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Subsonic Aerodynamics
Basics, Laws and Definitions
Bernoulli's equation:
Total Pressure Constant = Dynamic Pressure (½ ρ V2) + Static Pressure
The law of conservation of mass states that for any system closed, the mass of the system must
remain constant over time. The mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be
rearranged in space.
Bernoulli's theorem states that:

In a streamlined flow of fluid, the sum of all energies is a constant
The sum of static and dynamic pressure is constant.
Static pressure plus dynamic pressure is constant.
The sum of pressure energy and dynamic energy is constant.
Dynamic Pressure is egual to (½ ρ V2) q = (½ ρ V2)

Bernoulli's equation can be written as PT = PS + q
Bernoulli's equation can be written as PT - q = PS
Bernoulli's equation can be written as PSTAT + ½rho × TAS2 = constant
The dynamic pressure is zero when velocity is zero.

The dynamic pressure increases as static pressure decreases.
If temperature of a gas is kept constant and pressure increases, the density increase.
If density is kept constant, the dynamic pressure increases proportionally with the square of the
velocity. (½ ρ V2)
Given:
p = pressure
rho = density
T = absolute temperature
p / (rho * T) = constant
Considering subsonic incompressible airflow through a Venturi
Undisturbed Throat Undisturbed
The static pressure in the undisturbed airflow is higher than in the throat.
The static pressure in the throat is lower than in the undisturbed airflow
The dynamic pressure in the throat is higher than in the undisturbed airflow
The dynamic pressure in the undisturbed airflow is lower than in the throat.
The speed in the undisturbed airflow is lower than in the throat.
The speed of the airflow in the throat is higher than in the undisturbed airflow.
The total pressure in the undisturbed airflow and in the throat is the same.
In the throat of a venturi the static pressure is lower and the speed is higher compared to the
undisturbed airflow.
In the throat of a venturi the dynamic pressure is higher and the total pressure is the same
compared to the undisturbed airflow.
In the undisturbed airflow the dynamic pressure is lower and the total pressure is the same
compared to the throat.
In the undisturbed airflow the static pressure is higher and the speed is lower compared to the
throat.
In a convergent tube with an incompressible sub-sonic airflow,

PS decreases, PDYN increases, PTOT remains constant.
The (subsonic) static pressure decreases in a flow in a tube when the
diameter decreases.
If the cross-sectional area of a tube decreases, the speed of the flow increase
If the cross-sectional area of a tube increases, the speed of the flow decrease
A subsonic incompressible flow, as air flows through a tube of increasing cross-sectional area the
air density does not vary. (only pressure vary)
If the continuity equation is applicable: if the cross sectional area of a tube changes (low speed,
subsonic and incompressible flow) the air density (rho) is rho1 = rho2. (density entering is egual
to density leaving a venturi, density is constant)
Density of the atmosphere will decrease with increase in humidity. (more humidity, less air)
An increase in the flow's temperature will decrease the mass flow.
Static pressure acts in all directions.
The lift and drag forces, acting on an Aerofoil cross section depend on the pressure distribution
around the aerofoil cross section.
In a fluid disregard horizontal plane
(Lift always perpendicular to undisturbed airflow)

Lift is the component of the total aerodynamic force,
perpendicular to the undisturbed airflow.
Lift is the force that act at right angle to relative airflow
Weight is a force. (weight = m x g10)
Wing loading is the ratio of aircraft weight to wing area.
Drag is acting in the direction of relative wind (airflow) and

lift is perpendicular to the relative wind (airflow).
The angle of attack is the

angle between wing chord line and direction of the relative airflow.
angle between chord line and the relative undisturbed airflow.
angle between chord line and the undisturbed airflow
angle between chord line and the free stream
The aeroplane angle of attack is the angle between wing

root chord line and longitudinal axis
An aeroplane's angle of incidence is the angle between

its speed vector and longitudinal axis.
Relationship between force (F), acceleration (a) and mass (m) is F = m × a

Weight is a Force (mass x g acceleration)
The weight of an object depends on the acceleration due to gravity.

