থম অধ ায়:

পির বশ িবদ ার পিরচয়

Introduction to environmental studies
১) পির বশ িবদ ার কৃ িত স ক আ লাচনা কর।
Q; Discuss the nature of ecology
Ecology is the branch of biology that studies how organisms interact with their environment
and other organisms1. Ecology can be studied at different levels, such as organism, population,
community, ecosystem, landscape, and global2. Ecology helps us understand the patterns and
processes of nature, the role of humans in the environment, and the challenges and solutions
for environmental issues3.

Some of the important concepts in ecology are:

Biotic and abiotic factors: These are the living and nonliving components of an ecosystem that
influence the distribution and abundance of organisms1. Examples of biotic factors are plants,
animals, fungi, and bacteria. Examples of abiotic factors are sunlight, temperature,
precipitation, soil, and nutrients.

Niche: This is the role or function of an organism in its ecosystem, including its habitat, food,
predators, competitors, and behavior4. No two species can have exactly the same niche in the
same ecosystem, otherwise they would compete for the same resources and one would
outcompete the other.

Adaptation: This is the process or result of natural selection, which is the differential survival
and reproduction of individuals with certain traits that make them better suited to their
environment1. Adaptations can be structural, physiological, or behavioral. For example, camels
have adaptations such as long eyelashes, humps, and thick fur that help them survive in the
desert.

Succession: This is the gradual change in the composition and structure of an ecosystem over
time, following a disturbance or the creation of new habitat4. Succession can be primary, when
it occurs on bare or newly exposed surfaces, or secondary, when it occurs after a partial
disturbance of an existing ecosystem. For example, after a volcanic eruption, primary
succession may start with lichens and mosses, followed by grasses and herbs, then shrubs
and trees, and finally a stable climax community.

Biodiversity: This is the variety and variability of life on Earth, including the diversity of genes,
species, and ecosystems5. Biodiversity is important for the functioning and stability of
ecosystems, the provision of ecosystem services, and the aesthetic and cultural value of
nature. Biodiversity is threatened by human activities such as habitat loss, overexploitation,
pollution, invasive species, and climate change.

২) পির ব শর ব াি স ক আ লাচনা কর।

Q; Discuss the extent of environment
The extent of environment is a term that refers to the spatial and temporal boundaries of the
environmental factors that affect a system or a process1. The extent of environment can be
defined at different scales, such as local, regional, or global, depending on the context and the
purpose of the analysis. The extent of environment can also vary over time, as environmental
conditions change due to natural or human-induced factors3.

The extent of environment is an important concept in environmental science, as it helps to

determine the scope and the methods of environmental assessment, monitoring, and
management. For example, the extent of environment can influence the selection of indicators,
data sources, sampling methods, and statistical techniques for measuring and evaluating the
environmental impacts of a project or a policy5. The extent of environment can also affect the
identification of stakeholders, the communication of results, and the formulation of
recommendations for environmental improvement.

The extent of environment is not a fixed or objective parameter, but rather a subjective and
contextual one, that depends on the perspective and the interests of the decision-makers and
the affected parties.

৩) িমশন লাইফ স ক আ লাচনা কর।

Q; Discuss mission life.
Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) is a global initiative launched by the Prime Minister of
India on World Environment Day, June 5, 2022, to promote sustainable and climate-friendly
lifestyles among individuals and communities12. The mission aims to mobilize at least one
billion people to take action for protecting and preserving the environment in the period 2022
to 202734.

Mission LiFE is based on the idea that individual behaviors and choices can have a significant
impact on the environment, especially when adopted collectively and globally. The mission
seeks to replace the ‘use-and-dispose’ economy with a circular economy, where resources are
used mindfully and deliberately, and waste is minimized and recycled. The mission also
leverages the traditional and cultural practices of different regions that are conducive to
environmental conservation and restoration.

Mission LiFE follows a three-pronged strategy to achieve its objectives:

Nudging individuals to practice simple yet effective environment-friendly actions in their daily
lives, such as saving water, using public transport, eating local and seasonal food, switching
off appliances when not in use, and reducing plastic use.

Enabling industries and markets to respond to the changing demand for sustainable products
and services, and to adopt green technologies and practices that reduce their environmental
footprint and enhance their social responsibility.

Influencing government and industrial policies to support both sustainable consumption and
production, and to create an enabling environment for innovation and collaboration in the field
of environmental management.

Mission LiFE also plans to create and nurture a global network of ‘Pro-Planet People’ (P3), who
will have a shared commitment to adopt and promote environmentally friendly lifestyles, and to
inspire others to join the movement. The mission will use various platforms and channels,
such as social media, mass media, education, and events, to spread awareness and engage
people in the campaign.

Mission LiFE is a visionary and ambitious initiative that reflects India’s leadership and
contribution to the global fight against climate change and environmental degradation. The
mission is aligned with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris
Agreement on climate change. The mission also showcases India’s rich and diverse cultural
heritage, which has a strong ethos of living in harmony with nature.

৪) পির ব শর স ক আ লাচনা কর।

Q; Discuss the importance of environment
The environment is everything that surrounds us, including living and non-living things. It
provides us with the resources we need to survive, such as food, water, air, and shelter. It also
supports the diversity of life on Earth, which is essential for maintaining a healthy and
balanced ecosystem. Here are some reasons why the environment is important:

The environment sustains our livelihoods, Many people depend on the environment for their
income, especially in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. These sectors provide food, raw
materials, and employment for billions of people. Protecting the environment ensures that
these resources are available for present and future generations.
◼

The environment improves our health. The environment affects our physical and mental well-
being. Clean air, water, and soil prevent diseases and reduce the risk of allergies, asthma, and
cancer. Green spaces, such as parks and forests, promote relaxation, happiness, and creativity.
Trees and plants also filter pollutants and produce oxygen, which improves the quality of the
air we breathe.

