deep tillage is not permitted in shallow soils in low rainfall areas as it
leads to rapid drying and loss of stored soil moisture. Deep cultivation is possible
in high rainfall areas.

5. Type of farming: Intensive cropping requires intensive tillage.

Inter cultivation: Tillage operations done between the crop rows with the
objectives of destroying the weeds, to form a soil mulch, to prevent cracking of
soil, to prevent crust formation
Inter cultivation starts from very early stage of crop i.e., two to three weeks from
sowing. Short duration crops require two-three inter cultivation while long
duration crop require 3-4 weeks.
After cultivation:

It includes inter cultivation and various other special operations carried out in a
standing crop. They include.

1. Thinning and Gap filling.

2. Rogueing in crops for seed purpose.
3. Earthing up in crops, sugarcane, banana, and groundnut, maize
4. Cropping in banana
5. De suckering operation banana
6. Wrapping and propping in sugarcane

7. Nipping in castor, chickpea, pigeonpea

8. Topping, trimming and de suckering in tobacco basal leaves are removed
9. Defoliation in cotton 10. Hand pollination in sunflower. Fertilizer app in
irrigation also comes under after cultivation.
Lecture 4
Planting Geometry – Competition – Types of Competition

Competition is the struggle between individuals with in a population for available

resources, when the level of resources is below the combined need of the members
of the population.

Crop plants are not grown in isolation but in closely spaced populations. In the
early phase of growth, individual plants are small and widely spaced and do not
interfere with each other. At some point, as the plants grow, they start to interfere
with their neighbours and competition begins. Two plants, no matter how close,
do not compete with each other so long as the growth resources are in excess of
the needs of both. When the immediate supply of a single necessary factor falls
below the combined demand of the two plants, competition begins.

Types of Competition
1. Competition for nutrients: Nutrient uptake increase with increase plant
population. Higher population under low fertility conditions leads to development
of nutrient deficiency symptoms because of competition.

2. Competition for light: Competition for light may occur whenever one plant
casts a shadow on another or within a plant when one leaf shades another leaf. In
early plant growth stages, there will be little mutual shading and even at relatively
low light intensities the plant will be able to photosynthesize with full efficiency. As
the plants develop, mutual shading increase and light becomes a limiting factor.
3. Competition for water: The success of any plant in community for water
depends on the rate and competitiveness with which it can make use of the soil
water supply.

4. Intra-specific and inter-specific competition: In populations of similar

genotypes, in the absence of weeds, the competition is intra-specific (with in
species), where different species of crops are growth, in mixtures and where weeds
present, the competition is inter-specific (between species).

Plant population and growth - High plant density brings out certain modifications
in the growth of plants. Plant height increases with increase in plant population
due to competition for light. Sometimes it may happen that moderate increase in
plant population may not increase but decrease plant height due to competition for
water and nutrients but not for light. Leaf orientation is also altered due to
population pressure. The leaves are erect narrow and are arranged at longer vertical
intervals under high plant densities. This is a desirable architecture.
Plant population and yield - Decrease in yield of individual plant at high plant
density is due to the reduction in the no. or earls or panicles.
Ex: - Redgram produces about 20 pods per plant at 3.33 lakh plants/ha (30x10cm)
while it produces more than 100 pods per plant at 50,000 plants/ha (80x25cm).
Under very high population levels plant become barren, hence optimum plant
population is necessary to obtain maximum yield.

Optimum plant population - Optimum plant population for any crop varies
considerably due to environment under which it is grown. It is not possible to
recommend a generalized plant population since the crop is grown in different
seasons with different management practices.

Ex. Redgram plants sown as winter crop will have half the size of those grown in
monsoon season. Optimum plant population is 55,000 plants/ha. For monsoon
season crop of redgram and this is increased to 3.33 lakh plants/ha for winter
crop; as low temperature retards the rate of growth, higher population is
established for quicker ground cover. In sorghum, when the climate is favourable
during pre-anthesis period, the optimum population is two lakh plants/ha and
when it is not congenial for growth during pre-anthesis, it is four lakh plants/ha.
Plant Geometry
The arrangement of the plants in different rows and columns in an area to
utilize the natural resources efficiently is called crop geometry. It is otherwise area
occupied by a single plant Ex.. Rice – 20 cm x 15 cm. This is very essential to
utilize the resources like light, water, nutrient and space. Different geometries are
available for crop production
Different crop geometries
1) Random plant geometry
Random plant geometry results due to broadcasting method of sowing and
no equal space is maintained. Resources are either under utilized or over exploited.
2) Square plant geometry
The plants are sown at equal distances on either side. Mostly perennial
crops, tree crops follow square method of cultivation. Ex. Coconut – 7.5 x 7.5 m;
banana – 1.8 x 1.8 m. But, due to scientific invention, the square geometry concept
is expanded to close spaced field crops like rice too.
Advantages
 Light is uniformly available, movement of wind is not blocked and
mechanization can be possible.
3) Rectangular method of sowing
There are rows and columns, the row spacing are wider than the spacing
between plants.
The different types exist in rectangular method are,
a) Solid row: Each row will have no proper spacing between the plants. This is
followed only for annual crops which have tillering pattern. There is definite row
arrangement but no column arrangement, Ex. Wheat.
b) Paired row arrangement: It is also a rectangular arrangement. It a crop requires 60
cm x 30 cm spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90
cm instead of 60 cm in order to accommodate an intercrop. The base population is
kept constant.
c) Skip row: A row of planting is skipped and hence there is a reduction in
population. This reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop; practiced in
rainfed or dryland agriculture.
d) Triangular method of planting: It is recommended for wide spaced crops like
coconut, mango, etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system.
Lecture - 5

Soil Fertility and Soil Productivity

The inherent capacity of the soil to supply plant nutrients in adequate quantities
and in suitable proportions is termed as Soil fertility. Soil productivity refers to the
capacity of a soil to produce crops. A productive soil must be fertile, but a fertile
soil must be fertile, but a fertile soil may not be productive.

Soil productivity is influenced by 1. Soil fertility 2. Physical condition – depth,

structure, texture 3. Activity of soil micro organisms 4. Soil moisture 5. Inhibitory
factors like acidity, alkalinity, salinity, water logging, etc. It is necessary to add plant
nutrients to the soil periodically.

Nutrients are lost from the soil in the following ways

1. Removal by crop (in kg/ha)
Crop N P K
Rice 90-100 20-25 130-150
Wheat (dwarf) 150-200 80-100 200-300
Sorghum 50-60 20-25 80-100
Maize 100-120 40-50 100-120
2. Removal by weeds 3. Leaching losses – (more in sandy soils) 4. Loss through
erosion 5. Loss in gaseous form (N – by denitrification and Volatilization)

Fig: Nitrogen Cycle

 Fig: Phosphorus in soil
Soil fertility Soil productivity
1. It is considered as an index of available nutrients to plants
1. It is a broader term used to indicate yields of crops.
2. It is one of the factors for crop production. The other factors are water supply,
slope of the land, depth of water table etc.
2. It is the interaction of all the factors that determine the magnitude of yields.
3. It can be analysed in the laboratory
3. It can be assessed in the field under particular climatic conditions.
4. It is the potential status of the soil.
4. It is the resultant of various factors soil factors influencing soil management to
produce crops.

Denitrification: NO3 NO2 NO2 N2

Volatilization: NH4 + H2O NH3 + 2 H2O

Soil fertility can be maintained by:

a) Cultural practices fallowing crop rotation mixed cropping

b) By addition of materials 1. Organic manures – (bulky and concentrated) 2.

Inorganic fertilizers 3. Bio-fertilizers – rhizobium, azolla, azatobactor, BGA. 4.
Soil amendments – lime, gypsum, paddy husk, groundnut shells etc. 5. Weedicides
or fungicides – copper fungicides – add Cu Triazines – add N. 6. Green manures
or green leaf manuring 7. Crop residues (stubbles, etc.)
Soil organic matter: Any material of plant or animal origin found in the soil is
known as Organic matter. Organic matter that is well decomposed and
digested by many kinds of soil micro organisms and converted into fairly stable,
amorphous, brown to black material is termed as “Humus”. It is very difficult to
identify the parent material from which it is derived.
Uses of Organic Matter: 1. Helps in aggregation of soil particles and improves
the structure, permeability and WHC and aeration. 2. It serves as a reservoir of
plant nutrients. 3. Organic acids and CO2 produced during decomposition help to
dissolve minerals like ‘P’, ‘K’ and make them more available. 4. It helps in
maintaining soil pH 5. Leaching of certain cations like K, Ca, Mg, NH4 is
prevented because of its higher CEC. 6. It is the source of energy for micro
organisms, earthworms and other living things. 7. Helps to maintain soil
temperature 8. Alkalinity is reduced.
The rate of decomposition of organic matter is dependent on – the activity of soil
micro organisms, which in turn is dependent on- 1. Soil moisture content 2. Soil
temperature 3. Soil aeration 4. C: N ratio of the original material added.
Essential nutrients
The term mineral nutrient is generally used to refer to an inorganic ion
obtained from the soil and required for plant growth. The process of absorption,
translocation and assimilation of nutrients by the plants is known as mineral
nutrition.
Plants need 16 elements for their growth and completion of life cycle. They
are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum and
chlorine. In addition, four more elements viz., sodium, cobalt, vanadium and
silicon are absorbed by some plants for special purposes. All these elements are not
required for all plants, but all have been found essential for one plant or the other.
Among these, all carbon atoms and most of the oxygen atoms are derived from
carbon dioxide which is assimilated principally in photosynthesis. More
specifically, approximately one-thirds of oxygen atoms in organic material in higher
plants are derived from soil water and two-thirds from carbon dioxide of the
atmosphere. The chemical basis for this conclusion is the reaction occurring
during photosynthesis, wherein one molecule each of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) are combined in the presence of enzymes. The elements C, H, O are
not minerals. The rest of the elements are absorbed from the soil and these are
called mineral elements since they are derived from minerals. These mineral
elements are mainly absorbed in ionic form and to some extent in non-ionic form
as shown in table 1.

Criteria of Essentiality
Plant analysis using modern techniques reveals that plant body contains
about 30 elements and in some cases as many as 60 elements. The presence of
several elements in plant does not mean that all these are essential for plants.
Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed criteria of essentiality which was refined by
Armon (1954).
1. An element is considered as essential, when plants cannot complete
vegetative or reproductive stage of life cycle due to its deficiency;
2. This deficiency can be corrected or prevented only by supplying this
element; and
3. The element is directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.
Forms of mineral elements absorbed by plants
Mineral element Ionic form Non-ionic form
Nitrogen (N) NH4 +, NO3- CO (NH2)2
Phosphorus (P) H2PO4-, HPO42 Nucleic acid, phytin
Potassium (Kalium-K) K+
Calcium (Ca) Ca2+
Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+
Sulphur (S) SO42 SO2
Iron (Fe) Fe2 Fe3 FeSO4 with EDTA
Manganese (Mn) Mn 2
MnSO4 with EDTA
Zinc (Zn) Zn2+ ZnSO4 with EDTA
Copper (Cu) Cu 2+
CuSO4 with EDTA
Boron (B) B4O72,H2BO3,HBO32
Molybdenum (Mo) M0O4
Chlorine (Cl) Cl
EDTA = ethylenediaminetetracetic acid
This criteria is considered as too rigid from practical point of view.
According to this criteria, sodium is considered as non essential. However, sodium
is known to increase yield of several crops such as an essential element.

Nicholas (1961) proposed the term ‘functional nutrient’ for any mineral element
that functions in plant metabolism whether or not its action is specific. With this
criteria, sodium, cobalt, vanadium and silicon are also considered as functional
nutrients in addition to 16 essential elements.
Classification of Essential Elements

The essential elements can be classified based on the amount required, their
mobility in the plant and soil, their chemical nature and their functions inside the
plant.