The mass of an object is independent of the acceleration due to gravity.
The weight of a body can be determined by multiplying its mass by the acceleration due to
gravity. F = m × a
The mass of a body can be determined by dividing its weight by the acceleration due to gravity.
The units of wing loading are (W/S) N/m2 and dynamic pressure (q) N/m2
Dihedral of a wing is the angle between the wing plane and the
horizontal with the aeroplane in an unbanked, level condition.
Dihedral of the wing is the angle between the 0.25 chord line of
the wing and the lateral axis.
The construction feature of a wing called "wash out" (wing twist) is

a decrease in the angle of incidence from root to tip.
Geometric washout (wing twist) means that the tip of the wing has
TWIST/WASH OUT lower angle of attack than the root.
The wings are normally with a 4° angle of incidence, but angle is different from tip to root by
twisting the wing down near the root.
Taper Ratio = Tip / Root
A wing is said to be tapered if the chord at the wing tip is less than the
chord at the root.
Taper ratio is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord.
Aspect Ratio = wingspan ÷ mean chord

Aspect Ratio = (wingspan)2 ÷ wing area
The aspect ratio of the wing is the ratio between wingspan and
mean geometric chord (MAC).
Aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio between wingspan squared and
wing area.
The Mean geometric chord is the wing area divided by the
wingspan.
The Mean Aerodynamic/geometric Chord (MAC) is the chord of
an equivalent untwisted, rectangular wing with the same pitching moment and lift characteristics
as the actual wing.
Wing sweep angle is the angle between the quarter-chord line of the
wing and the lateral axis. (misured at ¼ cord)
A wing would be said to be swept back if the quarter chord line was
inclined backwards from the lateral axis.
The thickness to chord ratio of an aerofoil is the ratio of the
maximum thickness of an aerofoil section to its chord.
thickness ÷ chord
The relative thickness of an aerofoil is expressed in % chord.
The chord line of an aerofoil section is the line, drawn from the
leading edge to the trailing edge.
In a symmetrical Aerofoil the mean camber line is a straight line co-

incident with the chord line.
An aerofoil is cambered when the line, which connects the centres

of all inscribed circles, is curved.
Camber of an aerofoil section is the largest distance between the
chord line and the camber line.
The mean camber line of an aerofoil section is a line from the leading to the trailing edge
equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces.
The camber line is a line connecting the leading and trailing edge midway between the upper and
lower surface of a aerofoil
Indicated airspeed (IAS) = the direct instrument reading obtained from the ASI
Calibrated airspeed (CAS) = IAS corrected for position (pressure) and instrument errors
Equivalent airspeed (EAS) = the speed at sea level, is CAS corrected for compressibility error
True airspeed (TAS) = EAS corrected from Density error
Summary Errors correction:

IAS
CAS = Instrument | Position
EAS = CAS | Compressibility
TAS = EAS | Density Temp
IP CD
Temp
Eat Chicken Tomato Marsala

The true airspeed (TAS) is lower than the indicated airspeed (IAS) at altitudes below sea level,
under ISA conditions. (in red sea there is a depression)
At a constant TAS the dynamic pressure will be greater at sea level than at high altitude.
Two-dimensional Airflow Around an Aerofoil
Lift theory Fluid dynamic: The lift force, acting on an aerofoil is mainly caused by reduced pressure
on the upper side of the aerofoil. (suction)
Lift theory Mechanical: The Newton 3 law principal of action and reaction say that lift in created
from an Aerofoil with an angle of attack. The air is deflected downward by the action (angle) of
the Aerofoil, and in reaction the wing is pushed upward.
Lift is generated when:

the flow direction of a certain mass of air is changed.
Of the total lift produced by the wing the upper surface produces the greater proportion at all
speeds.
Typically the CL/CD ratio is maximum at an angle of attack of 4°.

(CL/CD ratio = Lift/Drag at AoA of 4° there is max lift)
The profile drag of a wing section or blade element is proportional to:

the square of the relative velocity of the air. V2
the drag coefficient. CD
the air density. ½ ρ
The total drag of an aerofoil in two dimensional flow comprises

form/profile/Pressure drag and skin friction drag.
The total drag of an aerofoil in three dimensional flow comprises

form/profile/Pressure drag, skin friction drag and induced drag
Induced drag, vortices in three dimensional flow
A flat plate, when positioned in the airflow at a small angle of attack,

will produce both lift and drag.
Every object in airflow produce some lift and drag
As the air flows over the upper surface of an aerofoil its speed
increases, static pressure decreases, total pressure is constant.
In an aerofoil with a positive camber and a positive angle of attack

the highest flow velocities occur in the upper side
With increasing downwash, lift generated by the aerofoil

increases.
An aerofoil which is producing lift will have upwash ahead of the wing and downwash behind it.
Stagnation point is where flow is separated by the presence of an object and speed is zero.
Stagnation point is the point where the velocity of the relative airflow is reduced to zero.
Consider a flat plate with zero angle of attack. The boundary layer is
the region in which the velocity varies between the speed of the
undisturbed airflow and zero.
At the stagnation point the static pressure reaches a maximum

value.
as the angle of attack decreases

The point of lowest static pressure moves aft.
The stagnation point moves up. Moves forward
as the angle of attack increases

