Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Review article

A review on electric vehicle: Technologies, energy trading, and cyber

security
∗
Mohan Bharathidasan a , V. Indragandhi a , Vishnu Suresh b , Michał Jasiński b , ,
Zbigniew Leonowicz b
a
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, 632 014, India
b
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: The energy transition is an essential effort from a variety of sectors and levels to achieve a carbon-
Received 23 March 2022 neutral, larger-renewable integrated civilization. The transportation industry, which is largely concen-
Received in revised form 9 June 2022 trated in urban areas, emits more than 20% of total greenhouse gas emissions. Various technological
Accepted 22 July 2022
difficulties are confronted and resolved as a result of this focus. Consequently, pursuit and research
Available online 5 August 2022
focusing on the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) powered by renewable energy sources are
Keywords: currently a viable option for combating climate change and advancing energy transition. According
Electric vehicle to current trends, this type of service will diminish the use of internal combustion engines in the
Communication technology future months. A study of the global market scenario for EVs and their future prospects is conducted.
Energy trading Whether energy storage devices and power electronics converters are properly interfaced determines
Cyber security the efficiency of EVs. Moreover, we provide our thoughts on what to expect in the near future in this
domain and even the research areas that are still accessible to both industrial and academics.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9662
2. Role of renewable energy sources on electric vehicle............................................................................................................................................... 9664
3. Development of EV traction motor .............................................................................................................................................................................. 9665
4. Power converters for electric vehicle .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9666
5. Communication technologies ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9667
6. Battery technology ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9671
7. Charging technology....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9671
7.1. Fast charging ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9672
7.2. Public charging................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9673
7.3. Battery charge equalization .............................................................................................................................................................................. 9674
7.4. Battery swapping ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 9675
7.5. Life cycle analysis .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9676
8. Energy trading in electric vehicles ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9678
9. Cyber security ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9679
10. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9680
Declaration of competing interest................................................................................................................................................................................ 9681
References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9681

1. Introduction (RES). These may be associated with a variety of causes. Conven-

tional energy sources (fossil fuels) have been identified as pollut-
In recent years, there has been an enormous extension in ef- ing and degrading the atmosphere and causing global warming
forts to improve, establish, and manage renewable energy sources
and the greenhouse effect. Conventional automobiles also con-
∗ Correspondence to: Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Wroclaw University of tribute to environmental emissions and greenhouse in the trans-
Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland. portation sector. These vehicles produce carbon dioxide (CO2),
E-mail address: michal.jasinski@pwr.edu.pl (M. Jasiński). sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides as toxic combustion

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.145
2352-4847/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Nomenclature SDN Software-Defined Networks