Amount of Nutrients
Depending on the quantity of nutrients presents in plants, they can be
grouped into three:
Basic Nutrients. The basic nutrients viz. carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, constitute
96 per cent of total dry matter of plants. Among them, carbon and oxygen
consititute 45 per cent each. The total dry matter produced by rice crop in one
season is about 12 t/ha. In this 5.4 t is carbon, 5.4 t is oxygen and 0.7 t is t is
hydrogen.
Major macronutrients – N,P,K, Secondary Macronutrients - Ca, Mg, S
Uptake of macronutrients by Rice (IR 8)

Nutrient Content (%) Uptake (kg/ha)

N 0.93 164
P 0.25 46
K 1.88 309
Ca 1.65 27
Mg 0.22 35
S 0.08 15
Micronutrients. The nutrients which are required in small quantities are known as
micronutrients or trace elements. They are Fe, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Mn optimum
effects. On the other hand, even a slight deficiency or excess is harmful to the
plants (Fig.1)

Functions in the Plant

Based on the functions, nutrients are grouped into four:

(1) Elements that provide basic structure to the plant –C, H and O.
(2) Elements useful in energy storage, transfer and bonding – N, S and P. These
are accessory structural elements which are more active and vital for living tissues.
(3) Elements necessary for charge balance – K, Ca and Mg. these elements act as
regulators and carriers.
(4) Elements involved in enzyme activation and electron transport- Fe, Mn, Zn,
Cu, B, Mo and Cl. These elements are catalysers and activators
Lecture - 6
Manures and Fertilizers and Integrated Nutrient Management
Manures
Manures may also be called as ‘Organic manure’. Some of the organic wastes or
by-products (extracts of animals and birds, litter, crop refuses, and other by-
products) either decomposed or treated or fresh are used to enrich soil fertility.
These are called manures.

Manures may be bulky (nutrient contents are very low per unit area) such as farm
yard manures (FYM), and compost or concentrated (containing a higher per cent
of nutrients) such as oilcakes, meals of blood, meat, bone, fish, horns and hooves.

Fertilizers
Broadly, a fertilizer may be defined as any substance (chemical, organic and
microbial) that is added to the soil supply element (s) required for the nutrition of
plants (BARC, 2012).

In a specific sense, fertilizers are chemicals that occur naturally or are produced in
the factory and when added to the soil, supply nutrient elements required for
better plant growth.

Differences between manures and fertilizer

Sl. Manures Fertilizers
No
1. Naturally occurring substance. Artificially made.
2. Generally bulky in nature. i.e. Concentration of plant nutrient is
concentration of plant nutrient is high.
low.
3. Obtaining from organic sources. Obtaining from inorganic sources.
4. Easy to prepare. Preparation is complex.
5. Excess application is not harmful to Excess application may cause
soil. harmful effect to soil.
6. Release plant nutrient in available Release plant nutrient in available
form slowly. forms quickly.
7. Residual effect is high. Residual effect is low.
9. Improves the physical properties of Does not improve the physical
soil. properties of soil, but sometimes it
 may cause negative effect on soil
properties.
10 Cost of preparation is low. Cost of production is high.
.
11 They have no definite chemical They have definite chemical formula.
formula.

List of manures

The followings are some important organic manures

a. Cowdung
b. Farm yard manures
c. Compost
d. Poultry manures
e. Oil cakes
f. Blood meal
g. Meat meal
h. Fish meal
i. Green manures etc.
j. Vermicompost

List of fertilizers

Nitrogenous fertilizer: Sodium nitrate, Calcium nitrate, Ammonium chloride,

Ammonium sulphate, Anhydrous ammonia, Ammonium nitrate, calcium
ammonium nitrate (CAN), Ammonium sulphate nitrate (ASN), Urea, Calcium
cyanamide

Phosphatic fertilizer: Single super phosphate (SSP), Triple super phosphate

(TSP), Ammonium phosphate, Dicalcium phosphate, Basic slag, Rock phosphate.
Tricalcium phosphates

Potassic fertilizer: Muriate of potash (MOP), Potassium sulphate, Potassium

nitrate, Potassium magnesium nitrate

Factors Affecting Manures and Fertilizers Use

Major factors influencing the selection, quantity, time and method of application of
manures and fertilizers are:
Soil factors - They most important factors are, soil physical condition (texture),
soil fertility and soil reaction.
Poor physical condition of the soil leads to poor plant growth due to impeded
drainage, restricted aeration and unfavourable soil temperature. In this condition
nutrients will not be used efficiency.
Optimum soil moisture regime is essential for efficient use of fertilizers by crops.

The availability of nutrients is poor in coarse textured soil when compared to fine
textured soils. The coarse textured soil needs more frequent application of
fertilizers when compared to heavy textured soil.

The higher the fertility of soil, the lower is the response to manures and fertilizers.

When the organic matter of the soil is higher, the response to fertilizer by crops is
more.

Soil reaction is important for selection of right type of fertilizers Rock Phosphate is
advantageous in acid soils.

Crop factors

The response of crop to fertilizers varies with the nature of crop and variety of the
crop.
The fertilizer responsiveness of a plant depends on the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of the roots. The root CEC of dicotyledonous plants is much higher than
that of monocotyledonous plants. Plants with higher CEC absorb more of divalent
cations (Ca, Mg) whereas plants with low CEC absorb more of monovalent ions
(K, Na).

The ability of the crop to absorb nutrients from the soil depends upon the size of
the root system (root length and spread) and characteristics like root surface and
root hair density etc. Large ramifying root system absorbs more nutrients.

The association of mycorrhizal fungi with the roots of plants grown under
conditions of low soil fertility, increases the ability of plants to absorb nutrients
such as P, K, Cu and Zn. Normally N, P and complete fertilizer application reduce
the presence and activity of Mycorrhiza.
Agronomic factors - Fertilizer responsiveness of crops depends on timely sowing,
proper spacing, proper dose, time and method of fertilizer application.
Other factors

• Climatic factors - Under drought and excess moisture condition, foliar spray
can be recommended. In high rainfall area, split application of fertilizers and
application of slow release nitrogenous fertilizers are recommended.
• Yield goal - The economic yield or potential yield or targeted yield decides the
quantity of manures and fertilizers application. For higher crop yield optimum or
maximum amount of fertilizers are to be applied.

• Cost of fertilizers - Not only the cost of fertilizers and manures but also the cost
of together produce decide the quantity of manures and fertilizer to be applied i.e.,
depend on the profit from the crop. It may be maximum profit or maximum rate
of return per rupee invested.

• Availability of manures and fertilizers - Timely availability of manures and

fertilizers, transport facility and labour for application decides the quantity. Now-a-
days, manures are not available to the required level due to various reasons.
Slow release fertilizers - are developed to prevent the loss of nutrients by
leaching and nitrification. It releases nutrients slowly and uniformly and increases
the fertilizer use efficiency. Examples: Neem coated Urea, Sulphur coated Urea,
Lac coated Urea, Tar coated Urea, N-Serve, Isobutylidine di Urea (IBDU),
Thiourea etc.

Time of application

• Before preparatory tillage: Bulky organic manures, green manures, soil

amendments and soil

conditions are applied before preparatory tillage for thorough mixing with the soil.

• Basal dressing: Application of manures and fertilizers before last

ploughing/puddling or before sowing or planting.

• At sowing or planting: Concentrated organic manures, readily soluble and

higher mobile fertilizers, slow release fertilizers, starter dose of N fertilizer to
legume crops and fertilizer for specific nutrient deficient soil are applied during this
time.

• Top dressing: It is the application of manures and fertilizers to the established

crop within crop duration. Top dressing may be done to the soil or to the foliage.
Split application of nitrogen and potassium is done throughout the cropping
period to increase the fertilizer use efficiency.
Method of Application

The choice of method and time of fertilizer application depends on the form and
amount of fertilizer, convenience of the farmer, the efficiency and safety of
fertilizer application.

I. Solid Form
1. Broadcasting - The manures and fertilizers are scattered uniformly over the
field before planting the crop and are incorporated by tilling or cultivating.
2. Drilling and placement - Fertilizers are placed in the soil furrows formed at
the desired depth. Placement can be done by the following ways.
(i) Plough sole placement - In this method of fertilizers are applied or dropped
in the plough sole, which will be covered by the plough during the opening of
adjacent furrow.

(ii) Deep placement - Fertilizers or manures are placed at the bottom of the top
soil at a depth of 10-12 cm, especially in the puddle rice soil.

(iii) Sub soil application - Fertilizers are applied in the subsoil especially for tree
crops and orchard crops at a depth above 15 cm.
3. Location or spot application - Fertilizers are placed in the root zone or the
spot near the roots from which roots can absorb easily.

(i) Contact of drill placement - Fertilizers or manures are placed at the time of
drilling for placing the seeds. Fertilizers or manures will have good contact with the
seeds or seedlings.

(ii) Band placement - This is the placement of manures or fertilizers or both in

bands on the side or both sides of the row at about 5 cm away from the seed or
plant in any direction. Such band placement is of three types.
(a) Hill placement - In widely spaced crops, like cotton, castor, cucurbits
fertilizers or manures are applied on both sides of plants only but not continuously
along the row.
(b) Row placement - In widely spaced crops between rows (Example–Sugarcane,
maize, tobacco, potato) manures or fertilizers are placed on one or both sides of
the row in continuous bands.

(c) Circular placement - Application of manures and fertilizers around the hill or
the trunk of fruit tree crops in the active root zone.
(iii) Pocket placement - Application of fertilizers deep in soil to increase its
efficiency Especially for the sugarcane pocket placement is done. Fertilizers are put
in 2 to 3 pockets opened around every hill by means of a sharp stick.

(iv) Side dressing - It refers to hill and ring placement of manures or fertilizers. It
consists of spreading the fertilizer between the rows or around the plants.

(v) Pellet application - Nitrogen fertilizers are pelleted like mud ball or urea super
granules (USG) and placed deep (10 cm) into the saturated soils (reduced zone) of
wet land rice to avoid nitrogen loss from applied fertilizers.

Generally placement of fertilizer is done for three reasons.

• Efficient use of plant nutrients from plant emergence to maturity.
• To avoid the fixation of phosphate in acid soils.
• Convenience to the grower.
II. Liquid form
Foliar application: It refers to spraying of fertilizer solution on the foliage of
plants for quick recovery from the deficiency (either N or S).
Fertigation: It is the application of fertilizer dissolved in irrigation water in either
open or closed system i.e., lined or unlined open ditches and sprinkler or trickle
systems respectively.

Starter solutions: They are solutions of fertilizers prepared in low concentrations

which are used for soaking seeds, dipping roots, spraying on seedlings etc., nutrient
deficient areas for early establishment and growth.

Direct application to the soil: Liquid fertilizers like anhydrous ammonia are
applied directly to the soil with special injecting equipments. Liquid manures such
as urine, sewage water and cattle shed washing are directly let into the field.

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

Judicious combination of inorganic, organic and bio-fertilizers which replenishes
the soil nutrients removed by the crops is referred as integrated nutrient
management system.

A. Concept
The concept of INM is to integrate the nutrient sources and methods of organic
and inorganic nutrient application to maintain soil fertility and productivity i.e., the
complementary use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers to
solve the problems of nutrient supply, soil productivity and environment.

Developing an INM system for a particular crop sequence to a specific location

requires a thorough understanding of

(i) the effects of previous crop,

(ii) contribution of legume in the cropping system,
(iii) residual effect of fertilizers, and
(iv) direct, residual and cumulative effect of organic manures for
supplementing and complementing the use of chemical fertilizers.