The point of lowest static pressure moves forward.
The stagnation point moves down. Moves backward
As the angle of attack increases, the stagnation point on the
aerofoil's profile moves downwards on the profiles leading
edge.
Static pressure and stagnation point move along the surface of the wing according to AoA
The speed at stagnation point is zero and in upper part is faster:

V1 = 0 and V2 > V
The aerodynamic centre is the point which the pitching moment
coefficient does not change with varying angle of attack.
The location of the aerodynamic centre of an aerofoil section is at
approximately 25% chord irrespective of angle of attack.
The point, where the single resultant aerodynamic force acts on

an aerofoil, is called centre of pressure.
The point, where the aerodynamic lift acts on a wing is the centre
of pressure.
The Center of Pressure of an aerofoil section is the point where
the resultant aerodynamic force is applied.
The Center of Pressure is the point on the chord line through
which the resultant of all aerodynamic forces acts.
When angle of attack is decreased the centre of pressure will

move backward
When speed is increased in straight and level flight (lift constant)
the magnitude of the total lift force remain the same
centre of pressure move aft
When angle of attack is increased the centre of pressure will

move forward
When speed is decreased in straight and level flight (lift constant)
centre of pressure move forward
the magnitude of the total lift force remain constant
The location of the centre of pressure of a positively cambered aerofoil section at increasing angle
of attack will shift forward until approaching the critical angle of attack.
In a symmetric Aerofoil center of pressure & aerodynamic

centre are at approximately 25% chord irrespective of angle of
attack. They doesn’t change with angle of attack
Body B body will have the highest pressure drag/form drag
Body C body will have the lowest pressure drag/form drag

(the wind come from left, B have more pressure drag because the back
is not rounded and create more drag)
Order of decreasing drag is B, A, D, C

Order of increasing drag is C, D, A, B
If in a flow the streamlines converge, the static pressure in the flow will
decrease and velocity will increase
The static pressure decreases as the streamlines converge.
The velocity increases as the streamlines converge.
Ice is most likely to form on the leading edge of the wing where the stagnation point is located.
Coefficients
V2=TAS2 |q d pressure| Area | Chamber/AoA
LIFT = (½ρ V2) S CL
DRAG = (½ρ V2) S CD
The terms q and S in the lift formula are dynamic pressure and the area of the wing.
CL varies with angle of attack
The correct drag formula is DRAG = CD × ½ RHO × V2 × S
If the lift generated by a given wing is 1 000 kN, if the wing area is doubled lift is doubled 2000 kM
Lift is a function of velocity, wing area, CL and density.
At a given TAS, increase of air density Lift and drag will increase.
For a given angle of attack the lift/drag ratio is unaffected by density changes.
(density act egually on Clift/Cdrag ratio LIFT = +(½ρ V2) S CL / DRAG = +(½ρ V2) S CD
The frontal area of a body, placed in a certain airstream is increased by a factor 3. If the shape
does not alter, the form drag will increase by a factor of 3 ( if density, speed or area change, the
Lift or Drag change, but L/D ratio is always the same +LIFT = (½ρ V2) S CL/+DRAG = (½ρ V2) S CD)
Comparing the lift coefficient and drag coefficient for conventional aeroplanes at normal angle of
attack CL is much greater than CD. (airplane is made to have more lift than drag at 4° AoA)
If the wing area is increased, lift will increase because it is directly proportional to wing area.
A body is placed in a certain airstream. If the density of the airstream decreases to half (/2) its
original value, the parasite drag will decrease by a factor of 2
( if density is halved q2=(½ρ)/2 means that Drag is /2  (½ρ/2 V2 S CD)
Regarding the lift formula, if density doubles, lift will also double. 2 x (½ρ) = LIFT2
Regarding the lift formula, if airspeed doubles, lift will be 4 times greater. 2 x (V2) = LIFT4
Both lift and drag of an aerofoil are proportional to the square of the velocity of the relative
airflow.
Variables required to calculate drag using the drag formula are dynamic pressure, drag coefficient
and wing area. DRAG = (½ρ V2) S CD
Variables are required to calculate lift from the lift formula Dynamic pressure, lift coefficient and
wing area. LIFT = (½ρ V2) S CL
Minimum drag of an aeroplane in straight and level flight occurs at the maximum CL / CD ratio.
At the highest value of the lift/drag ratio the total drag is lowest.
(Maximum Lift respect Drag means drag is less)
The lift coefficient (CL) is a function of