SOC State of Charge
AB Available Batteries
SCBC Switched-Capacitor Bidirectional
AC Alternative current
Converter
BEVs Battery Electric Vehicles
TSERC Telangana State Electricity Regulatory
BMS Battery Management System
Commission
BSS Battery Swapping Station
VAR Vector Auto Regression
CCC Chaos Communication Congress
V2V Vehicle-To-Vehicle
CSs Charging Stations
V2G Vehicle-To-Grid
CSA Cloud Security Alliance
WAVE Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments
CCS Combined Charging System
ZVS Zero Voltage Switching
CGCSs Completely Green Charging Systems
CC/CV Constant-Current/Constant-Voltage
CIBC Coupled Inductor Bidirectional Converter
CC Cuk Converter vehicles is represented in Chau and Chan (2007) as friction and
CISA Cyber Security & Infrastructure Security heat loss on the moving segment.
Agency The displacement of ICE raises the significance of EVs as the
DSRC Dedicated Short-Range Communication best option for reducing emissions (Thiel et al., 2010). Because
D2D Device-to-Device of its relationship to other policy instruments, the problem of
DC Direct Current HDV energy efficiency is especially relevant. This is crucial since
DCFC Direct Current Fast Charge some HDVs fall into this category (e.g., City Buses, Refuse Trucks)
are acquired in large quantities by government agencies. Despite
DER Distributed Energy Resources
this, there is no standardized method for comparing the fuel
EVSE Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment
consumption or CO2 emissions of vehicles in the same class. The
EV Electric Vehicles propulsion of battery-powered EVs necessitates a large battery
ESSs Energy Storage Systems pack with a limited scope (Fontaras et al., 2016). Various methods
FCEVs Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles of Energy storage systems (ESSs) are used to connect different
FCs Fuel Cells kinds of power electronic converters in EVs (Hannan et al., 2019).
FB Full-Bridge Energy storage and control optimization for an EV is described in
GHG Greenhouse Gas Javorski Eckert et al. (2018). As a result, a power management
G2V Grid-To-Vehicle control (PMC) based on a fuzzy inference system optimized by
HB Half-Bridge genetic algorithms (GA) is being developed. The GA is utilized
HEMS Home Energy Management Systems offline to optimize the lower and higher membership limitations
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle in order to diminish the total mass of the hybrid energy storage
system (HESS) and increase the range of the EV. An accurate
HESS Hybrid Energy Source System
model-based for EV energy consumption prediction is presented
I2V Infrastructure-To-Vehicle
in Miri et al. (2021). Because auxiliary devices can have a substan-
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
tial impact on vehicle energy usage, this estimate is incorporated
IoEV Internet of Electric Vehicles in the EV design. ESSs are charged in most cases by using AC–DC
KEPC Korea Electric Power Corporation converters to take current and voltage from the charging stations
LCA Life Cycle Analysis or grid (Wu et al., 2017). DC–DC converters are critical for turning
MEDs Mobile Energy Disseminators an uncontrolled power flow into a regulated one (Elsayad et al.,
MIMO Multiple-Input Multiple-Output 2020).
MTs Microturbines A bidirectional non-isolated DC–DC linearized converter de-
NYU New York University sign for usage in power demand and energy harvesting
PHEVs Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (Gomez Navarro et al., 2020). DC–DC converter design is difficult
PLC Power-Line Communication since it is dependent on load parameters, input voltage, and duty
cycle (Fardahar and Sabahi, 2020). A new full-bridge isolated DC–
PPC Push–Pull Converter
DC converter with a passive auxiliary circuit is Kanamarlapudi
PV/T Photovoltaic/Thermal
et al. (2018), which provides ZVS for each and every major switch
PEVs Plug-in Electric Vehicles
across the charging range of the batteries. The hybrid electric
QZBC Quasi-Z-Source Bidirectional Converter vehicle (HEV) has evolved as an important option for reducing
RC Resonant Converter transportation-related greenhouse gas emissions, and the use
RCI Renewable Charging Infrastructure of various energy sources has been designed to lower vehicle
RE Renewable Energy operating costs and improve efficiency. HEVs promise to have
RES Renewable Energy Sources higher fuel efficiency than ICE vehicles and to keep their state
RET Renewable Energy Technology of charge (SOC) during the operation (Kumar and Jain, 2014).
Completely green charging systems (CGCSs) reduce CO2 emis-
sions by charging EVs with renewable energy, thus increasing
the diffusion of RES in the field of energy (Najafi et al., 2021a).
elements when they burn gasoline, coal, or natural gas. Fig. 1 The grid is used to charge EVs; in reality, although, in actuality,
shows that the transportation industry contributes to about a EVs are not absorbed energy from coal but also from renewable
quarter of all GHG emissions, according to ecological data outlets (Cao et al., 2021). Regenerative braking and the fuel tank are the
in the United States (US EPA, 2021). The energy lost by ICE key issues with HEVs. To address this problem, plug-in hybrid
9663
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Fig. 1. According to greenhouse gas emissions by the economic sector in 2019.
electric vehicles (PHEVs) with externally charged battery packs
were created (Shakeri et al., 2018).
In the latest technology, a fully green EV charging station is
built using solar energy. This significantly diminishes the emis-
sions and the impact of EVs impact on the power grid (Bhatti
et al., 2016). The employment of maximal power converters with
a more effective and dependable conversion of infinite energies
into a power grid will be substantially catalyzed by the de-
velopment of renewable energy. PHEVs overcome the problem
of limited driving range and deliver the vehicle to grid (V2G)
capability (Adnan et al., 2017). Such plug-in electric vehicles
(PEVs) are commonly referred to as fossil fuel consumption and
therefore reduce emissions, including greenhouse gases has im-
plemented in Samosir and Yatim (2010). The mixture of a battery
and supercapacitor for EV is known as a hybrid energy source
system (HESS), and it increases the system’s overall efficiency and
battery life (Amjadi and Williamson, 2010).
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) were created with an inter-
nal power source and to be unconventional social outlets because
they have the ability to be long-term (Li et al., 2017), given the
actual cost and fueling technique are still in the stage of devel-
opment. The electric power used for vehicle propulsion comes
exclusively from the source of energy and is not connected to any
external outlets (Daina et al., 2017). The failure mechanisms and
effects of essential elements of an electrified power train were
investigated (Cordoba-Arenas et al., 2013). Faults in these power
electronics elements, including an open or short circuit in one of
the motor windings, could cause major issues in vehicles, includ-
ing reduced performance, unintended torque, vibration, requests,
increased noise, and so on, all of which can compromise the ve-
hicle’s functional safety. Electrified powertrains-based EVs appear
to play an important part in the transition to zero CO2 emissions
and pollutants (De Santis et al., 2018). As a result, developing
accurate and dependable diagnostics and fault tolerance control
for electrification powertrains is critical in order to ensure safe
and accurate performance.
The hydraulic or pneumatic system, in especially, uses the
majority of the power consumed by this type of vehicle while
idling processes and as a consequence. Remember that vehicles
with traditional and electrified technologies will be designated as
ICE-hydraulic pump systems (ICE-HPSs) and electric-powered hy-
draulic pump systems (e-HPS), respectively, in the future. Energy
conservation in a hydraulic power system is a viable idea for its
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685
high capacity to restore waste energy and higher specific power
production possibilities. In addition, the equipment utilized in
power hydraulics is quite dangerous. System design, upgrading
elements or product functionalities, and reducing system loss are
all strategies to save energy in a hydraulic system. A control
valve or throttle valve is typically used to regulate the flow of a
hydraulic system. During the movement of the valve spool, such
gates lose throttling energy (Rannow, 2016). An in-depth exam-
ination of a hydraulic system’s energy-saving potential utilizing
various methodologies (Mahato and Ghoshal, 2021).
In Morrissey et al. (2016) looked at a common technique for
estimating current smart policies that are exogenous and were
set up in advance for changing circumstances. In a study of some
EV owners (Pieltain Fernandez et al., 2011), it was discovered that
they prefer to charge their vehicles at home during peak power
consumption in the evenings. It envisaged a charging station
that could match EV demand with renewable energy and DC to
address the limitations of the traditional charge network. Har-
monics, fluctuations, and power outages are all difficulties that
typical charging stations have with the grid’s reliability (Hardman
et al., 2018). An article (Mira et al., 2017) examined the renew-
able energy-based charging infrastructure (RCI) experiments but
focused on customer preferences and interactions with EVs. A
dual active bridge was created to provide a more reliable way
to describe signals in both massive and small networks. This
conversion is part of a hybrid-renewable-energy system (Ardi
et al., 2016). Energy storage systems use the step-down process,
while power grid and microgrid applications use the step-up
process (Sahebkar Farkhani et al., 2020). Salinamakki et al. were;
utilized bidirectional converters for flywheel energy storage. For
grid applications, Hossein Ardi employs a bidirectional converter
(MacHardy et al., 2018).
Various communication link properties are required to meet
the needs of various charge modalities. In a large-scale EV charge
network with static, dynamic, and quasi-dynamic charging, a
module supported by several wireless links is required to allow
successful communication between many network nodes (Yu
et al., 2019). As a result, to sustain their growth rates in the years
ahead, certain corporations are pursuing more rigorous research
into charging solutions for BEVs (Verma and Singh, 2019). The
battery management system (BMS) should be seen in terms of
safety and reliability requirements, both of which are challenging
to achieve (Momete, 2018). Independent charging points in a ter-
minal, general populace car parks, and rapid charging stations are
planned to play a significant role in the new distribution system,
powered by EV and feature energy trading. While parked, possible
to provide both park and charge facilities for EVs for a fee (Nunes
et al., 2016). The remaining part of the paper is organized into
the sections as follows: Section 2 exposes the role of renewable
energy sources on an electric vehicle; Section 3 development of
EV traction motor; Section 4 evaluates the power converters;
Section 5 expresses the communication technology; Section 6
battery technology; Section 7 express the charging technologies;
Section 8 express the energy trading in EV; Section 9; express the
cyber security in EV; finally, conclusions are given in Section 10.
2. Role of renewable energy sources on electric vehicle
By dealing with the problems of depletion of fossil fuels and
global warming, RES can play a significant role (Iranmehr et al.,
2022). The three main energy sources are nuclear energy, re-
newable resources, and fossil fuels. Biomass, geothermal, solar,
wind and hydropower are examples of renewable energy sources
that are used to generate energy and hence are widely used
to overcome energy problems (Ludin et al., 2018). The views
of communities in Western Greece, as well as their readiness
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
to pay for power generated by renewable energy sources, were
explored (Paravantis et al., 2018). Recent research (Trop and
Goricanec, 2016) of communities in Western Greece looked at
the public’s attitude towards renewable energy and their desire
to pay for it. Conventional reliance on fossil fuels, it is claimed,
has contributed to CO2 emissions, GHG issues, and environmen-
tal damage (Borovik and Albers, 2018). RESs not just produce
pollution-free electricity, but they also provide energy that is
efficient and of excellent quality. There is a worldwide issue to
replace the existing fuels with RES to meet the excess energy
requirements (Kardooni et al., 2016). RES, in contrast to fossil
fuels, provides environmental protection, economic benefits, en-
ergy security, and a pollution-free environment (Bhowmik et al.,
2017).
Social media participation supplies a variety of applicable
viewpoints that can be utilized as a guide for setting more
aggressive goals in the future (You et al., 2017). They also have
the opportunity to encourage new fields that will profit from
their significance (Shafiullah, 2016). In order to enable renewable
energy (RE) combination in Australia, Irandoust (2016) created
a hybrid RE combination system that sought to ease the energy
crisis while reducing global warming problems. In Afsharzade
et al. (2016) examined the link between RE use, economic growth,
technological innovation, and CO2 emissions in the four Nordic
nations using a vector autoregression (VAR) model. Comprehen-
sive research by International Renewable Energy Agency (2018)
found that rural parts of Iran are heavily reliant on fossil fuels to
satisfy their energy needs.
According to Tévar et al. (2019), worldwide renewable gener-
ation capacity was 2179 GW at the end of 2017. As a result, with
a total installed capacity of 1152 GW, hydro energy accounts for
the greatest proportion of the global total. With capabilities of
514 GW and 397 GW, respectively, wind and solar energy made
up the majority of the rest. Several nations (Uday Kumar et al.,
2016) employ solar thermal-based technology to generate hot
water. Various studies on RET for residential use, the performance
of portable heating systems (Enteria et al., 2016), and other appli-
cations were published in the literature. RES applications (Solar
and biomass) are utilized to reduce a household’s power usage
and meet the energy requirement of a single-family detached
residence (Thinsurat et al., 2019). The study (Shakeri et al., 2018)
investigated the possibility of combining a Thermal (PV/T) col-
lector with a thermochemical adsorption thermal storage system
for a hot water heater to enhance the use of solar energy on a
residential scale. According to another study (Thounthong et al.,
2011), PV systems can be utilized as a backup source for charging
batteries in-home energy management systems (HEMS).
Furthermore, PV systems could be used as the only source of
energy in a power system, so they do not produce electricity at
night. To obtain more dependable, efficient, and sustainable en-
ergy, other energy sources such as fuel cells (FCs), microturbines
(MTs), and diesel generators are recommended to be coupled
with PV sources (Motosu and Maruyama, 2016). In more than
a couple of years’ arguments, scientists, wind energy specialists,
and local residents have gained a greater understanding of the
technologies involved in constructing Cape Wind. In reality, since
the Cape Wind operators announced a 2012 contract to limit
the effects of offshore noise and ship traffic (Bush and Hoagland,
2016), a few of the disagreement that erupted whenever the
proposal was first presented has started to diminish, for most
environmental activists showing support.
In conclusion, our literature research found that the public was
more informed about the effects of Cape Wind on energy rates,
sea animals and birds, quality of air, fossil fuel dependency, and
climate change. Whereas a majority of the population started to
favor the initiative during this time, approximately a third still
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685
had no strong feelings about it. Malaysia has one of the fastest-
growing rates of carbon emissions in the world, ranking third
globally between 1970 and 2008, with an annual growth rate of
4.7%. Furthermore, Malaysia, like many other countries through-
out the world, is heavily reliant on non-renewable energy, raising
concerns among policymakers about their availability and world-
wide price movements. In 2001, Malaysia’s government enlarged
the country’s four-fuel energy policy, which concentrated on gas,
oil, hydro resources, and oil by attaching RE as a fifth fuel. This
was done to supply effective and appropriate energy while also
reducing carbon emissions.
The accompanying impacts on reported ease of utilization and
perceived usefulness of green sources have an indirect effect on
the view towards adopting sustainable power (Kardooni et al.,
2016). The South African Smart Grid Initiative (SASGI) was es-
tablished with the goal of encouraging the growth of the South
African smart grid as well as offering ideas and actual policies.
Customers can also get estimates of national power consumption
in half-hour intervals for a particular day. The notifications are
color-coded to describe the severity of the load on the grid
(green, orange, red, and black). Every notification also includes
recommendations for which appliances to turn off in the current
state.
According to the results of this survey, convenience is a major
element in customers’ readiness to execute curtailment proce-
dures (Nel et al., 2016). In Schumacher et al. (2019) uses this
deficit in the literature as a foundation for a tri-national in-
vestigation of societal approval of a collection of RE sources
in the Upper Rhine region (URR). It uses summary statistics
for the URR’s following main: Alsace (France), the northwestern
zone of Switzerland, a major section of Baden (Germany), and
the southern area of Rhineland Palatinate (Germany). The lack
of concentration on assistance risks ignores the public’s active
participation in the transition to RE. Furthermore, the present
research focuses on public acceptability as a (static) attitude
of a particular (or multiple) actor(s) towards a unique RE de-
velopment within a particular nation, resulting in a case-based
approach.
The United States of America has supported several measures
to minimize GHG and fossil fuel dependency. However, the ma-
jority of state governments have implemented policies aimed
primarily at lowering carbon intensity and broadening the mix of
generating inputs by including a higher share of RES (Legislatures,
2021). Therefore, the state of Maine’s policies is now focusing
on economic decarburization, renewable energy integration and
promotion, and the problems of the energy transition. The Re-
newable Portfolio Standard (RPS) objectives were recently revised
in 2019, with a statewide goal of 100% RE by 2050 (Ahmad and
Derrible, 2018). The RES potential is highly significant, and the
Maine energy mix is now categorized as strong (Mihai, 2015),
with renewable accounting for 40.48% of total energy absorption,
biomass accounting for 67% of total energy consumption, and
31,710 GWh.
3. Development of EV traction motor
Electric motors are the most important component of EVs. The
electric motor, together with the power electronics and batteries,
is an essential part of the power train. Electric motors have a lot
of significant performance measures. With weight and volume at
a premium in EVs, increased power and torque density allows for
enhanced driving characteristics in a compact and simple design.
Another important factor is efficiency. When the efficiency is
enhanced, low of the valuable energy stored in the battery is
wasted when the vehicle accelerates, resulting in an increased
range from the same storage capacity. The EV market has imple-
mented various distinct solutions, including induction, as well as
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Table 1
Performance comparison of the various EV motors.
Motor BLDC PMSM IM SRM
properties
Torque density 3.5 5 4 4
(Nm/kg)
Power density 1 1 1.5 1.5
(kW/kg)
Maximum speed (rpm) 10000 9000 15000 20000
Overload capacity factor 1.8 About 2 1.6 to 3.2 Highest
Tmax /Trated
Efficiency Low Good Satisfactory 1% more than IM
Power factor – 0.88 0.76 0.65
Important features High speed, Higher efficiency, Robust, low-cost Low manufacturing costs,
Low maintenance, Smaller size, lighter manufacture, tough high torque ripples, and
Electronic control, high weight, simpler construction, and mature high acoustic noise
reliability. hardware, but poor technology
high-speed reaction.
Limitations (i) A magnet of PMBLDC (i) suffers from (i) controllers of (i) Suffers from torque
motor is Expensive demagnetization induction motors are ripple, generation of EMI
(ii) Large torque is (ii) motor size increases, expensive Noise, and Acoustic Noise
difficult due to magnetic loss also (ii) breakdown torque (ii) High mechanical loss
Mechanical strength increases limits the constant due to high-speed operation
power operation