The main components of the N supply system are the organic manures green
manures, crop residues, crop rotation and inter cropping involving legumes and
cereals, bio-fertilizers including rhizobium, azotobacter, azospirillum, phosphorus
solubilizing micro-organisms like mycorrhizal fungi, azolla, blue green algae and
cyanobacteria. All these can serve as an important supplementary source of
nutrients along with the chemical fertilizers. Thus, INM is environmentally non-
degradable, technically appropriate economically viable and socially acceptable.

Balanced nutrition for sustainable crop production

The rate of growth of agriculture in its broad coverage of crop production is much
below the national growth rate. If the economy of country is to be improved
through agriculture, it has to strengthen its programmes in such a manner to better
utilize the natural resources along with balanced use of chemical fertilizers and
other inputs. For increasing the food production to fulfill the food requirements of
the burgeoning population of the country, sustainability of agriculture and
environmental safety are the priority issues. To avoid wastage of precious national
resources and to minimize the environmental damage, there is need to develop and
demonstrate balanced use of chemical fertilizer. This will not only improve the
crop production in sustainable way but also economize the crop production.
Higher food production needs higher amount of plant nutrients. As no single
source is capable of supplying the required amount of nutrients, integrated use of
all sources is a must to supply balanced nutrition to plants.
What is balanced nutrition?

Balanced fertilization does not mean a certain definite proportion of N, P and K or

other nutrients to be added in the form of fertilizer, but it has to taken into
account the availability of nutrients already present in the soil, crop requirement
and other factors like crop removal of nutrients, the economics of fertilizers and
profitability, farmers ability to invest, agro-techniques, soil moisture regime, weed
control, plant protection, seed rate, sowing time, soil salinity, alkalinity, physical
environment, microbiological condition of the soil, available nutrient status of soil,
cropping sequence, etc.

It is not a state but a dynamic concept. The balanced use of fertilizers should be
mainly aimed at: (a) increasing crop yield, (b) increasing crop quality, (c) increasing
farm income, (d) correction of inherent soil nutrient deficiencies, (e) maintaining or
improving lasting soil fertility, (f) avoiding damage to the environment, and (g)
restoring fertility and productivity of the land that has been degraded by wrong and
exploitative activities in the past.
Balanced use of plant nutrients corrects nutrient deficiency, improves soil fertility,
increases nutrient and water use efficiency, enhances crop yields and farmer’s
income, improves crop and environmental quality. To reap the benefits of
balanced use of plant nutrients, it is important to have good quality seed, adequate
moisture and better agronomic practices with greater emphasis on timeliness and
precision in farm operations.
Lecture No -7

Water resources

Water is indispensable for human, animal and plant life. It is a part of all
organisms some of which contain more than 90 per cent. Water is an essential part
of protoplasm. It is an important ingredient in photosynthesis. About 400 to 500
litres of water is necessary for the production of a kilo of plant dry matter. Water is
also required for translocation of nutrients and dissipation of heat.

Soil water is depleted due to evaporation from soil surface, transpiration

through the plant and deep percolation into the soil beyond the root zone. Water
availability to crops is reduced gradually and plants are subjected to moisture stress.
Roots cannot grow in a dry soil. Root proliferation is reduced due to high
mechanical resistance of dry soil. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to
soil to supplement rainfall for crop production. Irrigation provides favourable
environment for higher crop growth and yield.

WATER RESOURCES OF THE WORLD

Water occurs on earth in three forms: solid, liquid and gaseous. The water
resources of the world are presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1
Water resources of the world
Particulars Amount of water (km3) Percentage to total
Oceans 1,348,000,000 97.39
Polar ice, ice-bergs and glaciers 27,820,000 2.01
Ground water and soil moisture 8,062,000 0.58
Lakes and rivers 2,25,000 0.02
Atmospheric water 13,000 0.0001
Total 1,384,120,000 100.00
About 97cent of water is in the oceans and this is not useful for irrigation.
Of the total quantity of water, only 2.60 per cent is in polar ice caps, ice-bergs and
glaciers. Only small fraction of water resources of the earth that are present in the
ground, lakes, rivers and atmosphere can be harvested for irrigation of crops.
WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

The average rainfall of India is 1194 mm. when considered over the
geographical area of 328 m ha this rainfall amounts to 392 million-hectare metres
(m ha,m). This may be rounded off to 400 m ha m by including snowfall which is
not yet fully determined. Out of the 400 m ha m of rainfall, 75 per cent of it is
received during the south-west monsoon period (June to September) and the rest
in the remaining eight months (Fig. 1). A major portion of the water (215 m ha m)
soaks into the soil while 70 m ha m is lost as evapotranspiration.

Total
precipition 400
m ha m

Monsoon
Rest of the
season 300
year 100

Infiltration into Immediate Surface flow115

the soil 215 evaporation 70

Soil Ground water From rainfall From

moisture 50 105 snowfall 10
165
Fig. 1. Flow chart showing the water resources on India

Irrigation Commission of India (1972) has placed the total annual surface
water flows in the country at 180 m ha m as against 115 m ha m shown in Fig. 1.
This is due to receipt of 20 m ha m brought in by streams and rivers from
catchments lying outside the country. About 45 m ha m water pertains to water
regenerated from groundwater as assessed from river flows during non-rainy
months. On full harnessing and mobilization of these water resources, say, by 2025
AD, it is envisaged that 70 m ha m of surface water and 35 m ha m of ground
water can be mobilized for utilization. The projected use of this 105 m ha m of
water is 77 m ha m for irrigation and 28 m ha m for domestic and industrial water
supply and all other purposes.

WATER IN THE SOIL-PLANT-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM

Availability of soil moisture, its uptake by plants, its translocation through

the plant, its evaporation into the atmosphere are various steps in the transfer of
water through the soil-plant-atmosphere system (Fig.2).
WATER MOVEMENT IN THE SOIL

Water movement in the soil comprises of three phases: infiltration,

redistribution and withdrawal. Immediately after application of irrigation or on
receipt of rain, water enters the soil. It gradually redistributes into different layers.
Water moves from higher potential to lower potential. The movement may be
lateral, upwards or downwards or downwards depending on difference in water
potential in different parts of the soil. Water moves through unsaturated dry soil as
vapour as a result of temperature differences and the movement is from warm to
cold areas. Soil air is always saturated with water vapour except in the upper most
half to one centimeter layer of soil or under extreme dry conditions. Below a depth
of 5-10 cm, the vapour pressure is generally greater than that of the atmosphere.
During the day, solar energy is absorbed by the shallow layer of soil which
becomes warmer than the atmosphere above and underlying soil layers. As a result,
water vapour moves upwards from the surface layers into the atmosphere and
downward into cooler layers where it condenses. During night, the opposite
movement occurs in the soil. Water vapour moves and condenses near the soil
surface.

WATER UPTAKE

Water is absorbed mainly through roots and hairs. Root system has
enormous surface area that is active in water absorption. Roots absorb water both
passively and actively. Passive absorption takes place when water is drawn into the
roots by negative pressures in the conducting tissue created by the transpiration.
Under conditions during which there is a little transpiration, the roots of many
plants absorb water by spending energy which is called active absorption. Under
normal conditions of transpiration, the contribution of active absorption to the
water supply of plants is negligible and it is usually less than 10 per cent of the total
absorption. Certain plants are able to absorb moisture from the atmosphere when
soil is at permanent wilting point. This is known as aerial absorption or negative
transpiration. Direct absorption of water by leaves that are wetted by rain, dew or
overhead irrigation can help to resaturate dehydrated leaf tissues.
Lecture no-8

Kinds of soil water/Physical Classification of water

The three main forms of water in the soil are gravitational water, capillary
water and hygroscopic water.

Gravitational water - Present in the macro pores and moves freely downwards
under the influence of gravity beyond root zone and not available to plants.

This is excess water or even called as superfluous water.

Water held between 0.0 to 0.33 bars (0 to −33 kPa/0 – 33 centibars) soil moisture
tension, free and in excess of field capacity, which moves rapidly down towards the
water table under the influence of gravity is termed as gravitational water.

Even though the gravitational water is retained with low energy, it is of little use to
plants, because it is present in the soil for only a short period of time and while in
the soil, it occupies the larger pores i.e., macro pores, thereby reducing soil
aeration.

It can cause upland plants to wilt and die because gravitational water occupies air
space, which is necessary to supply oxygen to the roots.

Therefore, its removal from the soil profile through natural drainage is generally
regarded as a pre-requisite for optimum plant growth and development.

Factors affecting gravitational water

Texture: Plays a great role in controlling the rate of movement of gravitational

water. The flow of water is proportional to the size of particles. The bigger the
particle, the more rapid is the flow or movement. Because of the larger size of
pore, water percolates more easily and rapidly in sandy soils than in clay soils.

Structure: It also affects gravitational water. In platy structure movement of

gravitational water is slow and water stagnates in the soil.

Granular and crumby structure helps to improve gravitational water movement. In

clay soils having single grain structure, the gravitational water, percolates more
slowly.

If clay soils form aggregates (granular structure), the movement of gravitational

water improves.

2. Capillary water: Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores) or <
0.06 mm. Capillary water is retained on the soil particles by surface forces. It is
held so strongly that gravity cannot remove it from the soil particles. This water is
called as water of cohesion.

As the name suggests capillary water is held in the pores of capillary size i.e., micro
pores around the soil particles by adhesion (attraction of water molecules for soil
particles), cohesion (attraction between water molecules) and surface tension
phenomena.

The molecules of capillary water are free and mobile and are present in a liquid
state. Due to this reason, it evaporates easily at ordinary temperature though it is
held firmly by the soil particle; plant roots are able to absorb it.

Capillary water is, therefore, known as available water. The capillary water is held
between 1/3 or 0.33 and 31 bars. i.e., it is held between field capacity (0.33 bars or
−33 kPa) and hygroscopic coefficient (31 bars or −3100 kPa).

However, the water within the capillary range is not equally available i.e., it is
readily available starting from 0.33 bars up to a certain point often referred to as
critical soil moisture level (for most crops it varies between 20 to 50% depletion of
available soil moisture) and thereafter up to 15 bars (−1500 kPa) it is slowly
available. Further below, when the soil exerts tensions between 15 bars and 31
bars, the water is held very tightly in thin films and is practically not available for
plant use.
The capillary water moves in any direction but always in the direction of increasing
tension and decreasing potential.
It also serves as soil solution and as the medium of nutrient availability.

Factors affecting capillary water: The amount of capillary water that a soil is
able to hold varies considerably. The following factors are responsible for variation
in the amount of capillary water.

Surface tension: An increase in surface tension increases the amount of capillary

water.

Soil texture: The finer the texture of a soil, greater is the amount of capillary water
holds. This is mainly due to the greater surface area and a greater number of micro
pores.

Soil structure: Platy structure contains more water than granular structure.

Organic matter: The presence of organic matter helps to increase the capillary
capacity of a soil. Organic matter itself has a great capillary capacity.
Undecomposed organic matter is generally porous having a large surface area,
which helps to hold more capillary water. The humus that is formed on
decomposition has a great capacity for absorbing and holding water. Hence the
presence of organic matter in soil increases the amount of capillary water in soil.

3. Hygroscopic water: The water that held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal
particle is known as hygroscopic water. It is essentially non-liquid and moves
primarily in the vapour form.

It is also called as water of hydration or water of adhesion. It may vary from 1 to 2

percent to 15 to 20 per cent.

Hygroscopic water is held so tenaciously (31 to 10000 atmospheres) by soil

particles that plants cannot absorb it. Some microorganism may utilize hygroscopic
water.