Camber of the aerofoil section.
Angle of attack of the aerofoil section.
For aircraft of the same weight, flying at the same IAS the angle of attack will be the same at
altitude as at sea level. (IAS = dynamic pressure, if pressure is constant, angle is constant)
If an aeroplane maintains straight and level flight at the same angle of attack at two different
altitudes, the TAS is higher at the higher altitude.
If TAS is kept constant, to maintain straight and level flight with reduced air density the angle of
attack of an aircraft's wings must be increased.
Increasing air pressure (angle of attack, OAT and TAS are constant) the drag increases. +(½ρ V2)
Increasing air density (angle of attack and TAS are constant) the drag increases. +(½ρ)
The lift coefficient of an aerofoil section increases with an increase in angle of attack up to the
stall.
In a positively cambered aerofoil section the angle of

attack has a negative value when the lift coefficient
equals zero.
There is a nose down pitching moment about a positively
cambered aerofoil when the lift coefficient equals zero.
Considering a positively cambered aerofoil section, the

pitching moment when the lift coefficient CL=<0 is
negative.
A positively cambered aerofoil will generate zero lift at a

negative angle of attack.
A positively cambered aerofoil it will generate lift at small negative angles of attack.
The lift coefficient CL versus angle of attack curve of a positive cambered aerofoil section intersects
the vertical axis of the graph Above the origin.
The lift coefficient CL versus angle of attack curve of a positively cambered aerofoil section
intersects the horizontal axis of the grap to the left of the origin.
The lift coefficient of a symmetrical aerofoil section at zero

angle of attack is zero.
In a symmetric aerofoil section the angle of attack is zero

when the lift coefficient equals zero.
The pitching moment is zero when the lift coefficient equals
zero.
When the lift coefficient CL of a symmetrical aerofoil section is

zero, the pitching moment is zero.
The lift coefficient CL versus angle of attack curve of a symmetrical aerofoil section intersects the
horizontal axis of the graph at the origin
The forces acting on a symmetrical aerofoil element when the upstream airflow is parallel to the
chord line is only drag. (zero lift, but form and skin drag are present)
For a symmetrical aerofoil section, if the angle of attack is zero, CL is zero.
Symmetrical aerofoil at zero AoA produce Drag, but no lift
The lift coefficient CL versus angle of attack curve of a

negatively cambered aerofoil section intersects the vertical
axis of the graph below the origin and the horizontal axis
to the right of the origin (Generate less lift and negative lift
at zero angle)
When the lift coefficient CL of a negatively cambered

aerofoil section is zero, the pitching moment is positive
(pitch up).
For a given angle of attack, a swept wing will have a lower coefficient of
lift than an equivalent straight one.
A swept wing compared to the same wing without sweep will provide less
lift at a given angle of attack.
To maintain the same aircraft speed, a swept wing compared to the same
wing without sweep will require a higher angle of attack.
The diagram shows the parameter Y against TAS. If horizontal flight is
considered axis Y represents the lift coefficient. (+tas needs -AoA)
The parameters that can be read from the "parabolic polar"

curve of an aeroplane are the the minimum glide angle and
CL the parasite drag coefficient.
The aerofoil polar is a graph of the relation between the lift
coefficient and the drag coefficient.
From the polar curve of the entire aircraft one can read the
maximum CL/CD ratio and maximum lift coefficient.
The polar curve of an aerofoil is a graphic relation between lift
coefficient CL and drag coefficient CD.
CD In the polar curve there are coefficient only, CL vs CD
Three-dimensional Airflow About an Aeroplane
When wing lift is zero, its induced drag is zero