The environment mitigates climate change. The environment plays a key role in regulating the
climate and preventing global warming. Forests, oceans, and wetlands absorb and store
carbon dioxide, which is the main greenhouse gas that causes the Earth to heat up. Renewable
energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydro, reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, which
emit harmful emissions. By conserving and restoring the environment, we can slow down the
effects of climate change and adapt to its impacts.

The environment preserves biodiversity. The environment is home to millions of species of

animals and plants, which form complex and interdependent relationships. Biodiversity is
important for maintaining the stability and resilience of the ecosystem, as well as providing us
with many benefits, such as food, medicine, and pollination. Losing biodiversity means losing
the potential for discovering new and useful substances, as well as disrupting the balance of
nature.

These are some of the reasons why the environment is important. We should all take
responsibility for protecting and respecting the environment, as it is the source of our life and
well-being.

৫) টকসই বা সু ায়ী উ য়ন িক? টকসই উ য় নর উ শ , বিশ ও ল স ক আ লাচনা

ক রা।
Q; What is sustainable or sustainable development? Discuss the objectives,
characteristics and goals of sustainable development.
Sustainable development is a broad term to describe policies, projects and investments that
provide benefits today without sacrificing environmental, social and personal health in the
future. These policies are often described as green because they focus on limiting the impact
of development on the environment. Sustainable development has three main objectives:
economic development, social well-being, and environmental protection.These objectives are
also known as the three pillars of sustainable development.

Some of the characteristics of sustainable development are:

◼It is based on the principle of intergenerational equity, which means that the present
generation should not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
◼It is holistic and integrated, which means that it considers the interconnections and trade-offs
between different sectors, actors, and goals.

◼It is participatory and inclusive, which means that it involves the active engagement and
empowerment of all stakeholders, especially the marginalized and vulnerable groups.

◼It is adaptive and resilient, which means that it can cope with uncertainties and shocks, and
learn from feedback and experience.

The goals of sustainable development are expressed in the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), which were adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015.The SDGs are an
urgent call for action by all countries to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure peace and
prosperity for all people by 2030. The SDGs cover a wide range of topics, such as health,
education, gender equality, climate change, biodiversity, and justice. The SDGs are interlinked
and indivisible, which means that achieving one goal depends on achieving the others.

Sustainable development is a challenging but essential endeavor for humanity. It requires

collective action, innovation, and transformation at all levels and scales. By pursuing
sustainable development, we can create a more equitable, resilient, and sustainable world for
ourselves and future generations.

:ি তীয় অধ ায়:
বা সং ান এবং বা ত
Ecology and Ecosystems
১) বা ত কী? বা ত র উপাদান ও ভারসাম স ক আ লাচনা ক রা।
Q; What is ecosystem? Discuss the components and balance of ecosystems.

An ecosystem is a geographic area where living organisms, such as plants, animals, and
microbes, interact with each other and the non-living components, such as air, water, soil, and
sunlight1. Ecosystems are dynamic and complex systems that can be studied at different
scales, from a small pond to the entire biosphere2.

The components of an ecosystem can be divided into two categories: biotic and abiotic. Biotic
components are the living organisms that form the biological community. They can be
classified into producers, consumers, and decomposers, based on their role in the flow of
energy and matter. Producers, such as plants and algae, are the primary source of organic
matter and oxygen in the ecosystem. They use photosynthesis to convert light energy into
chemical energy. Consumers, such as animals and fungi, are the organisms that feed on other
organisms or organic matter. They can be herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, or parasites,
depending on their diet. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, are the organisms that
break down dead organic matter and release nutrients back to the soil and atmosphere3.

Abiotic components are the non-living factors that influence the biotic components and the
physical environment. They include climatic factors, such as temperature, precipitation, wind,
and light; edaphic factors, such as soil texture, pH, and moisture; and chemical factors, such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Abiotic components determine the
availability of resources and the conditions for life in the ecosystem3.

The balance of an ecosystem is the state of equilibrium or stability among the biotic and
abiotic components. It is maintained by the interactions and feedback loops that regulate the
flow of energy and matter. For example, the carbon cycle is a process that involves the
exchange of carbon between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Plants
take up carbon dioxide from the air and use it to make organic matter. Animals consume
plants and release carbon dioxide through respiration. Decomposers break down dead organic
matter and release carbon dioxide and methane. Some carbon is stored in the soil, rocks, and
fossil fuels. Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture, can
disrupt the balance of the carbon cycle and cause global warming4.

The balance of an ecosystem can also be affected by natural or human-induced disturbances,

such as fire, flood, drought, disease, invasive species, pollution, and habitat loss. These
disturbances can alter the structure, function, and diversity of the ecosystem. Depending on
the intensity, frequency, and duration of the disturbance, the ecosystem can either resist,
recover, or transform. Resistance is the ability of the ecosystem to withstand the disturbance
and remain unchanged. Recovery is the ability of the ecosystem to return to its original state
after the disturbance. Transformation is the ability of the ecosystem to adapt to the new
conditions and evolve into a different state5.