permanent magnet and wound-rotor motors, according to several
diverse concerns in motor design. A combination of choices could
be used in several circumstances to provide the greatest overall
approach. Permanent magnet motors rely on rare earth, which
has fluctuating prices and a geographically confined distribution
network and have their own set of advantages and disadvantages
in terms of reliability and construction costs, and availability.
In comparison to AC motors, DC motors have a simple control
system. Again, as compared to DC motor drives, AC motors have a
number of distinct advantages, including improved efficiency due
to lower mechanical frictional loss, lower maintenance schedules,
resilience, and maximum power density.
Induction motors (IM), permanent magnet brushless DC
(PMBLDC) motors, and permanent magnet synchronous (PMS)
motors are among the most popular electric vehicle traction AC
motors. However, comparing different types of these motors is
difficult, but it is still a challenge. When compared to permanent-
magnet-based motors, IM has a simpler structure, requires less
maintenance, is less expensive, and has greater overload per-
formance (Hannan et al., 2018). However, in terms of efficiency
and compactness, permanent-magnet motors exceed IM. When
compared to IM, its small size, great power density, and efficiency
(Naseri et al., 2017). However, it has a drawback in that it has a
restricted power application because its torque decreases with
greater speed when dealing with a maximum load. Due to the
current torque pulsation, it also produces an audible noise. In
contrast, the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) pro-
vides a number of advantages over the motors discussed above.
It offers a wide torque speed range, excellent torque and power
density, low torque ripple, good efficiency, and a straightfor-
ward control method (Sun et al., 2019a). However, PMSM-based
drives are more expensive than BLDC and IM-based systems.
When compared to the IM and PMSM, the switched reluctance
motor (SRM) offers various advantages, such as a magnet-free
and strong rotor design that allows for high speeds and is fault-
tolerant by design. When it comes to traction applications, ripple
torque minimization is one of the most significant and difficult
SRM design features to address. The SRMs for increased average
torque in EV with minimal ripple torque, vibration, and acoustic
disturbances are reviewed (Lan et al., 2021). Performance analysis
of different machines for EV is described in Table 1.
9666
4. Power converters for electric vehicle
In a balancing system, the DC–DC converter is a power design
that transfers energy from one cell to another. The number of cir-
cuit elements, electrical isolation, power rating, voltage gain, and
efficiency are among the factors used to determine the suitable
DC–DC converters. The quantity of elements has a considerable
impact on system complexity, which is directly reflected in size
and cost. The DC–DC converter’s efficiency will have a direct
impact on balancing efficiency. Based on whether energy flow is
bidirectional or unidirectional, converters vary. Bidirectional con-
verters transfer energy in both directions, whereas unidirectional
converters only transfer power in one direction, from the source
to the load. Moreover, based on whether or not a transformer
is used in the power circuit, DC–DC converters could be clas-
sified into two categories: isolated converters and non-isolated
converters.
With the use of high-frequency transformers, isolated DC–DC
converters supply galvanic isolation between input and output.
Dual active bridge converter, dual half-bridge converter, flyback
converter, forward converter, and Push–Pull converter are the
most widely utilized isolated DC–DC converters infrastructures
for balancing technologies. Non-isolated DC–DC converters can
also be constructed with or without magnetic coupling. Non-
isolated systems with no magnetic coupling and only switching
devices and passive modules can be a useful alternative for reduc-
ing the design of converter complexity by negating the necessity
of coupled magnetic construction. Unfortunately, the isolated
converter’s drawbacks, such as high-voltage stress exposures,
bigger size, more switching devices, and expensive option, have
garnered attention in non-isolated DC–DC converters. Buck-boost,
Cuk, and quasi-resonant/resonant Power converters are the best
choices for balanced hardware resources. A high level of integra-
tion is required due to the lack of space for putting the charging
module on the vehicles (Habib et al., 2018).
The energy available from the source is transmitted to the
storage device while a unidirectional converter is operating in
buck mode. (Lin et al., 2016). The voltage supplied to a zero
voltage switching (ZVS) converter is the voltage gain from the DC
bus, as opposed to an isolated bidirectional converter (Zou et al.,
2018). The wireless charging modules are small and can operate
over a wide frequency range; the full-bridge (FB) LLC converters
are used (Li et al., 2018b). By incorporating supercapacitors and
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Li-ion batteries into the Half-bridge (HB) LLC converters, fast Table 2
chargers are created (Ali et al., 2017). The non-isolated con- Functional features and elements comparative of DC–DC converters in EV.

verter is acceptable for medium- and high-power EVs (Alhurayyis No. of components
DC–DC converter Voltage gain
et al., 2021). Different types of converters are available for low Di SW HFT L C
DC voltage gain (Baddipadiga et al., 2018), buck-boost converter CC −D
1−D
2 2 0 2 2
(Al Hysam et al., 2017), Cuk converter (Chakraborty et al., 2015) SCBC 2
1−D
4 4 0 1 3
and SEPIC converter (Jyotheeswara Reddy and Sudhakar, 2018). CIBC 2+N −D
3 3 0 2 3
1−D
For high-power automotive applications, a non-isolated Mul- QZC 1+D
3 3 0 2 3
1−D
tidevice/port Interleaved Bidirectional Converter (MDIBC) was MDIBC 1
16 16 0 4 1
1−ND
implemented (Mirzaei et al., 2010). In scenarios involving low FBC ND
2 2 1 0 2
1−D
and medium-powered vehicles, isolated DC–DC converters are 2
ZVSC π
D(1 − D) 4 4 1 1 5
frequently employed (Fernão Pires et al., 2014; Saeed and Hasan,
2018). A novel process for large-signal discrete-time modeling of Di — diode, SW — Switch, HFT — High — frequency transformer, L — Inductor,
C — Capacitor, N — turns ratio, D — duty cycle.
phase-shift full-bridge (PSFB) converters operating in discontin-
uous conduction mode has been developed (Saeed and Hasan,
2018). For BEV and PHEV, the full-bridge isolated DC–DC con-
verter is the most prevalent topology power train (Varshney wireless charging requires an extremely low recess and, high
et al., 2014). As a result of their seamless beginning, minimal reliability, different communications link (Abboud et al., 2016). A
voltage stress, and low current ripples, Z-source converters as significant aspect that is dependent on the volume of information
single step-up stage (DC/AC) have been common in BEV and to be transmitted is the communication link’s capacity. Successful
PHEV power trains (Pandey and Singh, 2018). Using a DC–DC Cuk communication techniques, in which a communication link is cre-
Converter (CC) (Zhang et al., 2020) created a converter with a ated between the charging systems and EV, are required so that
higher power factor for EV charger. In Sato et al. (2020) demon- optimal Ev’s synchronization can be achieved and managed on
strated the use of a switching inductor to improve the CC for the internet of electric vehicles (IoEV). It has prompted the evo-
EV battery charging applications. Through the efficient use of lution of 5G V2X technology that expands on conventional LTE,
power switches, the switched-capacitor bidirectional converter LTE-advanced (LTE-A), and LTE C-V2X networks while also ad-
(SCBC) does not become essential for any additional devices and dressing qualifying needs such as ultra-high stability higher mo-
improves conversion efficiency (Zhang et al., 2019). A collection of bility, low power consumption, and greater density connections
(Dai et al., 2018). By use of millimeter-wave (mmWave), massive
DC–DC converters with a high voltage gain and a constant input
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology for cellular
current is investigated (Farakhor et al., 2018).
vehicle-to-infrastructure applications was examined (Busari et al.,
For hybrid energy source-based EVs, Bahrami et al. (2018)
2019). In Ahmed et al. (2019) recommend integrating diverse
designed a hybrid bidirectional converter with an SCBC. Due
vehicular communication technologies such as mm wireless ac-
to its large gain and minimal voltage stress, a coupled induc-
cess in vehicular environments (WAVE), D2D (Chen et al., 2017),
tor bidirectional converter (CIBC) in EVs has maximal efficiency
massive MIMO (Dagdougui et al., 2019), and software-defined
(Babaei et al., 2019). In addition, the CIBS has secondary leakage
networks (SDN) (Zhang et al., 2020) to satisfy the communication
inductance, resulting in limited output diode reverse recovery
needs of various use cases.
(Yuan et al., 2020). The conventional two-level quasi-Z-source
The load balancing of parked vehicles in network interfaces or
bidirectional converter (QZBC) is developed for EV operations
public parking spaces is the primary focus of static synchroniza-
(Wu et al., 2019). Furthermore, this converter has minimal stress
tion (Zhang et al., 2020), and therefore the vehicle’s mobility is
and good static and dynamic performance. Moreover, it has the
neglected. Mobility-aware coordination includes delivery timings
limitations of a discontinuous input current and high voltage to and from the charging infrastructure, and also the journey
stress capacitance. In EV (Babauta et al., 2018), they developed departure point, and the amount of energy required to get to
a battery storage system based on the QZBC topology. A modi- the charging points (Wang et al., 2019). The optimum battery
fied voltage-fed three-phase DC–DC PPC for EV applications was charging schedule in a BSS for EBs is evaluated (You et al., 2016).
presented in Kim et al. (2019b). The flyback converter (FBC) is The literature has addressed various charging coordination and
a DC–DC converter that is created from a buck-boost converter, routing optimization approaches (Kosmanos et al., 2018) and
including an inductance divided into a transformer (Lee et al., evaluated the most recent advancements in 802.11bd and NR V2X
2019). standards (Naik et al., 2019). The National Institute of Standards
An integration of inductance and capacitance makes up the and Technology (NIST) in the US established cyber security archi-
resonant tank of a DC–DC resonant converter (RC) for EV driv- tecture that offers organizations guidelines on how to prevent,
etrain application domains (Qun and Lee, 2003). Other benefits, detect, and respond to cyber-attacks. Regardless of the fact that
including zero circulating current and zero voltage switching, electric cars have a higher total cost when compared to the ICE
enhance the fast charging comment’s performance and efficiency version of the same vehicle model, the number of EV sales has
(Habib et al., 2018). The clamping functionality is the same in grown dramatically in recent years (Forocoches Electricos, 2017).
both configurations, and the leakage energy may be successfully In reality, due to significant network congestion in simultane-
recycled to the load (Siwakoti et al., 2016). To maintain ZVS and ous transmissions, the reliability of DSRC rapidly disintegrates in
increase efficiency, an active clamp is present (Al-Anbagi and high-density traffic systems (Framework Convention on Climate
Mouftah, 2016). Further quasi-types of magnetically connected Change, 2015). As a result, issues with quasi-dynamic charger
impedance sources may also be reported in the literature (Singh coordination arise, especially where EVs take advantage of high
et al., 2020b); by lowering the magnetic turn ratio, the voltage traffic densities to lengthen their effective charging period and
gain can be enhanced. (See Fig. 2,Tables 2 and 3.) improve the quantity of energy obtained. IEEE 802.11bd DSRC
is the next generation of DSRC technology, designed to solve
5. Communication technologies the difficulties of interference and NLOS operation that DSRC
based on IEEE 802.11p possesses. Doppler shifts are mitigated
To allow successful communication with the charger con- in the current version of IEEE 802.11bd by the addition of mi-
figuration throughout the vehicle’s on-road capability, dynamic dambles, which are similar to preambles but are located in the
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M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Table 3
Comparative analysis of different DC–DC converters utilized in EVs.
DC–DC converter Objective
CC * To avoid a significant
energy loss
SCBC * To achieve a large gain
and efficiency
CIBC * To decrease ripples in
inductor current and
output current.
QZC * To achieve a wide
range of voltage gain
and a perfect common
ground.
MDBIC * To diminish the
number of passive
elements.
* Input current and
output voltage ripples
should be minimized.
* To achieve accurate
control and rapid
transient response.
FBC * To allow for a wide
range of input voltages
to be supported
ZVSC * To deliver adequate
power throughout a
wide range of load
variations.
* To achieve an
appropriate level of
soft-switching efficiency
* The output diode’s
bridge voltage is
clamped.
Benefits Drawbacks Outcomes
* Inductors have a lesser peak to * Stabilization is difficult. * The output is stable and free
peak current ripple. * Resonance that is uncontrolled and of ripples.
* Currents flowing continuously input undamped
and output
* Cost-effective. * Large ripple current. * More than 90% efficiency is
* Design is compact. * For a large variety of input to achieved.
* Limitation on current output. output voltage ratios, it fails to
sustain better efficiency.
* Size is compact * There is not much more that can * Improving the coupling
* Minimal cost. be done. coefficient enhances the
* Ripples have been reduced. * Voltage ripples are not addressed. efficiency.
* Reduce switch stress. * Input current is discontinuous. * The highest and lowest
* Material ratings are lower. * Capacitor has high voltage stress. efficiencies are 96.44% and
* Buck/boost capability 88.17%, accordingly.
* Low current stress. * Due to a large number of elements, * Less EMI and stress are
* High efficiency. the circuit is complicated. obtained.
* Ideal for high * Under load changes, the duty cycle * Halves current and voltage
* power conversion. is particularly sensitive. ripple in comparison to
* Simple control approach. * It is difficult to study in both interleaved boost converter
* Reduced heat sink and component steady-state and dynamic situations. (IBC). * Halves inductor and
size. capacitor size compared to IBC.
* Primary is isolated from the output. * Has ripple current. * Reduces leakage inductance
* Higher losses. to a comfortable limit.
* Multiple output voltages are * More output and input capacitance.
available. * In the compensating loop is the
* Multiple output voltages can be right half pole.
regulated.
* Less EMI. * High capacitor is required. * Under all load situations, it
* Less switching loss. * Maximum current ratings. accomplishes zero voltage
* There is no need for an extra * Poor fault-tolerant capability switching.
clamping circuit. * The symmetric auxiliary
circuits ensure a steady and
dependable process under
no-load conditions.