As hygroscopic water is held tenaciously by surface forces its removal from the soil
requires a certain amount of energy. The water held tightly in thin films of 4 – 5
milli microns thickness on the surface of soil colloidal particles at 31 bars tension
(−3100 kPa) and above is termed as hygroscopic water.
Unlike capillary water which evaporates easily at atmospheric temperature,
hygroscopic water cannot be separated from the soil unless it is heated to 105 0C
for 24 hours.

It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in vapour form. Plants cannot

absorb such water because, it is held very tenaciously by the soil particles (i.e., > 31
bars). However, some microorganisms may utilize it.

Factors affecting hygroscopic water: Hygroscopic water is held on the surface

of colloidal particles by the dipole orientation of water molecules. The amount of
hygroscopic water varies inversely with the size of soil particles. The smaller the
particle, the greater is the amount of hygroscopic water it adsorbs. Fine textured
soils like clay contain more hygroscopic water than coarse textured soils.

The amount of clay and also its nature influences the amount of hygroscopic
water. Clay minerals of the montmoril1onite type with their large surface area
adsorb more water than those of the kaolinite type, while illite minerals are
intermediate.
Lecture No-9

Crop Water Requirement

Water Requirement

Water requirement of a crop is the quantity of water needed for normal

growth and yield and may be supplied by precipitation or by irrigation or by both.
Water is needed mainly to meet the demands of evaporation (E), transpiration (T)
and metabolic needs of the plants, all together known as consumptive use (CU).

CU = E +T + Water needed for metabolic purposes.

Water used in the metabolic activities of plant is negligible and is often less than
1% of the quantity of water passing through the plant.

Evapotranspiration is, therefore, considered as equal to consumptive use.

Different losses like percolation, seepage, runoff etc., occur during transport and
application of irrigation water.
Water is needed for special operations such as land preparation, transplantation,
leaching etc.

Water requirement of a crop (WR), therefore, includes evapotranspiration,

application losses and water needed for special purposes.

WR= ET + Application losses + Water for special purposes

WR = ET or Cu + Application losses + Special needs

Water requirement is a demand whereas the

supply consists of contribution from irrigation water, effective rainfall (ER) and
soil profile contribution including that from shallow water table (S).

Definition : It is defined as the quantity of water regardless of its source, required

by a crop or diversified pattern of crops in a given period of time for its normal
growth & development under field conditions at a given place.

In other words it is the total quantity of water required to mature an adequately

irrigated crop.
It is expressed in depth per unit time.
Water requirement, if considered as a demand, it includes the quantity of water
needed to meet the losses due to evapotranspiration (ET), plus the losses during
the application of irrigation water (unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity
of water required for special operations such as land preparation, transplanting,
leaching of salts below the crop root zone, frost control etc.

It can also be expressed in supply terms as WR = Irr + ER + ΔS + GWC

Where:

Irr = Total depth of irrigation water during crop life

ER = Effective rainfall received during crop life
ΔS = Profile water use i.e., difference in soil moisture in the crop root zone at the
beginning and end of the crop
GWC = Groundwater contribution, if any.

Accurate crop water requirement data is essential in irrigated agriculture

for:
1. Economic appraisal of irrigation projects
2. Design and operation of irrigation schemes
3. Fixing cropping patterns and irrigated areas
4. Irrigation scheduling to crops
5. Efficient use of limited water
Irrigation Requirement
Irrigation requirement is the total amount of water applied to a field to supplement
rainfall and soil profile contribution to meet the water needs of crops for optimum
growth.
Irrigation requirement = WR – (ER + S)

The net irrigation requirement is the amount of irrigation water just required to
bring the soil moisture content in the root zone depth of the crops to field
capacity.

Thus the net irrigation requirement is the difference between field capacity and soil
moisture content in the root zone before irrigation.

Gross irrigation requirement is the total of net irrigation requirement and other
losses such as conveyance, distribution and application.
Factors Affecting Water Requirement

The water requirement of any crop is dependent upon

Crop Factors: variety, growth stage, duration, plant population and growing
season

Varieties of the same crop differ in duration, rooting pattern and canopy structure.
The variety, with longer duration obviously requires more water for completion of
the life cycle.

During the growth of crop, consumptive use is maximum during flowering and
grain filling in cereals compared to that in seedling stage.
Crops differ in producing leaf area and covering the ground. Higher the leaf area
index, more is the evapotranspirtion.

Evaporanspirtion also differs with height of the crop. Tall crops intercept more
solar radiation and have more evapotranspiration than short crops.

Soil factors: texture, structure, depth, topography

Evaporation from soils differs due to their difference in hydraulic conductivity,
reflectivity and thermal conductivity.

At higher moisture regimes, coarse textured soils have higher hydraulic

conductivity than fine textured soils.

With the result, evaporation is faster in coarse textured soils under intermittent
wetting and drying.

Evaporation mostly occurs from the top 5 cm of soil and soil structure up to 15
cm depth influences evaporation through its influence on water supply to
evaporation site.

Higher percentage of aggregates of more than 1.0 mm diameter reduce the upward
movement of water and hence evaporation.

Formation of ridges and furrows reduces evaporation due to the presence of large
sized aggregates.
Colour of the soil also has considerable influence on evaporation from the soil
surface. Dark coloured soils absorb more of solar radiation and thus increase
evaporation.
Climatic factors : temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity

It is well known that evapotranspiration is strongly influenced by solar

radiation, temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity. In addition, advective
energy also influences evaporation.
Hot and dry area surrounding the irrigated area increases evaporation. Advection is
a serious problem in arid and semiarid regions.

Crop management practices : tillage, fertilization, weeding etc.,

All the management practices that provide favorable environment to the crop
increase the leaf area and thus increase evapotranspiration.
Tillage practices influence rooting characteristics and thus influence
evapotranspiration.
Water requirement of crops vary from area to area and even from a field to field
on a farm depending on the above mentioned factors.
It is, therefore, not appropriate to make general statements of water requirement of
crop or specify the number of irrigations or irrigation interval for a crop.
Instead indicating the development stages of crop when it is essential to give
irrigation and avoid moisture stress is more meaningful.

The needs for irrigation at other stages of crop growth are best decided based on
the amount of moisture available in the soil and the needs of the crop.
Water requirements of important field, vegetable and fruit crops

Crop WR mm Crop WR mm
Rice 1200 Tomato 600-800
Wheat 450-650 Potato 500-700
Sorghum 450-650 Pea 350-500
Maize 500-800 Onion 350-550
Sugarcane 1500-2500 Chillies 400-600
Groundnut 500-700 Cabbage 380-500
Cotton 700-1300 Banana 1200-2200
Soybean 450-700 Citrus 900-1200
Tobacco 400-600 Grapes 700-1200
Lecture No- 10

Scheduling Irrigation

Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil to supplement

the rainfall and groundwater contribution to assist the crop production.

Objectives /Importance of Irrigation

1. To supply the moisture essential for plant growth. 2. For better utilization of
production factors. (nutrients) 3. To provide crop insurance against short spells of
drought. 4. To dilute/washout soluble salts 5. To soften tillage pans 6. Intensive
cropping is made possible 7. Timely seedbed preparation and timely sowing. 8. To
create favorable microclimate for crop growth. 9. Higher yields as well as stability
in production

An ideal irrigation schedule must indicate when irrigation water is to be applied

and the quantity of water to be applied. Several approaches for scheduling
irrigation have been used by scientists and farmers throughout the world, each one
with its own advantages and disadvantages.

Soil Moisture Depletion Approach

The available soil moisture in the root zone is a good criteria for scheduling
irrigation. When the soil moisture in a specified root zone is depleted to a
particular level (which is different for different crops), it is to be replenished by
irrigation.

Climatological Approach

Evapotranspiration mainly depends on climate. The amount of water lost by

evapotranspiration is estimated from climatological data and when ET reaches a
particular level, irrigation is scheduled. The amount of irrigation given is either
equal to ET or fraction of ET. Different methods in climatological approach are;
IW/CPE ration method and can evaporimeter method.

IW/CPE Approach

Scheduling irrigation at an IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 with 5 cm of irrigation

water means 5 cm of irrigation water is applied when the cumulative pan
evaporation reaches 5 cm. Generally, irrigation is scheduled at 0.75 to 0.8 ratio with
5 cm of irrigation water.
Can Evaporimetry

Small cans of one litre capacity (14.3 cm height and 10. cm diameter) are used to
indicate evaporation from the cropped field. These cans are painted white and
covered with 6/20 size mesh. An indicator pointer is fixed at 1.5 the can is filled
up with water to pointer level and kept at the crop height. Evaporation from can is
directly related to crop evapotranspiration.

Critical Stage Approach

In each crop, there are some growth stages at which moisture stress leads to
irrevocable yield loss.

Moisture sensitive stages of important crop)

Crop Important moisture sensitive stages

Rice Panicle initiation, flowering
Wheat Crown –root initiation, joining, milking
Sorghum Seedling, flowering
Maize Silking, tasseling
Pearl millet Flowering, panicle initiation
Finger millet Panicle initiation, flowering
Groundnut
Redgram
Rapid flowering and pod formation
Greengram
Blackgram
Sugarcane Formative stage
Sesamum Blooming stage to maturity
Sunflower Two weeks before flowering to two weeks after flowering
Safflower From rosette to flowering

Simple Techniques for Irrigation Scheduling

Soil –cum-sand Miniplot Technique

In this method one-cubic-metre pit is dug in the middle of the field. About
five per cent of sand by volume is added to the dug soil, mixed well and the pit is
filled up in the natural order. Crops are grown as usual in the entire area of the
field including the pit area. The plants in the pit show wilting symptoms earlier
than the other plants in the remaining area. Irrigation is scheduled as soon as
wilting symptoms appear on the plants in the pit.
Sowing High Seed Rate

In an elevated area, one-square-metre plot is selected and crop is grown with

four times thicker than normal seed rate. Because of high plant density, plants
show wilting symptoms earlier than in the rest of the crop area indicating the need
for scheduling of irrigation.
Feel and Appearance Method

Moisture content can be roughly estimated by taking the soil from root zone
into the hand and making it into a ball. It requires a lot of experience to estimate
the soil moisture by this method and rough guidance is given in Table 9.

Irrometers or Tensiometers

Irrigation can be scheduled based on soil moisture tension. Tensiometers

(irrometers) are installed at specified depth in the root zone. When the soil
moisture tension reaches a specified value (0.5, 0.75 or 1.0 bars etc) irrigation is
given. These are generally used for irrigation orchards, especially in coarse textured
soils. However, irrometers do not give any information on the amount of irrigation
water to be applied at each irrigation.
Water Use Efficiency

Water-use efficiency is defined as the yield of marketable crop produced per

unit of water used in evapotranspiration.
WUE= Y/ET

Where WUE is water-use efficiency (kg/ha mm); Y the marketable yield (kg/ha)
and ET is evapotranspiration (mm).

If yield is proportional to ET, water-use efficiency has to be a constant but it

is not so. Actually, Y and ET are influenced independently or differently by crop
management and environment. Yield is more influenced by crop management
practices, while ET is mainly dependent on climate and soil moisture. Fertilization
and other cultural practices for high crop yields usually increase WUE, because
they relatively increase crop yield more than crop water-use. Also any increase in
water-use accompanying fertilization is often negligible. Crop production can be
increased by judicious irrigation without markedly increasing ET. Under an
optimal water supply, ET is not dependent on the kind of plant canopy, provided
the soil is adequately covered with crop. Increasing the amount of plant canopy
has, therefore, little or no effect on ET. Obviously, any practice that promotes
plant growth and the more efficient use of sunlight in photosynthesis without
causing a corresponding increase in ET will increase WUE.
Factors Affecting WUE
Type of the Plant
There are considerable differences between plant species to produce a unit
of dry matter per unit amount of water used resulting in widely varying values of
WUE.