Ecosystems are important for the survival and well-being of humans and other species. They
provide various goods and services, such as food, water, oxygen, climate regulation, soil
formation, nutrient cycling, pollination, pest control, recreation, and cultural values. Therefore,
it is essential to protect and conserve the ecosystems and their balance for the present and
future generations.
২) বা ত কী? বা ত র উপাদান িলর ম ধ পার িরক ি য়া- িতি য়া স ক আ লাচনা ক রা
Q; What is ecosystem? Discuss the interactions between ecosystem components

An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things that interact with each other in a
specific area. The interactions between ecosystem components can be classified into four
types: predation, competition, mutualism, and commensalism1. Here is a brief explanation of
each type:

Predation

Predation is when one organism (the predator) kills and eats another organism (the prey). This
interaction affects the population size and behavior of both the predator and the prey. For
example, wolves hunt and eat deer, which reduces the deer population and forces them to be
more alert and agile2.

Competition

Competition is when two or more organisms (the competitors) use the same limited resource,
such as food, water, space, or mates. This interaction reduces the availability and quality of the
resource for both competitors. For example, lions and hyenas compete for the same prey
animals, which leads to conflicts and injuries3.

Mutualism

Mutualism is when two or more organisms (the mutualists) benefit from each other by
providing a service or a resource. This interaction increases the survival and reproduction of
both mutualists. For example, bees and flowers have a mutualistic relationship, where bees
pollinate flowers and get nectar in return.

Commensalism

Commensalism is when one organism (the commensal) benefits from another organism (the
host) without affecting it. This interaction provides an advantage for the commensal, but
neither harms nor helps the host. For example, barnacles attach to whales and get a free ride
and access to food, while whales are unaffected by the barnacles.

These are some of the interactions between ecosystem components that shape the structure
and function of the ecosystem. They also influence the diversity and adaptation of the
organisms in the ecosystem.

৩) বা ত শি - বাহ ব াখ া ক রা।
Q; Explain energy flow in ecosystems.

Energy flow in ecosystems is the movement or transfer of energy from one trophic level to
another in an ecosystem. Trophic levels are the positions that organisms occupy in the food
chain, such as producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, etc. The main source of
energy in most ecosystems is the sun, which is captured by producers or autotrophs through
photosynthesis. Producers then transfer this energy to consumers or heterotrophs through
feeding interactions. The energy flow in ecosystems is unidirectional, meaning it does not go
back to the previous trophic level. It is also inefficient, meaning only a fraction of the energy
available at one trophic level is passed on to the next. This is because some energy is lost as
heat, some energy is used for metabolism, and some energy is not consumed or assimilated
by the consumers. The energy flow in ecosystems can be measured by different parameters,
such as biomass, productivity, and ecological efficiency. Biomass is the total mass of living or
organic matter in a given area or volume. Productivity is the rate at which energy is
incorporated into biomass by the organisms. Ecological efficiency is the ratio of productivity or
biomass at one trophic level to that of the previous trophic level. The energy flow in
ecosystems is important for understanding the dynamics and sustainability of the ecosystems.
It helps us to know how much energy is available for different organisms, how energy is
distributed among different trophic levels, and how energy is affected by environmental factors
and human activities. The energy flow in ecosystems also influences the biodiversity, stability,
and functioning of the ecosystems.

৪) খাদ শৃ ল ও খাদ জা লর ম ধ স ক এবং পাথক লখ?

Q; Write the relationship and path between food chain and food web

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms that shows how energy and nutrients flow from
one organism to another in an ecosystem. A food web is a network of multiple food chains that
shows the complex interactions and interdependencies among different organisms in an
ecosystem.

The relationship between food chain and food web is that a food web consists of many food
chains that are interconnected at various points. A food chain follows a single path of energy
transfer, while a food web follows multiple paths of energy transfer. A food web is more
realistic and accurate than a food chain, as it reflects the diversity and variety of feeding
relationships in nature.
The path between food chain and food web is that each organism in a food chain belongs to a
specific trophic level, which indicates its position and role in the energy flow. The trophic levels
are: producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, and
decomposers. Producers are the organisms that make their own food by photosynthesis, such
as plants and algae. Primary consumers are the herbivores that eat the producers, such as
insects and rabbits. Secondary consumers are the carnivores that eat the primary consumers,
such as snakes and foxes. Tertiary consumers are the carnivores that eat the secondary
consumers, such as eagles and lions. Decomposers are the organisms that break down the
dead organic matter and recycle the nutrients, such as fungi and bacteria.

A food web shows how the organisms in different food chains are linked by their feeding
habits. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, a grasshopper can be eaten by a frog, a lizard,
or a bird. A frog can be eaten by a snake, a hawk, or a raccoon. A snake can be eaten by an
eagle, a coyote, or a human. A food web also shows how the energy and nutrients are
transferred among the trophic levels in an ecosystem. For example, in a pond ecosystem, the
phytoplankton (producers) are eaten by the zooplankton (primary consumers), which are eaten
by the small fish (secondary consumers), which are eaten by the big fish (tertiary consumers).
The decomposers feed on the dead organic matter from all the trophic levels and release the
nutrients back into the water.

৫) বা ত , জনসংখ া এবং স দা য়র ম ধ স ক কী?

Q; What is the relationship between ecosystems, populations and communities?

Ecosystems, populations and communities are ecological levels that describe the organization
and interactions of living organisms in an environment. The relationship between them is that
each level is composed of the lower level and includes additional factors or complexity.

•An individual is a single organism of a species, such as a human, a tree, or a bacterium.

•A population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and can
interbreed, such as a herd of elephants, a colony of ants, or a culture of yeast.

•A community is a group of populations of different species that live in the same area and
interact with each other, such as a forest, a coral reef, or a grassland. A community is
composed of all the biotic (living) factors of an area.

•An ecosystem is a system that includes all the living organisms (the community) and the
nonliving (abiotic) factors, such as water, soil, climate, and energy, that affect them in an area.
An ecosystem is the most complex and inclusive level of ecological organization.