Table 4
EV market share of total new vehicle sales between 2016 and 2020 (Dow, 2018; Hong Kong
Bussiness, 2021; Solomon, 2018; Statista, 2022).
Country 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
China 1.31% 2.10% 4.20% 4.90% 5.40%
Canada 0.58% 0.92% 2.16% 3.00% 3.30%
Denmark 0.63% 0.40% 2.00% 4.20% 16.40%
France 1.45% 1.98% 2.11% 2.80% 11.20%
Iceland 6.28% 8.70% 19.00% 22.60% 45.00%
Japan 0.59% 1.10% 1.00% 0.90% 0.77%
Norway 27.40% 29.00% 39.20% 49.10% 55.90%
Sweden 3.20% 3.40% 6.30% 11.40% 32.20%
The Netherlands 6.70% 2.60% 5.40% 14.90% 24.60%
United kingdom 1.25% 1.40% 1.90% 22.60% 45.00%
USA 0.90% 1.16% 1.93% 2.00% 1.90%

middle of the frame, to offer reliable channel estimations with the
fast-shifting channels encountered during vehicle motion (Foro-
coches Electricos, 2017). Furthermore, despite IEEE 802.11p, IEEE
802.11bd allows numerous retransmissions to improve the reli-
ability of the communication channel. However, when compared
to IEEE 802.11p, physical layer delay, also called transmission
latency within the air interface, is lower for IEEE 802.11bd.
Nonetheless, support for uncast, group cast, and a broadcast
message is NR-most V2X’s distinctive feature for allowing EV
charging coordination and administration (Framework Conven-
tion on Climate Change, 2015). The data plane and the manage-
ment plane are shown in Fig. 3 as the two planes that constitute
the direct short-range communication (DSRC) protocol. According
to the study (Research, 2021), Belgium, for example, provides a
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purchasing subsidy of 4000 e. In France, consumers who buy an
EV earn a bonus of between 4000 & 6000 e for BEVs and 3500
e for PHEVs. In Germany, customers receive an incentive of 4000
e for buying a BEV and 3000 e for buying a PHEV. Furthermore,
BEVs do not have to pay property taxes, whilst PHEVs get a 50%
discount. In Spain, depending on the autonomy of the vehicle,
financial help of between 1300 and 5500 e is available for the
purchase of BEVs and HEVs.
The property tax on BEVs and PHEVs in Norway is 47 e,
whereas the rate for gasoline-powered automobiles ranges from
290 e to 340 e. BEVs also do not have to pay tolls or circulation
fees, and they do not have to pay for parking in certain locations.
Table 4 shows the percentage of total new vehicle sales in var-
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Fig. 2. Configuration of a non-isolated DC–DC converter for EVs: (a) Cuk Converter (CC), (b) Switched Capacitor Bidirectional Converter (SCBC), (c) Couple Inductor
Bidirectional Converter (CIBC), (d) Quasi-Z-source Converter (QZC), (e) Multi-Device Interleaved Bidirectional Converter (MDIBC), (f) Flyback Converter (FBC) and (g)
Zero Voltage Switching Convert (ZVSC).