(induced = vortices – CL2 / Aspect ratio)
CL2 Excluding constants, the coefficient of induced drag (CDi)
is the ratio of CL² and AR (aspect ratio).
The induced drag coefficient, CDi is proportional with CL².
The induced drag - if speed remains constant – is
proportional to the square of the lift coefficient.
An aeroplane fly into a horizontal co-ordinated turn with a load factor of 2, the speed remains
constant and the induced drag increases by a factor of 4.
(The induced drag coefficient CDi is equal to CL2, if Lift is 2, induced drag is 4)
The difference between the aerodynamic characteristics of two and three-

dimensional flow is that, in a three-dimensional flow about a wing a spanwise
component exists in addition to the chordwise speed component.
Induced drag is created by the spanwise flow pattern resulting in the tip vortices.
The strength of wing tip vortices increases as the aspect ratio decreases. (more shorter is the wing
more vortices create. High aspect ratio means thin and longer wings)
Increasing the aspect ratio of a wing decreases induced drag.
On an untampered wing of constant section induced downwash is maximum at the wing tip.
By fitting winglets to the wing tip, the strength of the wing tip vortices
is reduced which in turn reduces induced drag
Winglets decrease the induced drag.
Wing tip of the aeroplane has the largest effect on induced drag
Induced drag is the result of downwash generated by tip vortices.

Induced drag is caused by wing tip vortices and downwash.
The effect of winglets on the drag of the wing is Increase parasite drag, decrease induced drag.
The wing tip vortices behind a large aircraft begin on take-off on rotation and end on landing as
the nosewheel touches down
Vortex wake behind large aircraft gradually descends to a lower level.
Assuming zero wing twist, the wing planform that gives the highest local lift coefficient at the wing
root is rectangular.
Assuming no flow separation, the strength of wing tip vortices increases as the angle of attack
increases.
Assuming no flow separation, the strength of wing tip vortices decreases as the angle of attack
decreases.
The strength of wing tip vortices increases as the aspect ratio decreases.
The effect of increasing aspect ratio is to increase the maximum lift / drag ratio.
Decreasing the aspect ratio of a wing increases induced drag.
Increase in aspect ratio Induced drag decreases, because the effect of tip vortices decreases.
A decrease in the aspect ratio increases the induced drag.
Speed increases, induced drag decreases.

Speed decreases, induced drag increases.
Mass increases, induced drag increases.
Mass decreases, induced drag decreases.
Angle of attack increase, induced drag increase
Angle of attack decrease, induced drag decrease
The effect on induced drag of mass and speed changes are decreases with increasing speed and
decreasing mass.
As fuel is consumed during a level flight cruise at high level induced mass decreases
For a rectangular wing at constant speed and
angle of attack, induced drag will be greatest at
the wing tip.
A rectangular spanwise lift distribution generates
more induced drag than an elliptical lift
distribution.
For a rectangular wing the flow on the upper
surface of the wing has a component in wing
root direction.
An elliptical spanwise lift distribution generates less induced drag than a rectangular lift
distribution (elliptical = medium aspect ratio  spitfire)
Elliptical wing planforms produces the lowest induced drag
Induced drag decreases with increasing aspect ratio.
Induced drag may be reduced by an increase in aspect ratio.

High aspect ratio decreasing induced drag and critical angle of attack.
Increasing wing aspect ratio, induced drag It is reduced because the effect of wing-tip vortices is
reduced.
The induced angle of attack is the result of downwash due to tip vortices.
The induced angle of attack is the angle by which the relative airflow is deflected due to
downwash.
The induced drag increases as the lift coefficient increases.
The value of the induced drag of an aeroplane in straight and level flight at a constant weight
varies linearly with 1/V2 (decrease with increasing speed)
Assuming no compressibility effects, induced drag at constant IAS is affected by aeroplane mass.
The nose up or nose down orientation of an aircraft relative to the horizon is known as the
attitude of the aircraft.
The effects on drag of fitting external tip tanks to the wings of an aeroplane parasite
drag increases.
The effects on drag of removing external tip tanks from the wings of an aeroplane are
Induced drag increases.
With flaps deployed, at a constant IAS in straight and level flight, the magnitude of tip vortices
decreases. (Flap generate more parasite drag than lift)
Wing tip vortices have the greatest intensity during take-off.
The span-wise flow (vortex) on an unswept wing is from the lower to the upper wing surface via
the wing tip.
For a tapered wing without twist, the effective angle of attack will be greatest at the root.
Wing twist (wash out) (geometric and aerodynamic) is used to

improve stall characteristics.
reduce induced drag.
TWIST/WASH OUT
Total Drag
DRAG = ½ρ v2 S CD
Total Drag = Induced drag (vortices) +

Parassite Drag (Pressure drag + Friction drag + Interference drag. )
The aerodynamic drag of a body, placed in a certain airstream depends amongst others on the
airstream velocity.
The value of the parasite drag in straight and level flight at constant weight varies linearly with the
square of velocity Parasite DRAG = ½ρ v2 S CD
The total drag of a three dimensional wing

consists of induced drag and parasite drag.
The total drag in straight and level flight is lowest