The relationship between ecosystems, populations and communities can be illustrated by an

example of a pond ecosystem. The pond ecosystem consists of the pond water, the soil, the
sunlight, the temperature, and other abiotic factors, as well as the living organisms that inhabit
the pond, such as fish, frogs, plants, algae, bacteria, and insects. The pond ecosystem can be
divided into several communities, such as the aquatic community, the terrestrial community,
and the decomposer community, that have different species and interactions. Each community
can be further divided into populations, such as the population of fish, the population of frogs,
the population of plants, and so on. Each population is made up of individuals of the same
species, such as a single fish, a single frog, or a single plant.

৬) পির বশগত উ রািধকার সংি কা লখ?

Q; short notes on Ecological Succession?

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological
community over time1 It can be primary, secondary, cyclic or seral

Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas, such as the regions devoid
of soil or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life1 The first species that colonize
these areas are called pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses. They make the area
suitable for the growth of larger species, such as grasses, shrubs and trees

Secondary succession is the succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community,

such as from a fire, windstorm, or logging The disturbance reduces the population size and
diversity of the existing community, but does not completely eliminate the soil and the seed
bank. Therefore, secondary succession is faster than primary succession, as it starts from a
place that had already supported life before

Cyclic succession is the succession that occurs in response to periodic disturbances, such as
floods, fires, or grazing The community does not reach a stable climax, but instead fluctuates
between different stages of succession

Seral succession is the succession that follows a specific sequence of communities, called a
sere, from the initial stage to the climax stage Each community in a sere is called a seral stage
or seral community. The ultimate aim of succession is to reach equilibrium in the ecosystem,
where the community is stable and diverse. The community that achieves this aim is called a
climax community
 : তৃ তীয় অধ ায় :

াকৃ িতক স দসমূহ

Natural Resources

Suggestion 2024
১) স দ কা ক ব ল? স দর কৃ িত ও বিশ িল আ লাচনা ক রা।
1) What is Natural Resources? Discuss the nature and characteristics of resources

Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few
modifications. They include sources of energy, materials, and living organisms that are
useful or valuable to humans or have the potential to be so

Some of the nature and characteristics of natural resources are:

Destructability-Most natural resources are destroyed in the process of use. Resource

destruction could ensue/arise from the process of consumption-coal and firewood for
cooking, fuel for vehicles etc. Most of the problems of desertification and aridization were
said to have resulted from the activities of man on the natural vegetation-shifting cultivation,
burning of forest for games and grazing and browsing of the natural vegetation leading to
desertification of the original vegetation.

Common Property-Ownership of natural resources is not clearly defined since they are gifts
of nature, no man can claim ownership-marble Industry in Oyo State and the attendant rows
-deep sea fishery, forestry are also common properties. Hence, people go into the bush to
fetch firewoods, pick snails etc. Most forest reserves belong to the State and communities,
hence cases of illegal fellers.

Importance of time factor-For most renewable resources, there is always a waiting period
for the production to be increased. For timber, there is a minimum period for maturity. The
growth rate of most biological organisms are beyond man's influence.

Natural Resources as part of the Environment- They form integral part of the
environment.i.e. the living and non-living surrounding. The users quite often are not aware
of the effects of their actions in forests on the adjoining forest areas.e.g. clearing of the
premier plantation for the building of the cultural Centre in Ibadan and the 1980 flood in the
city.
 Uneven Distribution- Natural resources are natural endowment and their distribution is
uneven both within and between countries.. Some countries have monopoly of some.e. g.
Bauxite in Jamaica (80% of the production) while the rest is in South Africa. However, this is
not true of forests. Most countries are capable of growing forest - it is not as uneven as
other resources.

Versatility - This means that natural resources can be stored for long period of time without
deterioration. This is particularly true of resources derived from geological processes.e.g.
Coal, oil (petroleum). Versatility of timber will not only leave the timber resources intact, but
could lead to increase in timber value - as the timber increases in both height and diameter
(volume). The bigger the timber the more the value. However, if timber is left unharvested
after an advanced age of maturity, deterioration may set in due to pathological hazards -
heart rot, etc.

Finiteness - This refers to the quantity available at a given time. The quantity of natural
resources available is absolutely fixed. This is what the engineers and technologists refer to
as "Proven-supply". i.e. the quantity of the resource known to exist.e.g. resources obtained
through geological processes. Their development requires a time scale and quantity cannot
be increased on the short run.

2) Discuss about natural resources.

Ans; Follow the question answer number 1

৩) পুননবীকরণ যাগ এবং অ-নবায়ন যাগ স দর ধারণা ব াখ া ক রা

3) Explain the concepts of renewable and non-renewable resources

Renewable and nonrenewable resources are energy sources that human society uses to
function on a daily basis. The difference between these two types of resources is that
renewable resources can naturally replenish themselves while nonrenewable resources cannot.
This means that nonrenewable resources are limited in supply and cannot be used sustainably.

There are four major types of nonrenewable resources: oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear
energy. Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed
within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years—hence the name “fossil”
fuels. They are found in underground layers of rock and sediment. Pressure and heat worked
together to transform the plant and animal remains into crude oil (also known as petroleum),
coal, and natural gas.
The plants and animals that became fossil fuels lived in a time called Carboniferous Period,
around 300 to 360 million years ago. The energy in the plant and animal remains originally
came from the sun; through the process of photosynthesis, solar energy is stored in plant
tissues, which animals then consume, adding the energy to their own bodies. When fossil fuels
are burned, this trapped energy is released.

Crude oil is a liquid fuel fossil fuel that is used mostly to produce gasoline and diesel fuel for
vehicles, and for the manufacturing of plastics. It is found in rocks below Earth’s surface and is
pumped out through wells.