ious countries. These numbers are estimated to rise in the next
years, according to Ta et al. (2020), because various organizations
have declared their intention to prohibit ICE cars in the near
future. In terms of the most popular scheme, the fBMW i3 (BEV)
stands out, Toyota Prius Prime (PHEV), the Tesla Model 3 (BEV),
Nissan Leaf (BEV), Chevrolet Volt, Ford Fusion Energies (PHEV),
and Tesla Model S (BEV), (Tong et al., 2020).
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In India, the electric vehicle industry is currently fairly small
to sell 100% EVs by 2030; Since 2020, the growth rate has been
28.12%. In 2018, the Telangana State Electricity Regulatory Com-
mission (TSERC) approved a recharging rate of INR 6 for EVs. The
TSERC has established the service cost for the entire state at INR
6.04/kWh. In November 2018, the Delhi government published a
statement stating that they have implemented a program with
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Fig. 2. (continued).
the goal of converting 25% of their vehicles to electric vehicles by
giving various incentives and constructing recharging infrastruc-
ture, including both resident and non-residential sectors. In 2023,
this program aims to establish a charger outlet for each 3 kms
by providing a 100% subsidy. By regulating EV energy demand
and supply and allocating resources, charger coordination is a
significant component that helps to the enormous EV adoption.
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685
The appropriate coordination of charging plans can optimize the
utilization of charging energy.
The two primary types of charging coordination strategies
are stationary charging coordination and mobility-aware charging
coordination. The load balancing of parked vehicles in home
networks or public parking places is the primary focus of station-
ary coordination, which ignores the vehicle’s motion. Mobility-
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Fig. 3. The management plane and data plane of the WAVE protocol stack.
Fig. 4. Classifications of charging technologies for BEVs.
aware coordination, on either side, includes details about the
arrival/departure timings to/from the charging sites, also in re-
gard to the geographical and energy elements, the visiting goal,
and the energy expended for traveling to the charging stations.
6. Battery technology
Lithium-ion batteries should indeed function inside a reliable
and safe operating environment, which would be governed by
voltage and temperature ranges. Increasing the limits of these
frames may result in a rapid reduction in battery capacity and
may even pose a security risk (e.g., catch fire or explode), as
electrolytes begin to degrade at 150 ◦ C. (Lu et al., 2013). Currently,
the majority of EVs and PHEVs are using this kind of battery.
The operating temperature of the technologies is a crucial factor
to consider while evaluating them because it can restrict their
acceptance. In this aspect, lead–acid and lithium batteries are the
greatest at withstanding low thermal conductivity because they
can load temperatures of up to 20 ◦ C, while low temperatures
significantly influence the ability of Li-Ion batteries to produce
self-discharge (Du Pasquier et al., 2003).
In reality, the ideal operating temperature for this recharge-
able battery is 40 ◦ C. As may also be shown, sodium-based bat-
teries (Na–NiCl and Na–S) have greater operating temperatures.
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685
Lead–acid (Pb–PbO2) and nickel (Ni–Cd, Ni–MH) batteries are less
desirable in respect of particular energy and energy densities,
whereas lithium-ion batteries are significantly higher expenses.
Lead, and zinc batteries have the lowest particular power (up to
100 W/kg), but Ni–MH and Li-ion batteries have the most (up
to 3000 W/kg). When it comes to cell voltage, nickel and zinc
batteries have lower power, whereas sodium batteries (Na–S and
Na–NiCl) and Li-ion have a maximum voltage. In terms of life
cycles, however, Ni–MH and lead–acid batteries perform badly.
Finally, lithium batteries have a cycle life of up to 3000 cycles,
whereas Na-S batteries have a cycle life of up to 4500 cycles.
Because all of the aforementioned features are considered, mod-
ern EV’ batteries consist of lithium-ion technologies, which have
the greatest result in practically all of the evaluated qualities.
Batteries for EVs have certain properties in Table 5.
7. Charging technology
The charging topologies mays be classified into two types:
wired charging technologies (contact charging) (Niu et al., 2019;
Sayed et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018) and wireless
charging technologies (contactless charging) (Ahmad and Derri-
ble, 2018; Assadi et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020a; Vincent et al.,
2019). Fig. 4 illustrates the general classification of both charging
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Table 5
Characteristics of EV batteries.
Pb–PbO2 Ni–Cd
Voltage in cells (V) 2.1 1.35
Energy density (Wh/L) 60–100 60–150
Specified power (W/Kg) 75–100 120–150
Specified energy (Wh/Kg) 30–60 60–80
Cycle durability 500–800 2000
Working temperature (◦ C) −20–45 0–50
techniques, which is done in a systematic way. Wired charging
can be accomplished in two ways, as shown in this diagram: AC
charging (i.e., 1ϕ OB slows charging, Sayed et al., 2020 and 3ϕ OB
fast charger, Barrero-González et al., 2019; Ta et al., 2020; Verma
and Singh, 2019) and DC charger (i.e., off-board fast charging,
Seth and Singh, 2020; Yan et al., 2018; Yong et al., 2018) and off-
board rapid charger (Adil et al., 2020; Hussain et al., 2019; Yan
et al., 2019). The battery electric vehicles (BEV) must park above
the charging network in order to get the maximum-frequency
charge current (Ehsan and Yang, 2020). A unidirectional charger
is a feasible method for achieving maximum penetration of BEVs
and active management of charge current. In contrast to the
unidirectional charger, both grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-
to-grid (V2G) technologies may benefit from the bidirectional
charger (Zhang et al., 2018).
Three different options for charging infrastructure were in-
vestigated. A single charging station was employed in the first
scenario. The second scenario involved two charging stations at
the same terminal. Two charging stations are installed at oppos-
ing terminuses in the third scenario. In comparison to the others,
the first scenario is the most cost-effective. When it comes to en-
ergy use and traffic problems, the second approach is preferable.
Electric buses can be charged in a variety of ways.
Overnight charging method: The electric buses in this sce-
nario are provided with a large energy storage system to meet the
bus services throughout the day. The enormous storage facility
(about 350 kWh of lithium batteries for a 12 m bus) should be
recharged at night (in about 6 h).
Route charging method: The buses are charged in the bus
station through every break at the end of the trips in this tech-
nique. It simply takes 10–15 mins to charge the battery. The ESS
is greatly reduced compared to the previous technique (i.e., a
12 m bus has roughly 40–60 kWh of lithium batteries); however,
because of the higher power needs, the battery technology is
under more strain than the nightly charging. As a result, the
advantage in this scenario is the compact ESS on board the buses,
which results in lower prices.
Flash charging method: In this scenario, the electric bus
charges in a couple of moments at bus stops. In actuality, charging
only takes 20–30 s (the moment the passengers board the bus).
The system then rapidly recharges each time the buses arrive
at their final destination during the day. The ESSs on board the
bus is lower than in earlier examples (about 1–2 kWh of lithium
batteries for a 12 m bus). The ESS is made up of supercapacitors
rather than batteries because the charge/discharge is done at a
high power level. As a result, supercapacitors are employed in the
construction of the charging system. When compared to existing
approaches, the expenses of this technology are considerably
lowered due to the lesser energy storage equipment on board the
bus.
Fast charging stations have a longer range autonomously and
a shorter storage system when compared to slow charging points.
However, due to the high power needs for short periods of time,
connecting unexpected loads to the electrical grid, such as an
energy storage device, may have unfavorable impacts on the grid.
The first charging station, known as Palexpo Flash Station, has
a 400 kW power supply unit and takes only 15 s to charge,
Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685
Ni–MH Zn–Br2 Na–NiCl Na–S Li-ion
1.35 1.79 2.58 2.08 3.6
100–300 60–70 110–120 120–130 200–735
250–1000 80–100 150–200 150–290 350–3000
60–120 75–140 160 130 100–275
500 > 2000 1500–2000 2500–4500 400–3000
0–50 20–40 300–350 300–350 −20-60
while the second charging point has a 200 kW power supply
unit and takes 3–4 min to charge. These storage systems will
almost certainly necessitate costly components, which will have
a significant impact on investment prices. Technology solutions
that can integrate devices with various purposes can improve the
performance and price of charging networks and ESSs.
7.1. Fast charging
By having Fast Charging Stations along the road, fast charg-
ing plays an important part in expanding the range of electric
vehicles. Unregulated charging, according to Bao et al. (2018),
contributes to a transformer and feeder overloading and, sub-
sequently, the power supply. Therefore, in order to attain these
benefits, the energy storage system must be of the optimal scale,
taking into consideration energy prices, projected penetration,
and EV load patterns. By supplying EVs in the times of the sys-
tem’s maximum load intervals, energy storage minimizes charg-
ing infrastructure and operating costs (Pellitteri et al., 2016).
Various researches on the merits of stationary energy storage
with fast charging systems have been conducted (Majid et al.,
2017). Batteries may be charged in two ways: conductive and
inductive (Abousleiman et al., 2013). While the vehicle is running,
inductive charging is being investigated as a wireless method for
EV charging, both static and dynamic charging. Fig. 5 shows the
charging system configuration for an EV.
Constant-current/constant-voltage (CC/CV) and pulse current
charging techniques (Ortenzi et al., 2017; Shahrabi et al., 2021)
are the most widely utilized charging strategies for Li-ion bat-
teries. Table 6 is a summary of wired charging technologies as
well as some key aspects. A characteristic that must be examined
throughout the charging operation is not only the charging tech-
nology but also the appropriate charging approach. Fast-charging
stations with outputs of 35 kW and above require an off-board
fast charging module. A flash charging configuration has been
developed, and cost (Ortenzi et al., 2017) and a scaled-down
model prototype were used to test (Ortenzi et al., 2018). The
most important feature of several wireless charging systems is
summarized in Table 7. In general, fast-charging power electron-
ics are divided into three stages: An input filter that reduces
input harmonics while simultaneously improving power factor
(Torabi Jafrodi et al., 2020), DC fast-charging of a PHEV requires
an AC–DC rectifier and a DC–DC converter to transfer electricity
to the batteries. The onboard charger has an AC–DC rectifier and a
DC–DC converter for AC charging, demonstrating another benefit
of DC charging. The space within the vehicle limits the size of the
onboard charger. The DC charger is not attached to the vehicle
and hence has no size or cost constraints. The EV charging station
presents to the electric distribution system as a DC load.
Power electronic switches are used in EV battery chargers
to convert AC to DC voltage, which can cause power quality
(PQ) problems related to non-linearity. The PQ is negatively af-
fected by nonlinear loads. In power distribution systems, they can
induce voltage fluctuations, voltage unbalance, harmonics, inter-
harmonics, and insufficient power factors, among other issues. As
a nonlinear load, the EV battery charger causes distortion with
fundamental and harmonic frequency elements. The desire for PQ
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M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Fig. 5. Charging system configuration for EV.

Table 6
A lists the most popular wired charging techniques, including the companies that manufacture them.
Battery type and DC voltage Charging criteria
BEV model/country
[V]/Capacity [kWh] Charging time Power level [kW] Charging speed rate Type
Smart for Wo Li-ion polymer 8.45 h with 2.3 kW 2.3∼7 Slow and fast 1 ϕ OB slow charging
ED/France (280∼380)/17.6 (10 A)
Hyundai Li-ion Polymer 5.5 h with 7 kW (30 A) 3∼50 Slow and fast 3 ϕ OB fast charging
IoniqEV/ (240∼360)/28
South Korea
Mitsubishi Li-ion 2 h with 7.4 kW (32 A) 2∼24 Slow and fast 3 ϕ OB fast charging
iMiEV/Japan (∼360)/16
Kia Soul EV/ Li-ion polymer 11 h with 2.3 kW (10 A) 2∼100 Slow and fast −1 ϕ OB slow
South Korea (230∼350)/30 charging
50 min with 50 kW −3 ϕ off-board fast
(125 A) charging
Tesla Model 3/US Li-ion 55 min with 50 kW 3∼120 Slow and fast 3 ϕ off-board fast
(230∼350)/75 (100 A) charging
BMW i3/German Li-ion 45 min with 50 kW 3∼50 Fast 3 ϕ off-board fast
(∼352)/33 charging
Nissan Leaf/Japan Li-ion 3 h with 22 kW(32 A) 3∼100 Fast 3 ϕ OB fast charging
(∼360)/40
Toyota RAV4/Japan NiMH 50 min with 50 kW 3∼50 Slow and fast 3 ϕ off-board fast
(230∼356)/41.8 (125 A) charging

reduces the power supply’s reliability and damages its elements.
During the charging process, EV battery charging stations will
produce strong harmonic distortions. To control harmonics in
the power distribution system, numerous methods were used.
The impact of various EVs on power system harmonic distortions
at low and high frequencies were investigated (Torquato et al.,
2016). Furthermore, in order to receive additional benefits from
this green technology, the negative effects of EVs in terms of PQ
must be explored (Martinenas et al., 2017). Massive power levels
at the nodes combined with poor voltage quality could result
in even more serious issues such as large voltage oscillations.
More complex control, which accounts for transient voltage drops
or incorporates input filters, is required to mitigate such issues.
The PQ problems are caused by the intermittent nature of PV
systems. Voltage fluctuations and light flickers, which are caused
by voltage variations (Shivashankar et al., 2016), are the major PQ
issues related to high PV output variations.
The flow refueling location model (FRLM) and its modifications
cannot efficiently deal with traffic systems on a massive scale
within a short period of time, according to current research on
EV charging facility design based on flow demand (MirHassani
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and Ebrazi, 2013). The first stage of selecting the collection of
facilities that can allow successful round journeys involves 2n
iterations, where n is the number of traffic network nodes that
the vehicle passes since we evaluate the car driving capacity in
the FRLM. In a transport system of m nodes, this means that
if the car passes 100 nodes, the possible arrangement of such
a trip needs 2100 iterations, and so calculations must be done
(mm) 1/2 times. Whenever we evaluate a transportation network
with more than 200 nodes, the scale becomes too enormous. As
a result, the FRLM, based on flow demand and its variations, is
incapable of dealing with large-scale transport network issues in
a timely manner. An algorithm that analyzes the basic construc-
tion condition to the model results and connects actual charging
options to the transport system (Wang et al., 2021).
7.2. Public charging
Furthermore, once the SOC is low, EV owners want to be able
to charge their vehicles at any time and from any location at any
available charging station, eliminating any charging queues (Oda
et al., 2018). The potential for EV charging flexibility could be
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Table 7
A list of most popular wireless charging techniques, as well as the prominent companies.
Leading Charging criteria
Technology level
corporation/country Field range Type Power level Energy carrying Distance range
[kW] medium
Public demonstration Conductix- Inductive 60 90% power efficiency
EMF
(Stationary) Wampfler/Italy within 4 cm
Public demonstration Qualcomm Halo/UK Magnetic 7 90% power efficiency
(Stationary)/Prototype Kit resonant at 1 m &40% at 2 m
(Dynamic) Near-field