Water –use efficiency of different crops

Crop Water requirement (mm) Grain yield WUE (kg/ha
(kg/ha) mm)
Rice 2,000 6,000 3.0
Sorghum 500 4.500 9.0
Pearl millet 500 4,000 8.0
Maize 625 5,000 8.0
Groundnut 506 4,680 9.2
Wheat 280 3,534 12.6
Finger millet 310 4,137 13.4
There are also differences in WUE between varieties of the same crop.
Selection of properly adopted crops, with good rooting habits, low transpiration
rates and improved energy consumption in photosynthesis will increase WUE.

Climate Conditions
Weather affects both Y and ET. Manipulation of climate to any great extent
is not possible at present. However, ET can be reduced by mulching, use of
antitranspirants etc., to a limited extent, but may not be economical or practical.
Weed control is the most effective means of reducing ET losses and increasing the
amount of water available to the crop thereby increasing WUE.

Soil Moisture Content

Inadequate supply of soil moisture as well as excess moisture supply to the

crop have an adverse effect on plant growth and productivity and are, therefore,
conductive to low WUE. For each crop and combination of environmental
conditions, there is a narrow range of soil moisture levels at which WUE is higher
than with lesser or greater supply of water. Proper scheduling of irrigation will
increase WUE.
Fertilizers

Irrigation imposes a greater demand for plant nutrients. Nutrient availability

is highest for most crops when water tension is low. All available evidence
indicates that under adequate irrigation, suitable fertilizations generally, increases
yields considerably, with a relatively small increase in ET and, therefore, markedly
improves WUE.

Plant Population

Higher yield potential made possible by the favourable water regime

provided by irrigation, the high soil fertility level resulting from heavy application
of fertilizers and the genetic potential of new varieties and hybrids, could be
achieved only with appropriate adjustments of the plant population.

Highest yield and WUE is possible only through optimum levels of soil
moisture regime; plant population and fertilisation.
Lecture No 11 and 12

Method of irrigation

Depending on soil type slope source of irrigation water, nature of crop methods
differs. 1. Surface methods of irrigation a. Flooding b. Boarder strip c.
Corrugations d. Check basin e. Ridge and furrow f. Ring or basin 2. Sub- surface
methods 3. Sprinkler – system. 4. Drip/trickle irrigation. 5. Quantity of irrigation
water depends on rooting depth and water holding capacity of soil. 6. Irrigation
water can be quantified through weirs, flumes, orifices, water meters etc.

Fig: 13.1 Ridge and Furrow method Fig:13.2 Sprinkler Nozzle

Fig:13.3 Drip Irrigation System

QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

Irrigation water contains different impurities in varying concentrations. The

suitability of irrigation water mainly depends on the amount and type of salts
present in the water. The main soluble constituents are calcium, magnesium,
sodium as cations and chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate as anions. The other ions
present in minute quantities are boron, selenium, molybdenum and fluorine which
are harmful to animals fed on plants grown with excess concentration of these
ions. Quality of irrigation water is judged with three parameters: (1) total salt
concentration, (2) sodium adsorption ratio and (3) bicarbonate and boron content.

Total salt Concentration

Salt content of irrigation water is measured as electrical conductivity (EC).
Conventionally, water containing total dissolved salts to the extent of more than
1.5 m mhos/cm has been classified as saline. Saline waters are those which have
sodium chloride as the predominant salt. Brackish water contains more of salts
other than sodium chloride. Scientifically, brackish water is one that is
contaminated with acids, bases, salts or organic matter, whereas saline water
contains mainly dissolved salts. Based on EC, irrigation water is classified as shown
in Table 13.

Sodium Adsorptions Ratio and Boron Content

In addition to EC, which has been used as a main criterion to determine the
quality of irrigation water, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium
carbonate (RSC) and boron content are also used to find suitability of irrigation
water.

Classification of irrigation water based on total salt content

Class EC (m Quality Soils for which suitable

mhosicm) characterization
C1 < 1.5 Normal waters All soils
C2 1.5-3 Low salinity waters Light and medium textured
soils
C3 3.5 Medium salinity waters Light and medium textured
soils for semi-tolerant crops
C4 5.10 Saline waters Light and medium textured
soils for tolerant crops
C5 < 10 High salinity waters Not suitable
 Irrigation water which contains more than 3 ppm boron is harmful to crops,
especially on light soils. Classification of irrigation water based on boron content is
given in Table.

Classification of irrigation water based on boron content

Class Boron (ppm) Characterization

Soils suitable
B1 <3 Normal water
All soils
B2 3-4 Low boron waters
Clayey soils and medium
textured soils
B3 4-5 Medium boron waters Heavy textured soils
B4 5-10 Boron waters Heavy textured soils
B5 >10 High boron waters Not suitable
QUALITY OF WATER OF DIFFERENT SOURCES

Water quality of most of the Indian rivers is good with EC values less than 0.7 m
mhos/cm except in Krishna (1.4), Hagari (1.6) and Tungabhadra (1.7) rivers. Water
quality of most of the tanks, lakes etc., is fairly good except in those which are fed
by streams passing through salt-affected areas. Quality of ground water is
influenced by soil characteristics, water table and rainfall of the region. Water
quality in semi arid and arid regions is generally poor with high salt content.

IRRIGATION WITH POOR QUALITY WATER

Crop growth in soils irrigated with poor quality water decreases due to increased
osmotic stress and poor physical condition of highly dispersed sodic soils. The
degree of harmful effect varies with the crop, variety, stage of growth and
management practices. The adverse effect of poor quality irrigation water can be
minimized by improving water quality and by suitable soil and irrigation
management practices.
Improving Water Quality

The harmful effects of poor quality irrigation water can be minimized by

adding chemicals which precipitate the harmful constituents. There appears to be
no practical method to reduce the total concentration of salt in irrigation water of
large irrigation projects.
Drainage: Removal of excess water from the surface or below the surface of the
soil so as to create favourable conditions for plant growth.
Causes of Water Logging 1. Intensive rains 2. Floods 3. Soil slope 4. Bunds 5.
Defective irrigation 6. Seepage from unlined canals.
Effects of ill drained conditions:

1. Lack of aeration of soil. 2. Restricted root growth and lodging problems 3.

Difficult to till the land 4. Increase in salinity in top layers of soil. All crops
including rice require well drained conditions. Crops like maize mustard
are very sensitive to water logging or ill drainage even for a short period. Mid
season drainage is important in rice. 2. Drainage can be surface drainage (or) Sub
surface drainage.

Benefits of drainage

1. Helps in soil ventilation/aeration 2. Facilitates timely tillage operations. 3. Better

and healthy root growth. 4. Favours growth of soil microorganism (better
mineralization) 5. Warming up for optimum soil temperature maintenance. 6.
Promotes leaching and reduce logging. 7. Improves anchorage and reduce lodging.
8. Improves soil structure and decrease soil erosion. 9. Improves sanitary and
health conditions and makes rural life happy.
Lecture 13, 14, 15

Weeds – Importance and Classification

The word weed seems to have been originated from earlier forms of German word
“Weyt”, the Dutch words “Weet” and the Belgian word “Weedt”.
Jethro Tull (1731) used the term “Weed” for the first time in present
context of unwanted plants in his book “Horse Hoeing Husbandary”
Definitions of weed References
Weed is a plant out of place or weeds are the plants growing Blatchley (1912)
where they are not wanted
Weeds are the plants other than crops sown Brenchley (1920)
A plant that grows spontaneously in a habitat that has been Harper (1944)
greatly modified by human action
A plant growing where it is not desired. Weeds are the plants WSSA (1956)
growing where and when they are not desired.
A weed is any plant that is objectionable or interferes with WSSA (1994)
the activities or welfare of man
Not all weeds possess every single characteristic that is considered understandable,
but in addition to growing in disturbed habitats, all have at least one of the
following characteristic;
o Rapid seedling growth and ability to reproduce when young. Redroot
pigweed can flower and produce seeds when less than 8 inches tall.
o Quick maturation – Canada thistle matures in 15 days after flowering.
o Dual mode of reproduction – seeds and vegetatively (Canada thistle,
Fieldbind weed, Leafy spurge, quackgrass)
o Environmental plasticity – wide range of growing condition adaptations
o Weeds resist detrimental environmental factors – seeds survive but not crop
seeds, rot
o Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy and dispersal mechanisms
o Resemble crop seeds in terms of shape, size colour etc., felicitates easy
dispersal
o More number of weed cycles in a year
o Large number of seeds per plant
o They repel the animals for grazing by characters like spines, hairs, taste or
odor
o Weeds resist control including herbicides
Loss in crop yields

Potential Yield losses due to weeds in different major crops of India (Rao, 2014)

Sl No. Crop Yield redn.% Sl No. Crop Yield redn.%

1 Rice upland 50-60 6 Cotton 40-60
2 Rice – Trans 15-20 7 GG/BG/Cowpea 15-20
3 Wheat 10-60 8 Groundnut 50
4 Maize 30-40 9 Sugarcane 20-70
5 Pearlmillet 16-65 Average 12-72

Competition

Weed also remove nutrients to an extent of 30 to 40 kg N/ha, 10-15 kg P2O5 and

20-40 kg K2O/ha. Removal of nutrients is higher in irrigated conditions. However,
it depends on weed species, competition density, growth and season, agroclimatic
conditions.
Sl No. Crop N kg/ha P kg/ha K kg/ha
1 Wheat 15-60 4-15 15-60
2 Rice Upland 93 25 91
3 Rice – Trans 11 3 10.7
4 Maize 20-60 4-15 15-50
5 Sugarcane 30-85 10-40 50-200

Added Production costs

Weeds act as hosts of diseases, nematodes and insect pest of crops

Sl No. Weed host Diseases

1 Cyperus rotundus Blast disease of rice
2 Echinocloa colona Rice Tungro virus
3 Dactyloctenium aegyptium Smut of wheat
4 Cenchrus ciliaris Ergot of pearlmillet
Weed host Nematodes
5 Brachiaria deflexa Root knot nematodes
6 Johnson grass, Purple nutsedge, Meloidogyne incognita
Yellow nutsedge
7 Johnsongrass Pratylenchus
Weed host Insect Pests
8 Echinocloa sp. Panicum sp. Stem borer in rice
Pennisetum purpureum
9 Amaranthus sp. Gram caterpillar (tomato, brinjal,
redgram, okra, peas)
10 Datura sp. Caterpillar (tobacco, crucifers)
11 Achyranthes sp. Leaf eating caterpillar (maize, alfalfa)
Health hazards for human and animals

Sl No. Weed host Diseases

1 Argemone mexicana
Alkaloid Sanguinarin
2 Parthenium hysterophorus
3 Ambrosia sp.
4 Brush weeds
5 Pistia lanceolate,
Salvinia auriculata
Dropsy in humans due to its mixing in
mustard seeds, Blindness, Death
Skin itching, asthama, fever, septicemia
Hay fever
African sleeping sickness
Malaria, Encephalitis and Filaria
Suffocation, Asphyxation

Quality

Reduced quality of Mix with crop seeds during harvest

produce Cuscuta in Lucerne, wild rice in rice, Solanum nigrum in cowpea or
soybean; Avena fatua in cultivated oats; Phalaris minor in wheat;
Classification of weeds

There are over 2,50,000 - 3,00,00 plant species around the world, of which 25,000-30,000
behave as weed and 250 weed species are prominent in agricultural and non- agricultural
system. It becomes necessary that these should be studied in various aspects so that ways
and means may be devised to control them and utilize them.