Natural gas is widely used for cooking and for heating homes. It consists mostly of methane
and is found near oil deposits below Earth’s surface. Natural gas can be pumped out through
the same wells used for extracting crude oil.

Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is used for heating homes and generating power plants. It is
found in fossilized swamps that have been buried beneath layers of sediment. Since coal is
solid, it cannot be extracted in the same manner as crude oil or natural gas; it must be dug up
from the ground.

Nuclear energy comes from radioactive elements, mainly uranium, which is extracted from
mined ore and then refined into fuel.

Unfortunately, human society is—for the time being—dependent on nonrenewable resources as

its primary source of energy. Approximately 80 percent of the total amount of energy used
globally each year comes from fossil fuels. We depend on fossil fuels because they are energy-
rich and relatively cheap to process. But a major problem with fossil fuels, aside from their
being in limited supply, is that burning them releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Rising levels of heat-trapping carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the main cause of global
warming.

Alternative energy sources, such as wind and solar energy, are a possible solution to the
depletion of nonrenewable sources. Both of these clean energy sources are available in
unlimited supply.

৪) বন উজাড়- কারণ, পিরণিত বা ভাব বা ফলাফল এবং িতকার ব াখ া ক রা।

4) Deforestation – Explain the causes, consequences or effects or results and remedies.

Deforestation causes

Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees from forests or other lands for various human
purposes. It has many negative impacts on the environment, such as habitat loss, biodiversity
loss, soil erosion, water cycle disruption, and climate change. Some of the main causes of
deforestation are:

Agriculture: This is the most common cause of deforestation, accounting for about 80% of it1.
Farmers clear forests to grow crops or raise livestock, such as cattle, soybeans, and palm oil.
These products are in high demand globally, especially for food and biofuel.

Logging: This is the cutting of trees for timber, paper, furniture, and other wood products.
Logging accounts for about 14% of deforestation1. It also degrades the quality and health of
the remaining forests, making them more vulnerable to fires, pests, and diseases.

Mining: This is the extraction of minerals, metals, and fossil fuels from the earth. Mining
requires large areas of land to be cleared for infrastructure, such as roads, pipelines, and
power plants. Mining also pollutes the soil, water, and air with toxic chemicals and waste.

Urbanization: This is the expansion of cities and human settlements. As the population grows,
more land is needed for housing, transportation, industry, and recreation. Urbanization also
increases the demand for energy and resources, which leads to more deforestation.

Climate change: This is the long-term change in the earth’s climate, mainly caused by human
activities that emit greenhouse gases. Climate change affects the forests by altering the
temperature, precipitation, and seasonality. This can result in droughts, floods, fires, and pests
that damage or destroy the forests.

These are some of the major causes of deforestation, but there are also other factors, such as
natural disasters, wars, and diseases, that can contribute to it.

consequences & effects

Deforestation has many negative consequences and effects on the environment, wildlife, and
humans. Some of the main ones are:

Soil erosion and desertification: Deforestation removes the trees and plants that hold the soil
in place and provide nutrients. This leads to the loss of fertile topsoil, which reduces the land’s
ability to grow crops and support life. It also increases the risk of droughts, floods, and
landslides.

Climate change: Deforestation releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere,
which contributes to the greenhouse effect and global warming. It also reduces the forests’
ability to absorb and store carbon, which further worsens the climate crisis. Deforestation is
responsible for about 10% of human-caused carbon emissions.

Biodiversity loss and extinction: Deforestation destroys the habitats and food sources of
millions of species, many of which are endemic to specific forests. This reduces the genetic
diversity and resilience of ecosystems, and increases the risk of extinction. Forests are home
to about 80% of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity.
Water cycle disruption: Deforestation affects the water cycle by reducing the amount of water
that evaporates from the land and transpires from the plants. This alters the precipitation
patterns and moisture levels in the atmosphere, which can lead to droughts or floods in
different regions. It also affects the quality and quantity of freshwater resources15.

These are some of the major consequences and effects of deforestation, but there are also
other impacts, such as social, economic, and health issues, that affect the people who depend
on forests for their livelihoods, culture, and well-being.

Deforestation – the remedies.

Deforestation is a serious problem that threatens the environment, wildlife, and humans. There
are many possible remedies to deforestation, but they require global cooperation and action.
Some of the remedies are:

Government regulations: Governments can enact and enforce laws and policies that protect
forests from illegal logging, mining, and clearing. They can also provide incentives and
subsidies for sustainable forest management, conservation, and restoration12.

Convince farmers to avoid deforestation: Farmers can be encouraged to adopt agroforestry,

which is the integration of trees and crops on the same land. This can improve soil fertility,
crop yield, and biodiversity, while reducing deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions34.

Reforestation and afforestation: Reforestation is the replanting of trees on deforested land,

while afforestation is the planting of trees on land that was not previously forested. Both
practices can restore forest cover, sequester carbon, and provide ecosystem services .

International projects: International organizations and initiatives can support and fund forest
conservation and restoration projects in different countries. For example, the REDD+
mechanism (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) offers financial
incentives for developing countries to reduce deforestation and enhance forest carbon stocks .

Change our consumption behavior: Consumers can reduce their demand for products that
cause deforestation, such as palm oil, soy, beef, and wood. They can also choose products
that are certified as sustainable, organic, or fair trade, which means they meet certain
environmental and social standards .

Education: Education can raise awareness and knowledge about the causes, effects, and
solutions of deforestation among the public, especially the youth. It can also empower and
inform the local communities that depend on forests for their livelihoods and culture .

Convince others: Individuals can also influence others to take action against deforestation by
spreading the word, signing petitions, joining campaigns, donating to organizations, and
volunteering for projects that protect and restore forests .