Prototype ORNL/US Capacitive 2 ∼7.7 Electric field 10 ∼13 cm

(Stationary/Dynamic)
– Columbia University/ Medium-field Mechanical 1 ∼3 Mechanical force 5 ∼15 cm
Columbia
Prototype (Stationary) JAXA/Japan Laser –
37% power efficiency
Prototype (Stationary) Kyoto/Japan Far-field Microwave 10 ∼30 EMF
at 10 km
Prototype (Stationary) Tesla/USA Radio wave –

Fig. 6. Evolution of installed EV charging capability.
fulfilled by raising common information (Will and Schuller, 2016)
and performing high innovative tariff infrastructures, such as
Time of Use Tariffs. This could result in a drop in service quality,
increased line losses, and damage to utilities and client equip-
ment (Pallonetto et al., 2019). Due to its regard for the Nissan
Leaf and its early domination in Ireland, CHAdeMO remains the
dominating technology. The fastest-growing segment is non-fast
charging, which is dominated by PHEVs. With sales mostly from
Hyundai and BMW, Combined Charging System (CCS) automo-
biles have acquired market share. The available status has been
withheld, but the lack of a record can infer it. Additional infor-
mation can be manually obtained from charge point coordinates
in order to supplement the data. Fig. 6 depicts EV registrations in
Ireland.
The available communication system has been validated OOC
or OOS for more than 30% of the total working period, lower-
ing complete network dependability and customer impression of
charging network responsibility. Due to the restricted capacity of
EV batteries, it is necessary to have more regular access to the
charging network. Long-term forecasting of future developments
in the field of electric vehicle charging a system is a challenging
task for a variety of reasons, including a lack of standards and
ongoing results.
7.3. Battery charge equalization
The battery charge equalization is one of the challenging tasks
for upcoming researchers. Battery equalizer circuits (BECs) are
electronic devices that absorb energy from one cell and transfer it
to another cell; that function is used by a high-level controller to
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maintain the SOC consistent over the battery bank. The existing
methods for charge equalization are classified into two main
groups they are active charge equalization and passive charge
equalization (Clement-Nyns et al., 2010). The operational voltage
of the cells is sustained by passive BECs, which burn the extra
energy. Each cell has a switch and a resistor, as can be seen
in these equalizers. When the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MOSFET) is on, the resistor converts energy into
heat.
The switch remains activated until the cell achieves the pack’s
lowest voltage. To minimize an excess of wasted energy, elimi-
nating damaged cells is essential. Due to the purpose of burning
energy, these equalizers have low efficiency. The passive charge
equalization is classified into 1. Fixed shunt resistance, and 2.
Switched shunt resistance charge equalization. In fixed shunt
resistance, the resistor was connected in parallel with each cell
and used to drain the charge from that particular cell which has
excessive energy. The energy drained from the cell is dissipated
as heat. The shunt-resistant current was unregulated; due to this
phenomenon, the cell voltage is also not regulated. This technique
is applicable only to lead–acid batteries. In switched shunt resis-
tance, the switches are connected in series with a shunt resistor,
and this combination was connected in parallel with the cell.
The advancement and implementation of improved battery
equalization technology will serve as the foundation for large-
scale energy storage systems, facilitating the growth of energy
unions and the energy Internet (Zhang, 2018) (Fig. 7). State es-
timate accuracy and stability in BMSs still need to be improved,
and equalization targets for various application circumstances
need to be improved. Different forms of active cell equalization
approaches have been analyzed and compared (Feng et al., 2019).
A review of current active battery cell equalization approaches
is carried out (Ghaeminezhad et al., 2021). As a result, it can be
stated that the series-based cell–cell configuration is adequate
for equalizing a battery pack with a few serially connected cells
for low-power applications, as provided equalizing performance
is not a preference over cost. Furthermore, due to the lack of
direct pathways, all charge/discharge current must flow through
converters. So if the battery pack is perfectly balanced, converting
loss occurs. A charge balance circuit that includes an energy
control method is described in Hsieh et al. (2021).
The unbalanced condition is sensed and decides which resistor
is connected with the cell, and it leads to balanced voltage. The
main disadvantage of this topology is that it has energy loose
due to the higher current flowing in resistance and switches at
the time of equalization. Active equalizers move excess energy
from one cell to a cell with a lower SOC. As a result, especially
compared to passive topologies, they have high efficiency. Equal-
ization of cells in a battery pack has been achieved using power
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Fig. 7. The developing trend around battery equalization system.
converters. The ability to regulate both the desired and provided
current for each cell is the main benefit of these equalizers. The
active charge equalization method was classified into capacitor-
based, inductor-based, transformer-based, and converter-based
charge equalization. Further, this method was classified according
to energy flow like 1. Direct cell to cell, 2. Cell to pack, 3. Pack
to cell, and 4. Cell to pack to cell. Buck-boost DC–DC converter
is transferred excess energy from strong cell to weak cell for
equalization. Battery voltage sensing and an intelligent control
system are required to operate the buck-boost converter (Park
et al., 2009). This topology needs n−1 no. of buck-boost convert-
ers for ‘n’ no. of cells. For the equalization process, the switches of
the strong cell will turn ON, and energy is stored in the inductor.
Equalization can occur in both charging and discharging cycles,
and there is no need for a complex controller. To eliminate the
circuit complexity and to the increasing speed of equalization, the
pulse width modulation control is introduced in the switching
process, and a capacitor filter is used to reduce ripple current.
According to Chen and Cheng (2013), executing to drain out
energy from a strong cell to a weak cell using switch control
by sensing and calculating the voltage difference between two
adjacent cells (Wu et al., 2015).
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have found broad use in industries
such as renewable energy, electrified transportation, and portable
devices. An efficient battery management system (BMS) is essen-
tial for LIB systems to meet their dependability, efficiency, and
lifetime goals. The current and voltage of cells are collected by
a slave controller and sent to a centralized master controller for
most composable BMS designs. Typically, the weakest cells decide
the performance of the entire LIB system, leaving the remainder
of system capabilities unfulfilled and significantly reducing LIB
efficiency (Wei et al., 2021c) addressed the smart cell and smart
battery technology from various perspectives. Nonetheless, in
modern applications, the essential precise estimation of relative
input/output noise level remains an unresolved issue. A strategy
for unbiased model identification in BMS based on restricted
measurements has yet to be investigated. In Wei et al. (2021c)
investigated a noise-immune method for detecting the equivalent
circuit model (ECM) parameters. The current state of sensor-
free LIB management has been documented in the literature;
however, it is relatively restricted.
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The co-estimation of online load current and state of charge
(SOC) was described in Wei et al. (2022). In recent years, state of
health (SOH) estimate has received a lot of attention, resulting in
a slew of methods that can be divided into two categories: model-
based and data-based (He et al., 2020) propose a unique Revised
Lorentzian function-based Voltage Capacity (RL-VC) model with
effective SOH estimate of LIB. Constant voltage capacity-based
SOH estimation of LIB (Ruan et al., 2021). Internal short circuits
(ISCs) are a major source of LIB safety concerns. In Hu et al.
(2022) investigated an aging-resistant and disturbance-immune
ISC diagnostic approach for the LIB. Table 8 shows the comparison
of converter-based active battery charge equalization methods.
7.4. Battery swapping
Various EVs are expected to hit the road in the years ahead,
but establishing the charge stations that would make owning
one as simple, economic, and available as owning gas-powered
vehicles will be among the most difficult hurdles. The process
of exchanging a drained EV battery with a rechargeable one
is known as battery swapping. This would replace recharging,
eliminating one of the most significant problems of zero-emission
vehicles: long refueling times. This procedure should be carried
out at a certain location and with the proper technologies. Unlike
traditional fast-charging stations, the battery swapping station
(BSS) uses quick replacement equipment to remove the vehicle’s
power battery and replace it with a powerful battery that suits
the needs (Zheng et al., 2014). Moreover, since the BSS operator
controls the Battery storage, this kind of recharging approach is
more costly than simply fueling the ICE engine due to the BSS
founder’s hefty monthly lease charges. This technology necessi-
tates a large number of costly batteries as well as a large storage
facility, which might be costly for real estate in a high-traffic
location. Because these solutions would modify the EV driving
profile, caution should be exercised while constructing a charging
infrastructure based on previous or present driving patterns. In
comparison to today’s 20 kW h battery, the 200 kW h batteries
will be considerably different and may require different charging
infrastructure. In Bonges and Lusk (2016) describes how parking
places and chargers could be more beneficial if their placement
and design were changed.
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Table 8
Comparison of converter based active battery charge equalization methods.
Parameters Buck-Boost Resonant Cuk converter Bidirectional Dual active Ramp converter Push–Pull
converter converter Flyback converter converter
converter
Equalization Adjacent cell to Cell to cell Adjacent cell to Cell to pack to Cell to pack to Cell to cell Direct cell to
techniques cell cell cell cell cell
Equalization Excellent Very good Very good excellent Excellent Good Excellent
speed
Size Very large Very large Large Medium Medium Very large Large
Control variable State of change Cell voltage Cell voltage State of change State of change State of change Cell voltage
Components n−1L, 2n−2S 4n−4C, n−1C, n−1C, 2n−2L, 2n+4S,2L, 2C, 2n+10S, 2C, 1L, nC, n/2L, nS, 2n+4S, 2D, 1C,
required for ‘n’ 2n−2S 2n−2S 1T 1T nD 1T
no. of cells
Control Fuzzy logic PI and Fuzzy Fuzzy logic Fixed duty Particle swarm PID control Heuristic
algorithm control logic control control cycle optimization
Control High Medium High High Very high High Medium
complexity
Voltage and Low Very high Low Low Medium Medium Medium
current stress
Power loss Negligible Quite low Quite low Low High Low High
Efficiency Excellent High High Medium Low Medium Low