There are many ways weeds can be grouped for the convenience of planning, interpreting
and recording control measures against them. Some important classifications of weeds used
by the weed scientists the world over for different purposes are follows:

I. Botanical/Taxonomic classification:

II. Classification according to ontogeny/life cycle of weeds: Depending upon their life
cycles, weeds can be classified as annuals, biennials and perennials.

Weed based on life cycle

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Annuals/ Seasonal Biennials/ Bi seasonal Perennials/ Multi seasonal

………………………………………….

Summer annuals Usual mode of reprdn. Depth of root system

Rainy season annuls

Winter annuals
 Simple perennial Shallow perennial

Creeping perennial Deep rooted

perennial

Woody perennial

An annual weed can be either being a summer annual or a winter annual

depending upon part of the year when it puts forth its major growth.

Summer annuals; Ageratum conyzoides, Amaranthus viridis/spinosus, Trianthema

portulacastrum/monogyna spp.- carpet weed, Setaria glauca-foxtail, Degera arvensis-
Digera, Dactyloctenium aegyptium are typical weeds.

Winter annuals: Chenopodium album- Lambsquarters; Phalaris minor/paradoxa; Avena

fatua/ludoviciana; Vicia spp- vetches are typical weeds.
Amaranthus virdis-may grow round the year near irrigated channels and most places,
but primary it is a summer annual.
Rainy/Wet season annuals: Germinate during rainy/wet season when there is
ample moisture in the soil. Ageratum conyzoides; Amaranthus hybridus/spinosus;
Commelina benghalensis; Digera arvensis; Setaria glauca; Trianthema
monogyna/portulacastrum.

Biennial weeds: Biennial weeds complete their life cycle in two seasons/ years:
They take more than one year but less than two years. In the first year they remain
vegetative/ rosette stage and in the second year they produce flowers and set
seeds.

The usual feature biennial weeds to flower in the second year of growth limits their
dispersal crop seeds, very much.
Ex: Cichorium intybus- Cichory; Tribulus terrestris-Puncture wine weed, Cirsium
vulgare (bull thistle) are found in cropped areas.
 Daucus carota-Wild carrot, Altenanthera echinata/pungens are found in non cropped
areas.
Perennial weeds: They grow for more than two years before they wither away or
die-up. They flower for the first time in the second year of their growth and then
flower each year regularly and grow indefinitely from the same root system.
Besides through seeds, the perennial weeds reproduce vegetative from
underground, specialized structures.

Weed species within the genus may show considerable variation. Some plants may
show annual habit i.e., Cyperus iria/difformis, Physalis minima, Digitaria
sanguinalis.

Panicum maximum, Agropyron repens are the good examples of perennial weeds.

Classification according to cotyledon character: The discovery of 2,4-D

(MCPA) as highly selective trasnlocated herbicide in 1940’s gave strong
recognition to two great class of weeds namely

A) Monocotyledonous: The seeds have one cotyledon and cannot be split into
two halves. Monocot plants include cereal crop, all grasses, sedge, water hyacinth,
sugarcane, palm, orchid cattail, banana, iris and lily.

It should be remembered that all grasses are monocots, but all monocots, are not
grasses.

Monocot weed may be annual, biennial or perennial in nature

They are further divided into grasses and sedges.

a) Grasses: Several grassy weeds are Phalaris minor, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria
abyssinica, Polygon monspeliensis, Avena fatua/ludoviciana/sterilis, Poa annua, Commelina
and Cynotis

Grasses may be
Narrow leaved monocot: the majority of grasses are narrow leaved ones.
Ex. Cyanodon, Digitaria sanguinalis, Avena fatua, Poa annua
Broad leaved monocot: They have broad leaved plants with palmate like
venation, Commmelina, Cynotis, Eichhornia spp are monocot grass weeds but have
broad leaves.
 b) Sedges: They are mostly perennial except a few (Cyperus iria/difformis,
Compactus, Fimbristylis, Scripus, -are annual).
Most sedge is aquatic or wet land weeds. Cyperus rotundus/esculentus are serious
weeds of moist cultivated soils.

B) Dicotyledonous: the seeds of dicots have tow cotyledons and can be split
into two havles. They may be annual, biennial or perennial in habits.
Dicotyledonous weeds may be:

Broad leaved dicotyledonous weeds: these weeds have broad and often
toothed or divided leaves with netted venation. They have distinct petioles and
blades and may be arranged in basal rosettes or along them singly in pairs or rarely
in whorls. Ex. Amaranthus, Bidens, Parthenium, Cassia, Solanum, Digera
etc.
Narrow leaved dicotyledonous weeds: Spergula (Caryophyllaceae) and
Plantago (Plantaginaceae) are the example of this category of weeds.
Classification based on morphological character: In the most widely used
classification, weeds are grouped into grasses, sedges and broad leaved weeds.
Grasses Sedges Broad leaved weeds

Monocot, Poaceace is the most Monocots. Resembles grasses BLW, Dicot, important family:
important family based on distribution Belong to Cyperaceae. Asteraceae, Amaranthathaceae,
of species. Other families are Fabaceae, Solanceae, Polygonaceae,
Commelinaceae (Commelina, Cyanotis), Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae,
Convolvulaceae etc.
Pontederaceae (Eichhornia, Monochoria),
Liliaceae (Asphodelus, Allium), Typhaceae
(Typha), Lemnaceae (Lemna).

Stem: Cylindrical circular with distinct Stem: triangular or circular but Stem: Usually circular, pubescence
nodes and internodes, internodes hollow solid. Nodes are not jointed. Nodes with distinct nodes and internodes.
and internodes are hardly visible

Leaves: Narrow, thin linear with ligule, Leaves: Narrow, thin , linear, Leaves: broad with distinct petiole
parallel venation parallel venation without ligule and blades netted or palmate
venation, No ligule

Tillering Tillering hardly found, colonization Tillering completely absent however,

is branching is common

Rhizomes and stolons are common
structure to vegetative propagation
They are perennial vegetative
Propagation is through bulbs,
bulblets, corms, cormlets are
common
Propagation usually though seeds,
but vegetative in Convolvulus
arvensis through roots;
Cirsium arvense through rhizome
Root system fibrous and adventitious Root system fibrous Root system deep root system – Tap
rooted

Determinate growth Determinate growth Some have indeterminate growth

Fruit is caryopsis Fruit is nut or achene Different names according to family

Paraisitic weed: Unlike the other weeds, which indirectly affect the crop, the
parasitic weeds directly affect the crop, the parasitic weeds directly affect the
crop growth. These are divided into divided into complete (total) and partial
parasite. These are divided into stem/ root parasitic based on the attack.
Oribanche on tobacco- total root parasite.
Striga on sugarcane and sorghum –partial root parasite.
Cuscuta chinensis on lucerne and onion- total stem parasite.
Loranthus longiflorus on mango and other trees- parasite.
Cassytha filiformis on orange trees- partial parasite.
Crop weed competition

• The period or stage of the development in the life cycle of a crop or plant
when it is most sensitive to deficiency of a production factor and is most
responsive to correction of the deficiency.
• It is defined as that shortest time span in the ontogeny of crop when
weeding results in the highest economic returns. The crop yield level
obtained by weeding during this period is almost similar to that obtained by
full seasons weed free conditions.
• The period in the life cycle of the crop during which there is maximum
loss in the grain yield due competition by weeds

Crop Weed free period Crop Weed free period

(DAS) (DAS)
Corn First 40DAE Oilseeds
Sorghum First3week Ground nut 40-60
Soybean First6 weeks Sun flower 30-45
Ground nut First 4-6 weeks Castor 30-50
Cotton First 60 days Safflower/ Sesame 15-45
Sugarcane First 60 DAE Rape Seed/Mustard 15-40
Onion 12 weeks after Linseed 20-45
Rice-directed seed 15-45 Commercial Crops
Rice -transplanted 30-45 Sugarcane 30-120
Wheat 30-45 Potato 20-40
Pearl millet 30-45 Cotton 15-60
Pulses 15-60 Jute 30-45
Green gram/Black 15-30 Vegetables
gram/ Cowpea
Chick pea 30-60 Cauliflower/cabbage/ 30-45
Tomato
Peas 30-60 Okra 15-30
Soybean 20-45

Weed Management

Weed management methods can be divided into two

1. Preventive method
2. Curative/ remedial method: Curative method is sub divided into eradication and
control

Weed Eradication: Eradication is the ideal method of weed control, rarely

achieved. Eradication is complete elimination all live plants, plant parts and seeds
from an area. Once eradicated, the weed should not reappear unless re introduced
to the area.

Need for eradication: Some are undesirable under variety of situation if such
weeds are left without extermination, they produce seeds and the axiom “ One
year seedling seven years weeding becomes absolutely true” So when and
where new weed species is found, it must be destroyed immediately before its
multiplication, dispersion and acclimatization.
Weed prevention:

Weed prevention comprises all measures which deny entry/establishment of weed

in an area.

• It includes farm hygiene that prevents every year production of seeds, tubers
and rhizomes of weed species already present on the farm.
• Any physical/chemical method adopted with objective of not allowing weeds to
set viable seeds is to be considered of a part of weed prevention.
• In other words, all practices that help to discourage the weed from becoming a
problem over a time called prevention.
• It reduces the farmers efforts in controlling weeds later by physical/ chemical /
other methods and that is why preventive measures are “cost effective”
• “Prevention is better than cure”- a popular axiom
The following preventive measures are suggested for adoption, wherever
possible and practicable
Prevention by use of weed free crop seed: Weeds spread on the farm lands with
certain crops seed. Ex. Avena fatua, Brassica with small grains. Lucerne, berseem
and other small seed forage legumes and grasses are particularly prone to easy
contamination with specific seed of similar size and shape.

Objectionable weed species and their maximum permissible limits and total weed
species permissible limits in certified seeds of certain crops.

Crop Objectionable weed Permissible weed admixture limit

Objectionable Total

Oryza sativa Wild rice (0. Satuiva. 0.01 % 0.1 %

Var. futua)
T. aestvum Convoluulus arventsis 0.01 % or (5 0.1%
seed/kg of crop
seed)
B. campestris , Argemone mexicana 0.1% 0.5%
B. juncea

Trifolium Chicory (Chichorium 0.05 % 20seeds/kg 0.05%

alexandrium intybus) crop seed
(Egyptian clover)
Medicago sativa Cuscuta spp. 0.05% 20seeds/kg 0.05%
crop seed
Lettuce Wild lettuce 0.1 0.2%
Lactuca sativa) (L.serriock)
Cucurbit Wild cucurbit 0.0 0.0
Cucurbita sp)
Okra Wild okra 0.0 0.0
(Ablemoschus (Ablemoschus spp)
esculentus)

➢ Prevention by use of well decomposed FYM/ Compost/ Vermicompost:

➢ Isolation of introduced livestock to prevent spread of weed seeds form
digestive tract
➢ Use of clean farm equipments and cleaning equipments including combiners,
cultivator’s etc.
➢ Cleaning irrigation water before it enters a field.
➢ Moving and other appropriate weed control practices to prevent seed
production on irrigation ditch banks.
➢ Inspection of imported nursery stock for seeds, seeds and vegetative
reproductive organs.
➢ Inspection and cleaning of imported gravel, sand and soil.
➢ Special attention to fence lines. Roads, field boundaries and irrigation channels
etc. as source of weed.
➢ Field should be regularly be surveyed to indentify new weeds. When
indentified, small patches of new weeds should be treated to prevent growth
and further dispersal.
➢ Keep non crop area clean
➢ Prevention by weed laws/ legal measures: They are important in reducing the
spread of weeds. Quarantine laws. Ex: Parthenium, Lantana, Phalaris minor
they are all exotic weeds entered Indian because on quarantine/ legal measures

Weed Control

Definition: 1) Weed control is the process of limiting infestations so that crops

can be grown profitably or other operations conducted efficiently.