These are some of the possible remedies to deforestation, but there are also other solutions
that can be explored and implemented
 ৫) ভিম স দ বল ত কী বাঝা? ম করণ কা লখ?
5) What is meant by land resources? Write notes on desertification?

Land resources are the natural assets of the earth’s surface that can be used for various
purposes, such as agriculture, industry, housing, recreation, etc. Land resources include not
only the soil and terrain, but also the water, vegetation, wildlife, minerals, and climate of a given
area. Land resources are essential for human survival and development, but they are also
vulnerable to degradation and depletion due to various factors

Desertification is a type of land degradation that occurs in drylands, which are regions with low
or erratic rainfall and high evaporation rates. Desertification reduces the biological productivity
and diversity of the land, making it more arid and desert-like. Desertification can be caused by
natural processes, such as droughts, floods, fires, and pests, or by human activities, such as
overgrazing, deforestation, farming practices, urbanization, and climate change. Desertification
affects the livelihoods, food security, health, and well-being of millions of people, especially in
developing countries. Desertification also contributes to global environmental problems, such
as biodiversity loss, water scarcity, and greenhouse gas emissions

Some of the possible solutions to prevent and reverse desertification are:

Improving land management practices, such as conservation tillage, contour farming, terracing,
agroforestry, and crop rotation.

Restoring degraded lands, such as reforestation, afforestation, revegetation, and soil

improvement.

Enhancing water management, such as rainwater harvesting, irrigation efficiency, and

watershed protection.

Promoting sustainable development, such as reducing poverty, improving education,

empowering women, and diversifying income sources.

Strengthening international cooperation, such as implementing the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), supporting research and innovation, and mobilizing
financial and technical resources
 ৬) ভপৃ ও ভগভ পািনয় জ লর অিতির ব বহা রর ফলাফল ব াখ া ক রা
(বন া ও খরার কারণ ও ফলাফল ও িতকার)
6) Explain the consequences of overuse of water on surface and ground water

(Causes and Effects and Remedies of Floods and Droughts)

The overuse of water on surface and ground water can have serious negative impacts on the
environment and society. Some of the consequences are:

Droughts: When surface water is overused, there is less water available during dry periods,
which can affect agriculture, industry, and human populations.

Water Pollution: When surface water is overused, the remaining water can become more
polluted, as contaminants are concentrated in less water.

Ecological Impacts: When surface water or groundwater is overused, it can damage the natural
habitats and ecosystems that depend on them, such as wetlands and aquatic life.

Subsidence: When groundwater is overused, it can cause the land to sink, as the underground
water storage is depleted. This can damage buildings, roads, and infrastructure.

Saltwater Intrusion: When groundwater is overused in coastal areas, it can allow saltwater to
enter freshwater aquifers, making the water unusable for drinking or irrigation.

Conflicts: When surface water or groundwater is overused, it can lead to disputes between
different users, such as farmers, industrial users, and municipal water suppliers, who may all
be competing for limited water resources.

To preserve surface water and groundwater, it is important to promote water conservation,

implement efficient irrigation techniques, and regulate water use and extraction.

(Causes and Effects and Remedies of Floods and Droughts

Floods and droughts are two opposite types of natural disasters that can affect the availability
and quality of water resources. They can have severe impacts on the environment, society, and
economy. Here are some of the causes, effects, and remedies of floods and droughts:

Floods: Floods occur when there is an excess of water that submerges normally dry land.
Some of the causes of floods are heavy rainfall, melting of snow and ice, broken dams, storm
surges, and lack of vegetation. Some of the effects of floods are damage to crops, property,
and infrastructure, loss of human and animal lives, water pollution, soil erosion, and ecological
disruption. Some of the remedies of floods are building flood barriers, improving drainage
systems, restoring wetlands, and implementing early warning systems.

Droughts: Droughts occur when there is a prolonged period of dryness that reduces the
amount and quality of water resources. Some of the causes of droughts are low rainfall, high
evaporation, overpopulation, overcultivation, deforestation, and climate change24. Some of the
effects of droughts are crop failure, famine, water scarcity, health problems, conflicts, and
wildfires. Some of the remedies of droughts are conserving water, using efficient irrigation
methods, harvesting rainwater, planting drought-resistant crops, and regulating water use and
extraction.

Floods and droughts are both serious challenges that require collective action and adaptation
to mitigate their impacts and prevent their occurrence. 🌊☀
৭) শি স দ বল ত কী বাঝ? শি উৎপাদ নর পির বশগত ভাব, ব াখ া ক রা
7) What do you mean by energy resources? Environmental impact of energy production,
explain

Energy resources are the materials or elements that can be used to produce energy, such as
electricity, heat, or mechanical energy1. Energy resources can be classified into two types:
renewable and non-renewable. Renewable energy resources are those that can be replenished
naturally or by human intervention, such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and geothermal energy.
Non-renewable energy resources are those that are finite and cannot be regenerated at the
same rate as they are consumed, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy2.

The production and consumption of energy resources have significant environmental impacts,
both positive and negative. Some of the positive impacts are:

Renewable energy resources can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, as they
do not rely on burning fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide and other harmful substances
into the atmosphere.

Renewable energy resources can also enhance energy security and diversity, as they are less
dependent on foreign imports and more resilient to disruptions3.

Renewable energy resources can create new jobs and economic opportunities, especially in
rural and remote areas where they can provide access to electricity and improve living
standards.

Some of the negative impacts are:

Non-renewable energy resources can contribute to global warming and climate change, as they
emit large amounts of greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and alter the natural
balance of the earth’s systems.