The social impediment may occur (Chen et al., 2016) in present
xEV owners due to scarcity in the accessibility of charge stations,
protracted charger delay, pressure from the supporting utility
grid, and, most essentially, the intrinsic EV range anxiety (EVRA)
problem. The conductive xEV charger, inductive charger, and BSSs
are three notable and promising charging techniques (Wang et al.,
2017). Moreover, current research into such networks already
in place in industrialized countries has revealed that there are
still some unavoidable difficulties that must be addressed and
rectified (Yang et al., 2019). These challenges could manifest as
a lack of charge point reliability, a delay due to queuing at such
a charging station, security and management difficulties, and
so on. To assist minimize the EVRA and congestion at stations
problems, such systems need simple convenience (Erol-Kantarci
et al., 2012).
Even once all of this is worked out, it still appears to be
a long way off, as the economics of a worldwide BSS is not
favorable when compared to a nationwide vehicle battery charger
(Sarker et al., 2016). The customer may drive away in the EV in
a short period, and the rebuilt power battery is left in the BSS
to finish the action of the charger. As a result, in the battery
swapping state, the customers can simply restore the needed
power without having to stay for an extended period of time,
which is more convenient (Ahmad et al., 2020). A dynamic model
of BSS operation in an electricity market is constructed (Yang
et al., 2014). Smart grids, as well as EV swapping facilities that
use the V2G system as a backup power supply, have gotten a lot
of attention as a way to improve distribution network stability
(Amiri et al., 2018).
The BSS and EV can achieve extraordinarily high battery-
swapping efficiency by using this charging and battery-swapping
mode. There are three types of batteries available in the BSS full
batteries (FB), half–full batteries (HB), and available batteries (AB)
(Zeng et al., 2020a). The new battery’s number is one higher than
the prior battery’s number. If the distribution system goes down,
the BSS acts as a backup energy storage system, allowing electric-
ity to be injected back into the system, reducing power shortages
and improving network resilience. When the electricity cost is
minimum, and to limit the charging insistence as much as feasible
whenever the electricity price is greater (Zheng et al., 2014), the
variability in EV consumers’ behaviors should be completely con-
sidered and studied; else, incorrect computation results may arise
(Zeng et al., 2020b). An optimized BSS has been presented. The
BSS model’s structural architecture is documented in GAFFOGLIO
et al. (2015). In Zheng et al. (2013) discuss a RES integrated with
the BSS and the best BSS arrangement in terms of chargers and
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battery packs reported in Ganter et al. (2017). In Yilmaz and
Krein (2013) address the designs of converters and chargers for
permitting G2V and V2G power conversions. The higher price of
ownership, which is directly related to the price of the onboard
battery, is the main obstacle to EVs. The battery costs 25%–50%
of the total vehicle cost in today’s electric vehicles (Ganter et al.,
2017). BSS can offer the power system two additional benefits in
terms of reliability, also to dramatically diminishing waiting times
when collated to direct current fast charge (DCFC). Fig. 8 shows
the EV battery swapping infrastructure based on batter swapping
vehicles.
In Mahoor et al. (2017) present a potential strategy for
scheduling battery charging based on the battery charger avail-
ability and hourly need for battery swapping. Taxi vehicles were
also tested with BESs in Tokyo in 2010 (Schultz, 2010). China was
the first to commercialize the battery swapping technologies for
electric buses in 2008 when they exchanged the batteries of 50
buses running on various routes during the Summer Olympics
(Liang and Zhang, 2018).
7.5. Life cycle analysis
The life cycle analysis (LCA) method may be utilized to in-
vestigate environmental implications, particularly energy use and
CO2-equivalent emissions. The whole life cycle GHG emission
reduction potential of an EV depends on an optimal electricity
mix, developments in electricity production techniques, and in-
creased collaborative heat and power scale, according to Liang
and Zhang (2018). Furthermore, life cycle costing will allow for
a holistic assessment of all expenses involved with the electric
vehicle’s complete life cycle, assisting in the determination of
the specific costs incurred during the electric vehicle’s whole life
cycle. The life cycle cost study of pavement was reviewed in
Babashamsi et al. (2016). In Li et al. (2019a) recently published
an assessment of the LCA of reproduced solid waste materi-
als used in highway pavement. According to Diao et al. (2016),
the tangible and intangible costs are the most important in the
life cycle cost study of EVs. The cost of the acquisition stage
includes the vehicle’s suggested retail price as well as level 2
chargers, along with tax and third-party insurance. In addition,
Lin et al. (2013), a methodology for calculating the life cycle
cost of EV was developed. The initial cost, ownership charges,
and cost of reproducing were all included in the life cycle cost.
Various methods of LCAs for EVs are represented in Fig. 9.
LCA is a method of assessing the life cycle of an energy source
used to power a vehicle, such as gasoline or electricity (Qiao
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Fig. 8. EV battery swapping structure based on battery swapping van.

Fig. 9. Representation of different types of LCA for EV.