Weed control encompasses those practices where by weed infestations are reduced,
but not necessarily eliminated
Weed control is a matter of degree ranging from poor to excellent this is
dependent on characteristics of weeds (s) included and effectiveness of the
method(s) of control used.

The various methods of weed control are grouped as cultural, physical, biological
and chemical methods. In other words weed control methods are grouped into
A) Mechanical and manual
• Tillage
• Hand pulling/weeding
• Hoeing
• Mowing
• Flooding
B) Cultural/ ecological
C) Biological
D) Chemical methods

E) Biochemical and

F) Integrated weed control

A) Mechanical and manual: No weed control method has been abandoned

completely. New techniques have been added in large scale agriculture, but old
ones are still used effectively, especially in small scale agriculture, Mechanical weed
control method have a long history. They are a primary weed control method in
many crops and in many developing countries.
Hand pulling/ weeding: Hand pulling is practical and efficient, especially in
gardens. But it is hard work. Effective against annual weeds than perennials. Weeds
are physically lifted from the soil, cutoff or burned ,
Demerit: Costly, time consuming, tedious, untimely weeding due to non availability
of labors. Manual digging useful in perennial weed to remove underground
propagating parts of the weeds form deeper layers of soil Ex: Cynodon dactylon.

Cheeling: Done by hand using a cheel hoe similar to a spade, with along handle.
It cuts and scrapes the above ground weed growth at the ground level; it rakes it up
and useful as annuals/biennials weed. Widely used in plantation crop e.g. Tea and
coffee.

Sickling: Done to remove top growth of weed to prevent seed production and
stave the underground parts. Useful in sloppy areas were tall weeds are sickled
leaving the root and system to prevent soils erosion.
Hoeing: weeds are physically lifted from the soil, cutoff or buried. Highly effective
means of weed control and the hoe would remain one of the principle tools for
weed control.

➢ With the availability of hoe’s and expensive labor, they are used extensively.
➢ Hoeing is most effective against weed seedling and annual and biennial
weeds species. In case of perennials, it destroys the top growth with little
effect on the underground part resulting in re growth.
➢ However, hoeing can be more effective for creeping perennials like C.
arvensis, Mikania microcantha, Portulaca oleracea which have shallow / creeping
root system.
Tillage (primary and secondary) (preparatory tillage, inter cultivation, fallow
tillage) help in uprooting and burial of most annual weeds. In perennial weeds root
systems are distributed.

Mowing: Mowing is cutting of uniform growth of weeds form entire area as that
of ground level. It is primarily used to reduce seed production and restrict excess
weed growth thereby may deplete root reserve on some upright perennial.

Commonly used in meadows and pastures, along road sides and in waste places.
Repeated operations are done it controls upright weeds. Some prostrate weeds may
escape. It rarely accomplishes much weed control because it is done late. It
removes unsightly growth and if done at right time can prevent seed production.

Flooding, salt water, draining and chaining: These techniques cause ecological
change.

In a normally dry area it is flooded or a normally wet area is drained, ecological

relationships are changed and weed species will change. These techniques are
effective only when an area is immersed or drained for 3-8 weeks.

Ocean water with its salt content has shown effective control for Mimosa vine,
large crab grass in seashore, Paspalum grass and Bermuda turf but less effective
against yellow nut sedge.

Chaining has been employed on rangelands to destroy emerged vegetation. A large

chain similar to a ships anchor chain is dragged between two bulldozers and
uproots range weeds.

Chaining removes emerged growth and completely controls annuals but not
perennials that reproduce vegetatively. The technique is not suited for most crop
land.

Chains are also used to stop growth of weed in irrigation channels. Removing
collected weeds form the impoundment created by the chain is a labour intensive,
smelly and unpleasant operation.

Non mechanical methods

1) Heat
 a) Flaming /burning: Many plant processes are susceptible to high
temperature disruption attributed to coagulation and denaturation of protein,
increasing cell permeability and enzyme inactivation.
Photosynthesis is stopped or decreased. Initially thermal disruption of cellular
membranes takes place followed by dehydration of cells. Thermal death point for
most plant tissue is between 45 and 55 C after prolonged period.
b) Flame cultivation: When fire is used to burn the crop residue (cotton
sugarcane, etc.) for selective weed control of annual weeds (BLW and grasses) in
crop rows is called as flame cultivation.

Cotton plant can resist the flames if it is properly controlled and hence flame
cultivation is adopted in cotton.

Controlled burning is done with the help of hand operated vapouring burners.
Flame torches and flame throwers.

B) Solarizaiton (Solar heating): It is feasible to use the heat of the sun to

control weeds in a process called solarization. Weeds seed germination is
suppressed by high soil temperatures (55-60C) and seedlings are killed. Transparent
opaque polyethylene sheets raise soil temperature above the thermal death point
for most seedlings and many sees. The sequence of soil solarization involves
I. Covering the soil with transparent polyethylene (PE) film during hottest part
of summer months for longer tenure.
II. It has potential of raising the surface soil temperature up to 10-120 C over the
un filmed control fields, which is adequate for desiccating numerous weed
seeds present in the top 5 cm layer.
III. The sudden rise in soil temperature is due to hindrance created by the film in
permitting back radiation of solar long waves from the soil and prevention of
heat loss otherwise incurred in the evaporation of soil moisture.
IV. Thin PE sheet of 20-25 mm thickness are ideal for achieving the desired rise
is soil temperature, though the thicker ones up to 100 mm thickness has also
been successfully used.
One Pre –filming irrigation has been found to augment soil solarization effect,
both by trapping more heat and by making the weed seeds more susceptible to
thermal effects.

Several annual grass weed (including P. milnor and Avena spp) as well as BLW’s
are susceptiable to soil solarisaion. Weeds with hard seed coats, like Melilotus
spp. are difficult to damage by soil solarisation.
Perennial weeds are only stunted because not all weeds are equally susceptible to
soil solarization.
Soil solarization improves crop yield by aiding the control of weeds as well as by
damaging insect pest and disease causing organisms. Besides improving the
nutrient and biological activity of the soil,
Drawbacks: Costly, justified in high value crops can be practiced in nursery.

2 Mulching: Mulching excludes light and prevents shoot growth. Mulches

increase soil temperature and may promote better plant growth.

It is effective against perennial weeds like C. dactylon, Sorghum halepense etc.

main advantage is that they suppress the weeds and eliminates the need for
intercultivation.

Plastic mulches are found to be effective in controlling weeds in wide spaced crops
(cotton, tomato, brinjal, Sugarcane etc.)
Flooding: Flooding creates anaerobic condition,which prevents /reduces weed
seed germination, and root reparation of already germinated weed and kill plants
by reducing oxygen supply for growth, it could be practiced in cropped and non
cropped situations if cost economics permits. Ex. Field bind weed and Cynodon can
be controlled by flooding in rice Striga in sugarcane, flooding during flowering is
most critical.
Trap and catch crop : Trap and catch crops should be included in crop rotation
particularly for controlling parasitic weed Striga and Orobanche but not for cuscuta.
There s no trap or catch crop for Cuscuta. Trap Crops are nothing but false hosts,
which exude Striga geminaion stimulant and induce Striga seed germination, but
after germination, Striga may die-out for want of /lack if attachment with host
roots. This is called suicidal germination. Cotton, soybean, sunflower, cowpea, jute,
pigeon pea, chick pea, chick pea, groundnut are trap crop for striga,. sunilarly
pepper, seasame, cotton, soybean, lucerne, horse ram, sorghum, niger, brinjal, chickpea are
the trap crops for Orobanche. Trap crops are not usually scarified but harvested as
crop.
Catch crops: On the contrary are parasitic weed susceptible varieties of crop
which are grown and ploughed into soil prior to flowering of parasitic weeds and
sowing of a crop of principle interest. Ex. Sudan grass (Sroghum sudanense) is effect
catch crop and growing it for 5 weeks before cutting and sowing of sorghum in
the stubble reduced the infestation of Stiga hermonthica. For Orbanche, toria can be
used.
Adoption of stale seed bed:

Passing light harrow ( or use of paraquat) to disturb weeds after land preparation
but before seedling.

Here,1-2 flushes of weeds are destroyed before planting of any crop.

If a finely prepared seed bed is withheld form planting and it contains adequate
moisture in its top 4-5 cm of soil, a flush of young weed seedling will appear on it
in about a week’s time . these weeds are destroyed either by contact herbicide like
paraqate/ by light harrowing.

Smother cropping (competitive crops): These crop germinate quickly and

develop large canopy, capable of efficient photosynthesis in relatively short period.
They possess both surface and deep roots. They suppress weed seedling by
excluding light beneath and utilizing nutrients form the soil.

Biological weed control

Biological weed control involves the utilization of natural enemies (bio-agent ) for
the control of certain weeds. In biological control program, the natural enemies
are introduced, encouraged and multiplied by artificial means and disseminated by
man with his own efforts instead of leaving it to nature and thus differ from
natural control. The objectives of biological control are not eradication but rather
the reduction and regulation of weed population below the level of economic
injury .
Definition; biological control may be defined as the action of predators, pathogens
and / or parasites in maintaining another organism population at a lower average
level than would occur in their absence.

Biological vs. chemical control : Neither chemical method as such 8is a full proof
strategy for weed control Considering composite culture of weeds present in the
crop fields , chemical control may prove superior to biological control on the
contrary, biological on certain fronts as for controlling certain problematic and
invasive weeds under non crop situations is more effective than chemical control.

Advantages and disadvantages of biological control

Advantages
1. Biological control is environmentally banging or eco friendly since it does
not lead to environmental pollution.
2. It is economical in the long run, although initial monetary is high
3. It is self perpetuating /self sustaining except bio herbicide. Classical
biological control does not need to introduce insect/bio agent repeatedly in
every crop season and therefore relatively permanent and long lasting.
4. It is preserves biodiversity since weed control by biological means/ agents
is hardly achieved to level of 100%
5. It may effective in area inaccessible to man. The vary target weed whenever
found even in dense forests, high mountains or desert, is likely to be
controlled particularly by insect bio agents.

Disadvantages

• High cost: it requires/ incurs higher initial cost.

• Damage on economic crops: Screening and identification of bio agents
of some if not proper, they may damage the economic crops or they may control
weed plants of economic interest in other areas.
Ex. Fresh water snail (Marsia cornuarieties) is promising bio agent for some aquatic
weeds but it attacks water chestnut
Teleonemia scrupulosa, an insect found very effective in controlling Lantana
camara in India, is likely to damage teak (Tectona grandis) and sesame (Sesamum
indicum)
Zygogramma bicolarata (Maxican beetle) meant for Parthenium control also feed
on sunflower.

Test for host specificity of the bio agent by means of multiple choices and
starvation tests, therefore, should be conducted rigorously. The bio agent should
be introduced to a large number of crops plants which it usually does not feed on.
In that case, since the specific weed is not there, it may die out of starvation, but
won’t feed on crop plants. This is starvation test.

• Limited use: Biological control has limited use/ adoption in a crop field,
which usually witness a composite culture of weeds. It is generally advocated for a
particular weed i.e. in most cases it is weed- specific.

• Very slow action: It is slow in action initially. Release/ introduction of a

bio-agent and its subsequent establishment in the field and multiplication to build
up the desired level of population for causing significant damage to weed take time
and therefore the process of control of weed goes slow initially.