Non-renewable energy resources can also cause environmental degradation and pollution, as
they involve extraction, transportation, and disposal of finite and often toxic materials that can
damage the land, water, and biodiversity.
Non-renewable energy resources can also pose health and safety risks, as they can expose
workers and communities to hazardous substances, accidents, and radiation.

Renewable energy resources can also have some negative impacts, such as:

Renewable energy resources can require large amounts of land, water, and materials, which
can compete with other uses and affect the natural habitats and ecosystems

Renewable energy resources can also have visual, noise, and thermal impacts, which can
affect the aesthetic and cultural values of the landscape and the people.

Renewable energy resources can also face technical, economic, and social barriers, such as
intermittency, storage, transmission, cost, and public acceptance.

Therefore, it is important to balance the benefits and drawbacks of different energy resources
and adopt sustainable and efficient practices to minimize the environmental impacts of energy
production and consumption.

৮) চিলত ও অ চিলত শি র পাথক , উৎস, ব বহার লখ

8) Write the path, source, use of conventional and non-conventional energy

Conventional and non-conventional energy are two types of energy sources that can be used to
produce electricity, heat, and other forms of energy. Here are some of the differences, sources,
and uses of these two types of energy:

Conventional energy refers to the energy sources that are commonly used for a long time and
are derived from fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy. These sources
are non-renewable, meaning they cannot be replenished at the same rate as they are
consumed. They are also polluting, as they emit greenhouse gases and other harmful
substances that contribute to global warming and environmental degradation. Conventional
energy sources are mainly used for industrial and commercial purposes, such as power
generation, transportation, and manufacturing.. However, they are costly and depleting, and
their alternative is hard to find.

Non-conventional energy refers to the energy sources that are identified in recent decades and
are derived from renewable sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal
energy. These sources are renewable, meaning they can be replenished naturally or by human
intervention. They are also environment-friendly, as they do not emit greenhouse gases and
other harmful substances that cause pollution and climate change45. Non-conventional energy
sources are mainly used for domestic purposes, such as lighting, heating, and cooking. They
are comparatively less expensive and abundant, and they offer cleaner and greener
alternatives for a sustainable future.

To summarize, conventional and non-conventional energy sources differ in their origin,

availability, environmental impact, use, and cost. Conventional energy sources are non-
renewable, polluting, and widely used, while non-conventional energy sources are renewable,
clean, and mainly used for domestic purposes.

৯) সবুজ শি কী? স া উদাহরণ? কার ভদ এবং আ লাচনা ক রা?

9) What is green energy? Sanga example? Discuss the types and importance?

Green energy is the energy that comes from natural and renewable sources, such as sunlight,
wind, water, geothermal, and biomass. Green energy does not produce harmful greenhouse
gases or pollutants that contribute to climate change and environmental degradation. Some
examples of green energy are solar panels, wind turbines, hydroelectric dams, geothermal
plants, and biofuels.

There are many types of green energy, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The
main types are:

Solar energy: This type of energy uses photovoltaic cells or solar thermal collectors to capture
sunlight and convert it into electricity or heat. Solar energy is abundant, clean, and versatile, but
it depends on the availability of sunlight and requires large areas of land.

Wind energy: This type of energy uses wind turbines to harness the kinetic energy of the wind
and generate electricity. Wind energy is renewable, cost-effective, and widely available, but it is
intermittent, noisy, and can affect wildlife and aesthetics.

Hydroelectric energy: This type of energy uses the flow of water in rivers, streams, dams, or
oceans to spin turbines and produce electricity. Hydroelectric energy is reliable, efficient, and
flexible, but it can alter the natural water cycle, affect aquatic ecosystems, and displace people
and communities.

Geothermal energy: This type of energy uses the heat stored in the earth’s crust to generate
steam or hot water for heating or electricity. Geothermal energy is constant, clean, and
abundant, but it is limited by geographic location, expensive to develop, and can cause
earthquakes and emissions.

Biomass energy: This type of energy uses organic matter, such as wood, crops, waste, or algae,
to produce heat, electricity, or biofuels. Biomass energy is renewable, carbon-neutral, and can
reduce waste, but it can also compete with food production, cause deforestation, and emit
pollutants.

Green energy is important for several reasons, such as:

It can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change, which is a major threat
to humanity and the planet.
It can enhance energy security and diversity, by reducing dependence on fossil fuel imports
and increasing resilience to disruptions.

It can create new jobs and economic opportunities, especially in rural and remote areas where
green energy can provide access to electricity and improve living standards.

It can improve public health and environmental quality, by avoiding the harmful effects of fossil
fuels, such as air pollution, water contamination, and land degradation.

Green energy is a vital and rapidly evolving aspect of our modern world. It represents a
sustainable and clean alternative to conventional energy sources, and offers many benefits for
the environment, society, and economy. 🌱🔋
১০) আ জািতক এবং আ ঃরা য় পির পি ত জল বা জল সংঘাত ব াখ া ক রা
10) Explain water conflict or water conflicts in international and inter-state terms

Water conflict is a term that refers to disputes or violence related to the access, control, or use
of water resources, or the impact of water on conflicts. Water conflicts can occur at different
levels, such as between countries, states, or groups that share a transboundary water source,
or between parties within the same country that have competing demands or interests for
water

Some of the causes of water conflicts are:

Water scarcity: Water is a limited and unevenly distributed resource that is essential for human
life and various activities. When the demand for water exceeds the supply, or when the quality
of water is degraded, conflicts may arise over the allocation, management, or protection of
water

Territorial disputes: Water resources or systems may be located in disputed areas or borders,
or may be claimed by different parties based on historical, legal, or cultural grounds. Conflicts
may occur when one party tries to assert its sovereignty or rights over water, or when another
party feels threatened or deprived of water