et al., 2020). According to the findings, electric vehicles would of roughly 4 kg CO2eq/$. In the low-mileage case, the LCC gap
be around 9% more expensive than ICEVs in Beijing in 2020, would be higher and the GHG emission gap lower. According to
with about 29% reduced GHG emissions and cost-effectiveness Wang et al. (2020), we computed the energy usage per vehicle.
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M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
There are large inflows and outflows involved with the purchase
of a new automobile. This study does not include the well-to-
wheels lifespan of energy production (scopes 2 and 3). According
to the analysis, electric vehicles emit significantly less CO2 and
consume significantly less energy every kilometer. With a gross
vehicle weight of 1355 kg (Ford Motor Company), the Ford Focus
is thought to be constructed in Wayne, Michigan, and transported
by train and truck. The equipment life cycle is the focus of
this study, and the well-to-wheels life cycle is not considered
(Nordelöf et al., 2014). The tangible and intangible costs are the
main elements of the life cycle cost analysis of EVs.
The tangible costs include the purchase price, retail price, and
operating cost, but the intangible costs are the costs associated
with buying limitations or driving restrictions. The manufac-
turer’s suggested retail price, subsidies, and purchase tax are all
included in the purchase prices as intangible prices. The oper-
ational costs are those related to the electric vehicle’s energy
consumption, maintenance, use tax, and insurance. The primary
price, ownership charges, and recycling price or scrapping were
all included in the life cycle cost. Manufacturers recommended
retail prices, purchase tax, registration costs, license fees, and
government subsidies were all included in the original cost com-
ponent. Energy costs, inspection and keep costs, tax, insurance,
and fees, as well as other expenses, make up the total ownership
cost. The validation of data, the relationship between data and
process units, and the relation among data and reference flow and
functional unit are all included in data collecting. Were two types
of data used in the analysis, Primary data, obtained directly from
system producers and consumers, and secondary data, which
were drawn from existing literature.
In general, there is a shortage of initial data that is either
absent or unable to be disclosed in studies due to industrial
confidentiality concerns. Whereas the high rate of contention and
innovation in the field justifies this crucial issue, the insufficient
information connected to source data impairs the transparency
and reliability of many kinds of research. It suggests that the
development and improved automotive battery LCAs based on
updated and verified primary data is critical, as employing out-
dated data in a field where technology is fast advancing may
lead to incorrect conclusions and decisions. The authors recom-
mend taking into account the following factors while developing
an automotive battery LCA: Acid rain, soil pollution, resource
depletion, particulate emissions, organism exhaustion, industrial
pollution, ecotoxicity, and CED (Cumulated Energy Demand) are
all examples of climate change.
8. Energy trading in electric vehicles
Energy trading with EV allows for the elimination of max-
imum peak demand for EV charges while also saving money
and profiting all parties involved. Because EVs perform as loads
during charging, ESSs when stationary, and distributed energy
sources when discharging. To absorb environmental energy, en-
ergy production is frequently used at the consumer’s location.
When production exceeds demand, excess energy is stored in
batteries, leased to convenient consumers, or injected into the
local grid. Energy trading is a cost-effective approach to relieve
strain on the local grid even while making money. Energy trading
is used to offer excess power to the grid or to sell these products
to local users, charging stations, or communities. Energy trade
is categorized based on the buyer. (1) Feed-in tariff; (2) peer-
to-peer (P2P). Consumers may inject excess energy into the grid
through feed-in tariffs, whereas prosumers could fully engage in
the energy sharing market through P2P energy trading (Najafi
et al., 2021b). The entire energy trading procedure is usually
controlled by a central entity that is in charge of the energy
market.
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Nevertheless, there is no centralized control structure in p2p
energy trading; instead, it is spread in the form of community-
based and entirely decentralized control (Tushar et al., 2020). The
sustainability of energy trading is dependent on the availability of
prosumers and the reliability of distributed generation. EVs are
intended primarily to be a cost-effective and ecologically friendly
mode of transportation, but they also have the capacity to store
a significant quantity of energy. Fig. 10 presents challenges and
prospective solutions for the current energy trading for electric
vehicles.
In Kim et al. (2019a) created an EV-to-EV energy market based
on auctions. The market is steered by a central auctioneer, which
uses a primitive auction procedure to determine energy prices
repeatedly. It proposes an autonomous energy trading market
operated by a fog computing-based administrator (Sun et al.,
2019b). An online double auction technique for P2P energy trad-
ing among electric vehicles that contain anonymous methods
to address the problem of trade participants’ identification and
position leaking (Li et al., 2019b).
EVs are a worthy contender for energy transfer because of
their dynamic nature. Utility vehicle energy trading, in which EVs
are utilized to transfer energy to-usefulness elements, is yet an-
other promising strategy that benefits EVs. Estimating demands,
scheduling generation, and simulating the energy trade system
can all benefit from stochastic energy forecasting. It may catego-
rize energy forecasting into three forms based on the amount and
availability of data:
• In short-term energy forecasting (STEF), energy is antici-
pated on a regular basis for a specific time period (half an
hour to 1 day). In Jeong et al. (2018) utilize single-period
energy prediction to identify the best trading price in a
microgrid to balance demand and generation. Subscribers
provide the market leader with their trading amounts and
cost based on statistical and historical data. Market lead-
ers are constantly monitoring historical trading trends and
advising on the best trading values to match availability.
• In medium-term energy forecasting (MTEF), energy is antic-
ipated over a wide range of time periods, ranging from one
day to many months. In the upcoming power distribution
system, independent charging point house garages, general
populace parking lots, and rapid charging stations are likely
to play a key role.
In order to manage the charge/discharge operation of EVs, var-
ious strategies have been studied, as well as grid control with
incentives and time-varying charges provided by the power grid
(Shuai et al., 2016). Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) is
responsible for all energy transactions between customers and
prosumers (Park et al., 2018). Furthermore, there are many rele-
vant operational gains for utilities, including lower reliance on the
electrical grid, reduced transmission losses, enhanced efficiency,
and energy request supply (Jogunola et al., 2017). The authors
introduced a new energy trading approach among two sets of
EVs (Alvaro-Hermana et al., 2016). Because they include the dis-
tribution of energy from the grid to consumers, energy trading
schemes demand a great deal of attention (Kumar et al., 2017;
Wei et al., 2014). In a smart grid, robust energy management
strategies (Yang et al., 2016) and energy trading policies for EVs
are critical.
In Misra et al. (2015) presented a dynamic energy trading
method in order to optimize the recharging station’s profitabil-
ity function (Wang et al., 2018), suggesting a new mechanism
for managing charging stations (CSs) that optimizes EV schedul-
ing and energy price. To promote energy trading between EVs
and a static entity (Jindal et al., 2020) proposes a blockchain-
based strategy for demand response management. In Aggarwal
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Fig. 10. Challenges and prospective solutions for the current energy trading for EV.
et al. (2019) provide more information about blockchain and
its numerous applications. The aggregator uses the mathemati-
cal framework (Umoren and Shakir, 2018) to try to match the
best prosumers with the best consumers in order to achieve the
lowest operating costs while meeting consumer energy demand
and charging station limits. Furthermore, widespread adoption
of electric vehicles may cause existing power grid stations to
become overburdened necessitating the development of more
efficient vehicle-grid combination and energy-trading strategies
(GEIDCO, Yazdanie et al., 2018). Existing energy trading systems
have made use of knowledge and communication technologies
(ICT) to conduct energy trading among EVs. The surplus energy
of an EV battery is estimated and sold back to the electric vehicle
or grid station using an ICT-based energy trading platform. Most
ICT-based systems, on the other hand, are centralized, highly de-
centralized, unsecured, secretive, and unreliable (Lombardi et al.,
2018).
It has the potential to improve the efficiency, transparency,
trustworthiness, and traceability of EV energy trading processes.
Furthermore, EVs can use ICT-based systems to (a) compute bat-
tery discharge rate, (b) locate reputable energy CS, (c) approxi-
mate energy requests through off-peak hours, and (d) estimate
energy demand during peak hours. (d) Determine the shortest
distance between the energy CSs at the sender and the receiver,
(e) excess electricity is available to customers or grid station,
and (f) calculate the price of power in a specific region through-
out off-peak hours (Rehman et al., 2018). Furthermore, because
blockchain data and transactions are available publicly by all,
the blockchain provides increased transparency to energy trading
members of the network (Zhong et al., 2016).
These approaches are fairly limited and do not meet the needs
of a broader market. To offer a pleasurable experience for all EV
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owners, payment methods must meet critical characteristics such
as security, convenience, and universality (Huang et al., 2018). In
Jang et al. (2020) presented a charge coordination method at the
apartment level to effectively handle this issue. The expansion
and implementation of the Internet of Electric Vehicles (IoEV)
require an integrated and resilient charging network (Li et al.,
2019c). The economics and stability of EV distribution networks
are becoming increasingly crucial as the number of EVs in use
grows. In Khan and Byun (2021), blockchain technology is used
in automotive networking applications, with a focus on secure
decentralized massive data storage. The value of collaborative
and faction trading for peer-to-peer energy marketplaces was
investigated (Wilkins et al., 2020).
9. Cyber security
The several variations of communication, network and user-
to- Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) authentication pro-
tocols present a significant cyber security challenge. Because of
the variances in technologies, the absence of standards, and the
general rush to get EVSE systems to market, there are several
attack routes, dangers, and possible threats. According to a re-
port by Kaspersky Lab (Sklyar, 2018), cyber security vulnerabil-
ities were discovered to be linked to Charge Point Home EVSE
units in 2018. The STRIDE threat model’s information disclosure,
escalation of privilege, and data tampering categories were all
highlighted by these cyber security flaws. Mathias Dalheimer, a
German cyber security researcher, presented findings from the
New Motion EVSE deployed on their networks across Germany at
the Chaos Communication Congress (CCC) conference in Leipzig
in December 2017 (Delheimer n.d.). ICS Advisory ICSA-18-305-
03 (ICS Advisory) applies to this material. Researchers from New
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al.
Fig. 11. An illustration of the cyber–physical layers in a typical EVCS.
York University (NYU) (NIST, 2010) outlined how the deploy-
ment of EVSE devices is exposing increasingly interconnected
electrical grids to greater vulnerability. Researchers highlighted
how design choices in the Combined Charging System (CCS) stan-
dard, which is in use worldwide in the usage of power-line
communication (PLC), made the system vulnerable to electromag-
netic side-channel attacks at the USENIX conference (Baker and
Martinovic, 2019).
The Federal Risk and Authorization Management Program (Fe-
dRAMP) or other cloud security best practices, such as the Cloud
Security Alliance (CSA), may be used in the EVSE secure ‘‘cloud’’
environment. The cloud infrastructure of the provider must be ap-
proved by FedRAMP (FedRAMP,). Schneider EV link chargers (ICS
Advisory) were also found to have security issues. A description
of current research trends in power electronics developments
in Cyber–Physical Systems (Mazumder et al., 2020). The cyber–
physical layers in a typical EV charging station (EVCS) as shown in
Fig. 11. An EVCS is a device that enables EV charging by facilitat-
ing power transfer between the grid and the vehicles. While bidi-
rectional power exchange is possible, the grid-to-vehicle (G2V)
approach is more popular, whereas the vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
approach is based on small experimental projects and implemen-
tation. A DC EVCS is larger and more complicated than an AC EVCS
because it incorporates the hardware and software required to
convert AC power from the grid to DC electricity and control the
EV charger.
The AC EVCS regulates the physical and cyber connections
between the EV and the grid, as well as monitoring and con-
trolling the power flow to the onboard charger. The benefit of
off-board charging (e.g., DC EVCSs) over onboard charging is that
it allows for faster charging. Due to the greater capital cost and
power supply needs of DC EVCSs, AC EVCSs are used mostly
in commercial environments and entirely in residential areas.
The centralized EVCS server has four major purposes. 1. Arrange
and maintain each EVCS’s real-time data (e.g., working status
and energy use). 2. Allow for the charging of electric vehicles.
After receiving permission for identification through a Smart-
phone or proprietary radio frequency identification (RFID) card,
the EVCS may validate every EV locally.3. Information on EVCS
availability, charger levels, and charger fees should be broadcast
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through web-based and Smartphone applications. As part of their
business strategy, EVCS workers, cross-company third-party sites,
and smartphone and web-based applications release the data.
4. Whether direct or through the Building Energy Management
System (BEMS), interact with the power grid administrator or
demand response aggregator. While indirect communication over
BEMS is infrequent, various utilities have experimented with it.
To strengthen the security of EV supply equipment (EVSE) as-
sets, standards development groups, EVSE suppliers, and network
operators must carefully consider these factors. The only way to
keep EVSE systems safe is to adapt to the changing threat land-
scape with ever-better defensive postures. As a result, as shown
in Table 9, numerous important technical trends and research
possibilities can be recognized for each of the interfaces.
10. Conclusion
This focused review is to provide users with more up-to-date
information on research into the use of EV penetration with RE
systems. EVs get a lot of promise to be the future of transportation
while also saving the world from impending disasters associated
with global warming. This evaluation also offers the following
solutions for overcoming the challenges:
(1) In terms of practical implementations, responsibility, and
computational performance, asymmetric estimation meth-
ods and variable extraction techniques require improve-
ment.
(2) In reality, virtually all developed-country governments are
constantly implementing new regulations to encourage the
usage of EVs to ensure long-term viability and
environmentally-friendly mobility.
(3) To make batteries easier to use in various applications,
estimate methods should be created.
(4) Lithium-ion batteries are more environmentally beneficial
than Li batteries over the course of their full life cycle.
(5) Higher-capacity batteries will encourage the adoption of
the fastest and most powerful charging methods, as well
as improved wireless charging technology.
M. Bharathidasan, V. Indragandhi, V. Suresh et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 9662–9685

Table 9
EVSE interfaces have significant cyber security research is necessary.
EV-to-EVSE • Techniques for avoiding the loss or tampering of charging signals through side-channel assaults.
• EV and EVSE device access control processes have been enhanced, particularly those based on PKIs.
EVSE internet • End-to-end information systems that ensure security, integrity, identity, authorization, non-repudiation, and
audibility.
• Novel key/certificate provision and storage strategies for EVSE firmware version.
• Intrusion detection and prevention methods rely on EV supply equipment’s network.
• Cloud, website, and API security systems that use authorization on all endpoint actions to avoid
information modification or disclosure.
EVSE maintenance • Physical and logical access solutions with host-based vulnerability scanning and tamper-resistant
technology.
• Secure storage, secure boot loaders, and other software/hardware hardening methods are all available at
the device level.
EV operator • Identity verification techniques for EVs and EV providers that preserve privacy.
• EVSE credential, data, and PII storage have been improved.
• Local web services have been hardened and sanitized.

A brief summary of the current EV market has been provided.
The EVs may play a critical part in future Smart Cities, and dif-
ferent kinds of charging systems that can respond to users’ needs
will be very crucial. In summary, this work proved the importance
of EV technologies in the energy market and paves the direction
for future studies on EV integration in the modern energy system.
Despite the fact that all technologies have drawbacks, they could
be employed based on the situation. Therefore, future BMS should
consider the new scenarios that were introduced by new batteries
and Smart Cities requirements.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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