• Eradication not possible: Weeds are not eradicated, but managed at a

lower density, which in fact, fluctuates based on bio gent population.

• Warranting pesticide use: the biological control warrants the use of other
pesticides such as insecticides, fungicide in the crop, which may kill the bio agents
or hamper its activity.

• Environment constraints: The bio agents chosen for introduction are

mostly of foreign origin. The prevailing environment in the countries of
introduction often became the main barrier for their survival.

Weed flora shift: the biological may lead to shifting of weed flora or substitution
of weed.
Small/narrow span of activity: The span of activity of bio agent in most cases is
small/ narrow, whereas weeds may grow all through the year. For example,
Parthenium hysterophorus grows all through the year, but Zygogramma bicolarata, the bio
agent is active only during rainy season for a period of 2-3 moths starting from
July.

Conflict of interest over target weed: the biological control for certain weed
may have limited acceptance by the people because it may lead to conflict of
interest over whether a plant is weed at all times or considered a crop or useful
plant in other situation.

For example: Lantana is mainly a roadside weed but useful shrub to the farmers
since it is available free of cost for making shade in some weak stem climber crops
namely bitter gourd, pointed gourd, ridge gourd etc. Controversy is also on
biological control of Chromolaena odorata which is considered an important plant for
quick rejuvenation of bush fallow lands. Once it is removed, Panicum maximum
which is much more difficult to manage in cultivation takes over.
Lecture 16 and 17

Crop Growth and Development

Crop Growth and Development

Factors affecting crop production – climatic – edaphic - biotic-

physiographic and socio economic factors

I. Internal factors

Genetic factors

The increase in crop yields and other desirable characters are related to Genetic
make up of plants.
• High yielding ability
• Early maturity
• Resistance to lodging
• Drought flood and salinity tolerance
• Tolerance to insect pests and diseases
• Chemical composition of grains (oil content, protein content)
• Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness)
• Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)
The above characters are less influenced by environmental factors since they are
governed by genetic make-up of crop.
2. External factors
A. Climatic B. Edaphic C. Biotic D. Physiographic E. Socio-
economic
A. Climatic Factors
Nearly 50 % of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors.The following
are the atmospheric weather variables which influences the crop production.

1. Precipitation

• Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall,
snow, hail, fog and dew.
• Rainfall one of the most important factor influences the vegetation of a place.
• Total precipitation in amount and distribution greatly affects the choice of a
cultivated species in a place.
 In heavy and evenly distributed rainfall areas, crops like rice in plains and tea,
coffee and rubber in Western Ghats are grown.
• Low and uneven distribution of rainfall is common in dryland farming where
drought resistance crops like pearl millet, sorghum and minor millets are
grown.
• In desert areas grasses and shrubs are common where hot desert climate exists
• Though the rainfall has major influence on yield of crops, yields are not
always directly proportional to the amount of Precipitation as excess above
optimum reduces the yields
• Distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall to have longer
growing period especially in dry lands.
2. Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy. The range of
temperature for maximum growth of most of the agricultural plants is
between 15 and 40ºC.
• The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the
equator (latitude) and altitude.
• It influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation.
• Germination, growth and development of crops are highly influenced by
temperature.
• Affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.
• Physical and chemical processes within the plants are governed by air
temperature.
• Diffusion rates of gases and liquids changes with temperature.
• Solubility of different substances in plant is dependent on temperature.
• The minimum, maximum (above which crop growth ceases) and optimum
temperature of individual’s plant is called as cardinal temperature.
Crops Mini temp Optimum Max temp
temp
Rice 10 32 36-38
Wheat 4.5 20 30-32
Maize 8-10 20 40-43
Sorghum 12-13 25 40
Tobacco 12-14 29 35
3. Atmospheric Humidity (Relative Humidity - RH)
• Water is present in the atmosphere in the form of invisible water vapour,
normally known as humidity. Relative humidity is ratio between the amount
of moisture present in the air to the saturation capacity of the air at a
particular temperature.
• If relative humidity is 100% it means that the entire space is filled with water
and there is no soil evaporation and plant transpiration.
• Relative humidity influences the water requirement of crops
• Relative humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most of the crop plants.
• Very few crops can perform well when relative humidity is 80% and above.
• When relative humidity is high there is chance for the outbreak of pest and
disease.
4. Solar radiation (without which life will not exist)
• From germination to harvest and even post harvest crops are affected by solar
radiation.
• Biomass production by photosynthetic processes requires light.
• All physical process taking place in the soil, plant and environment are
dependent on light
• Solar radiation controls distribution of temperature and there by distribution
of crops in a region.
• Visible radiation is very important in photosynthetic mechanism of plants.
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR - 0.4 – 0.7μ) is essential for
production of carbohydrates and ultimately biomass.
0.4 to 0.5 μ - Blue – violet – Active
0.5 to 0.6 μ - Orange – red - Active
0.5 to 0.6 μ - Green –yellow – low active
• Photoperiodism is a response of plant to day length
Short day – Day length is <12 hours (Rice, Sunflower and cotton), long day –
Day length is > 12 hours (Barley, oat, carrot and cabbage), day neutral – There
is no or less influence on day length (Tomato and maize).
• Phototropism –– Response of plants to light direction. Eg. Sunflower
• Photosensitive – Season bound varieties depends on quantity of light received
5. Wind velocity

• The basic function of wind is to carry moisture (precipitation) and heat.

• The moving wind not only supplies moisture and heat, also supplies fresh
CO2 for the photosynthesis.

• Wind movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for more crops.

• When wind speed is enormous then there is mechanical damage of the crops
(i.e.) it removes leaves and twigs and damages crops like banana, sugarcane
• Wind dispersal of pollen and seeds is natural and necessary for certain crops.
• Causes soil erosion.
• Helps in cleaning produce to farmers.
• Increases evaporation.
• Spread of pest and diseases.
6. Atmospheric gases on plant growth

• CO2 – 0.03%, O2 - 20.95%, N2 - 78.09%, Argon - 0.93%, Others - 0.02%.

• CO2 is important for Photosynthesis, CO2 taken by the plants by diffusion

process from leaves through stomata
• CO2 is returned to atmosphere during decomposition of organic materials, all
farm wastes and by respiration
• O2 is important for respiration of both plants and animals while it is released
by plants during Photosynthesis
• Nitrogen is one of the important major plant nutrient, Atmospheric N is fixed
in the soil by lightning, rainfall and N fixing microbes in pulses crops and
available to plants
• Certain gases like SO2, CO, CH4, HF released to atmosphere are toxic to
plants
B. Edaphic Factors (soil)

Plants grown in land completely depend on soil on which they grow. The soil
factors that affect crop growth are
1. Soil moisture

• Water is a principal constituent of growing plant which it extracts from soil

• Water is essential for photosynthesis
• The moisture range between field capacity and permanent wilting point is
available to plants.
• Available moisture will be more in clay soil than sandy soil
• Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil including
mineralization
• It influences the soil environment Eg. it moderates the soil temperature from
extremes
• Nutrient availability and mobility increases with increase in soil moisture
content.
2. Soil air

• Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots

• Germination is inhibited in the absence of oxygen
• O2 is required for respiration of roots and micro organisms.

• Soil air is essential for nutrient availability of the soil by breaking down
insoluble mineral to soluble salts
• For proper decomposition of organic matter
• Potato, tobacco, cotton linseed, tea and legumes need higher O2 in soil air

• Rice requires low level of O2 and can tolerate water logged (absence of O2)
condition.
3. Soil temperature

• It affects the physical and chemical processes going on in the soil.

• It influences the rate of absorption of water and solutes (nutrients)
• It affects the germination of seeds and growth rate of underground portions
of the crops like tapioca, sweet potato.
• Soil temperature controls the microbial activity and processes involved in the
nutrient availability
4. Soil mineral matter

• The mineral content of soil is derived from the weathering of rocks and
minerals as particles of different sizes.

• These are the sources of plant nutrients eg; Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Fe, K etc

5. Soil Organic matter

• It supplies all the major, minor and micro nutrients to crops
• It improves the texture of the soil
• It increases the water holding capacity of the soil,
• It is a source of food for most microorganisms
• Organic acids released during decomposition of organic matter enables
mineralisation process thus releasing unavailable plant nutrients
6. Soil organisms:
• The raw organic matter in the soil is decomposed by different micro
organisms which in turn releases the plant nutrients

• Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by microbes in the soil and is available to crop

plants through symbiotic (Rhizobium) or non-symbiotic (Azospirillum)
association

7. Soil reaction (pH)

• Soil reaction is the pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of the soil.
• Soil pH affects crop growth and neutral soils with pH 7.0 are best for growth
of most of the crops
• Soils may be acidic (<7.0), neutral (=7.0), saline and alkaline (>7.0)
• Soils with low pH is injurious to plants due high toxicity of Fe and Al.
• Low pH also interferes with availability of other plant nutrients.
C. Biotic Factors

Beneficial and harmful effects caused by other biological organism (plants and
animals) on the crop plants

1. Plants
 • Competitive and complimentary nature among field crops when grown
together
• Competition between plants occurs when there is demand for nutrients,
moisture and sunlight particularly when they are in short supply or when
plants are closely spaced
• When different crops of cereals and legumes are grown together, mutual benefit
results in higher yield (synergistic effect)
• Competition between weed and crop plants as parasites eg: Striga parasite
weed on sugarcane crop
2. Animals
• Soil fauna like protozoa, nematode, snails, and insects help in organic matter
decomposition, while using organic matter for their living
• Insects and nematodes cause damage to crop yield and considered as harmful
organisms.
• Honey bees and wasps help in cross pollination and increases yield and
considered as beneficial organisms
• Burrowing earthworm facilitates aeration and drainage of the soil as ingestion
of organic and mineral matter by earthworm results in constant mixing of
these materials in the soils.
• Large animals cause damage to crop plants by grazing (cattle, goats etc)
D. Physiographic factors:
• Topography is the nature of surface earth (leveled or sloppy) is known as
topography. Topographic factors affect the crop growth indirectly.
• Altitude – increase in altitude cause a decrease in temperature and increase in
precipitation and wind velocity (hills and plains)
• Steepness of slope: it results in run off of rain water and loss of nutrient rich
top soil
• Exposure to light and wind: a mountain slope exposed to low intensity of
light and strong dry winds may results in poor crop yields (coastal areas and
interior pockets)
E. Socio-economic factors

• Society inclination to farming and members available for cultivation

• Appropriate choice of crops by human beings to satisfy the food and fodder
requirement of farm household.
• Breeding varieties by human invention for increased yield or pest & disease
resistance
• The economic condition of the farmers greatly decides the input/ resource
mobilizing ability (marginal, small, medium and large farmers)
Lecture 18

Cropping systems and crop rotation principles

Lecture 19

Harvesting and Threshing of Crops

The last stage of the crop cultivation is harvesting. In simple it is the pulling,
uprooting, cutting of the plant after it attains maturity.

The terms used are different in different crops as mentioned below

Sl.No. Crop Harvesting Biological part Economic

method part
1 Rice Cutting Straw Grain
2 Wheat Cutting Straw Grain
3 Maize Cutting Stalk Grain
4 Pearlmillet Cutting Stover Grain
5 Sorghum Cutting Stover Grain
6 Pigeonpea Cutting Stalk Grain
7 Chickpea Hand pulling Bhusa Grain
8 Cotton Picking of seed Stalk Seed cotton,
cotton lint,seed
9 Chilli (red) Picking of ripened Stalk Chilli fruits
red fruits
10 Sugarcane Cutting Stalks Stalks
11 Groundnut Hand Haulm Pods, kernels
pulling/harrowing
12 Sunflower Cutting Stalks Seeds
13 Soybean Hand pulling Haulm Grain