Strategic advantage: Water resources or systems may be used as a tool or weapon in a

conflict, or may be targeted or affected by a conflict. For example, water may be used to
coerce, pressure, or harm an adversary, or to gain leverage or influence in a negotiation.
Alternatively, water may be intentionally or unintentionally damaged, polluted, or diverted as a
result of a conflict, or may become a casualty or a source of vulnerability in a conflict

Water conflicts can have serious consequences for human security, development, and peace.
Therefore, it is important to prevent, manage, or resolve water conflicts through various
strategies, such as:

Legal and institutional frameworks: Water conflicts can be regulated by laws and agreements
that define the rights and responsibilities of different parties, and provide mechanisms for
cooperation, coordination, and dispute resolution. For example, international treaties or
conventions can help facilitate the sharing and protection of transboundary water resources or
systems

Technology and innovation: Water conflicts can be reduced by improving the availability,
accessibility, and quality of water through technological solutions or innovations. For example,
water conservation, efficiency, reuse, or desalination can help increase the supply of water,
while water treatment, monitoring, or purification can help improve the quality of water

Dialogue and cooperation: Water conflicts can be resolved or prevented by fostering dialogue
and cooperation among different parties, and building trust, understanding, and mutual
benefits. For example, water diplomacy, mediation, or dialogue can help address the underlying
causes and interests of water conflicts, and find mutually acceptable solutions

১১) ভিমর অব য় ও মৃি কা য়র কারণ ও ফলাফল আ লাচনা ক রা

11) Discuss the causes and consequences of land degradation and soil erosion

Land degradation and soil erosion are interrelated processes that affect the quality and
productivity of land resources. Land degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by its
improper use, usually for agricultural, pastoral, industrial or urban purposes. Soil erosion is the
loosening and displacement of topsoil particles from the land, which can be caused by natural
factors (such as wind, water, ice, and gravity) or human activities (such as deforestation,
overgrazing, faulty methods of agriculture, mining, etc.)

Some of the causes and consequences of land degradation and soil erosion are:

Deforestation: The removal of trees and vegetation exposes the soil to wind and water erosion,
reduces the organic matter and nutrients in the soil, and disrupts the water cycle and the
microclimate. Deforestation can lead to loss of biodiversity, soil fertility, water quality, and
carbon sequestration

Overgrazing: The excessive grazing of livestock on pastures reduces the vegetative cover and
compacts the soil, making it more prone to erosion and waterlogging. Overgrazing can also
cause soil salinization, nutrient depletion, and desertification

Faulty methods of agriculture: The use of inappropriate or unsustainable agricultural practices,

such as monocropping, excessive tillage, inadequate crop rotation, poor irrigation, and
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, can degrade the soil structure, chemistry, and
biology. These practices can also increase soil erosion, salinity, acidity, and pollution

Soil salinity and soil alkalinity: The accumulation of salts or sodium in the soil due to natural
processes (such as evaporation, weathering, or seawater intrusion) or human activities (such
as irrigation, mining, or industrial waste disposal) can affect the soil pH, nutrient availability,
and water retention. Soil salinity and alkalinity can reduce crop yields, damage soil biota, and
increase soil erosion
Desertification: The degradation of drylands into desert-like conditions due to climatic
variations and human activities, such as deforestation, overgrazing, overexploitation of water
resources, and poor land management. Desertification can result in loss of vegetation, soil
fertility, biodiversity, and water resources, as well as increased poverty, hunger, and migration

Waterlogging: The saturation of soil with water due to poor drainage, excessive irrigation, or
high water table. Waterlogging can reduce the aeration, porosity, and permeability of the soil,
and affect the root growth and nutrient uptake of plants. Waterlogging can also cause soil
salinity, water pollution, and soil erosion

Land degradation and soil erosion can have serious impacts on the environment, economy,
and society. They can affect the food security, livelihoods, health, and well-being of millions of
people, especially in developing countries. They can also contribute to climate change,
biodiversity loss, and natural disasters. Therefore, it is important to prevent, control, and
reverse land degradation and soil erosion through various measures, such as:

Legal and institutional frameworks: The establishment and enforcement of laws and policies
that regulate the use and management of land and water resources, and provide incentives and
sanctions for sustainable land use practices

Technology and innovation: The development and adoption of technologies and innovations
that improve the efficiency, productivity, and resilience of land and water resources, such as
soil conservation, water harvesting, agroforestry, organic farming, integrated pest
management, etc

Dialogue and cooperation: The promotion of dialogue and cooperation among different
stakeholders, such as governments, communities, farmers, researchers, NGOs, and donors, to
share knowledge, experiences, and resources, and to address the underlying causes and
interests of land degradation and soil erosion

১২) কৃ িতক মূলধন িহসা বর উপর এক সংি িনব ন লখ।

12) Write a short note on natural accounting.

Natural accounting is the process of calculating the total stocks and flows of natural
resources and services in a given ecosystem or region. It is an approach to farming that puts
nature on the balance sheet . Accounting for such goods may occur in physical or monetary
terms . The aim of natural accounting is to inform government, corporate and consumer
decision making as each relates to the use or consumption of natural resources and land, and
sustainable behavior. There are several methods of accounting which aim to address the
issue of sustainability, such as large and eclectic dashboards, composite indices, indices
focusing on overconsumption, and adjusted economic indicators . Adjusted gross domestic
product, or green GDP, systematically corrects conventional GDP by taking into account
aspects of a country’s production of goods and services (e.g. environmental degradation and
natural resource depletion) that would not otherwise be included in the indicator, but are
relevant to sustainability.