Drag Factor 
Vs
Speed when the parasite drag is equal to the induced
Instability VMD drag.
Region
Reverse Command CL/CD max The minimum total drag of an aircraft in flight
CD/CL min Induced D occurs at the speed where parasite drag and
Speed kts 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 induced drag are equal.
As speed is increased from the stall speed (VS) to maximum IAS (VNE or VMO), in straight and level
flight at constant mass, the total drag change Initially decreases, then increases.
With increasing speed in straight and level flight induced drag decreases and parasite drag
increases.
At high speed an aircraft will have more profile drag than induced drag.
Speed stability of an aircraft is stable above VMD because total drag increases as speed increases.
The speed instability region(reverse command) is the same as the region of negative gradient of
the thrust or power required curve
The region of speed instability is the same as the region of reversed command.
Important aspects of the "backside of the power curve is that the speed is unstable.
As speed is reduced below VMD drag increases and speed stability decreases.
If the airspeed reduces in level flight below the speed for maximum L/D, the total drag of an
aeroplane will increase because of increased induced drag.
The resistance, or skin friction, due to the viscosity of the air as it passes along the surface of the
wing is part of the parasite drag.
The interference drag is the result of aerodynamic interaction between parts of the aeroplane
(e.g. landing gear/fuselage).
An aeroplane in the speed unstable region, experiences a speed reduction. If the altitude is
maintained and thrust remains constant, the aeroplane speed will further decrease (unstable =
further decrease or increase according to the disturbance)
An aircraft is said to have speed stability when the speed is disturbed from its trimmed value, it
tends to return to the original speed.
Increasing dynamic pressure (speed) at speeds above the minimum drag speed, total drag
increases.
The total drag line of an aeroplane is line C
At a load factor of 1 and the aeroplane's minimum drag speed, the ratio between induced drag Di
and parasite drag Dp is Di / Dp = 1, because at minimum total drag speed they are equals
If the weight of an aircraft is increased, for a constant speed induced drag will increase; profile
drag will remain the same.
When aeroplane speed is doubled, drag increase by a factor of 4 DRAG = ½ρ 22 S CD
An aeroplane accelerates from 120 kts to 160 kts in level flight. The Parasite drag changes by a
factor of 1,78 and the Induced drag coefficient changes by a factor of 0,32
(120 ÷ 160 = 100% ÷ x = 133,34%  33,34%
Speed increase by a factor of 1,33342
parasite drag increase proportionally  DRAG = ½ρ 1,3342 S CD = 1,78)
A body is placed in a certain airstream. If the airstream velocity increases by a factor of 4, the
parasite drag will increase by a factor of 16  DRAG = ½ρ 42 S CD
An aeroplane accelerates from 80 kts to 160 kts at a load factor equal to 1. The induced drag
coefficient will change by 1/16 and the induced drag will change by 1/4. ( we must double the
speed and use a value of 1 for the rest  DRAG = 2V2= 4
Drag in this case is 4 times bigger than coefficient of drag or 1/4 vs 1/16)
If the speed during a straight and level flight is increased by a factor of 2, the parasite drag change
by a factor of 4 (DRAG= 2V2 = 4)
If horizontal flight is considered, axis Y represents the induced drag.

(induced drag decrease with increasing speed)
The purpose of streamlining is to reduce form drag.

(streamlining = thinner, reduce wings thickness)
Profile drag is directly proportional to the square of the speed. DRAG = ½ρ V2 S CD
Ground Effect
Ground effect increase lift (CL & Effective AoA) reduce vortices (drag, induced, downwash)
an aeroplane leaving ground effect (less lift)

induced angle of attack increase.
induced drag coefficient CDi increase.
downwash angle of attack increase
lift coefficient CL decrease.
Effective angle of attack decrease (angle relative to airflow)
About an aeroplane entering ground effect (more lift)

induced angle of attack decrease.
induced drag coefficient CDi decrease.
downwash angle of attack decrease.
lift coefficient CL increase.
Effective angle of attack increase (angle relative to airflow)
In ground effect the lift is increased and the drag is decreased.

In ground effect the effective angle of attack is increased
In ground effect the induced drag reduce.
In leaving ground effect the lift is decreased and the drag is increased.
In leaving ground effect the effective angle of attack is decreased
In leaving ground effect the induced drag increase.
Floating due to ground effect during an approach to land will occur when the height is less than
half of the length of the wingspan above the surface.
A pilot must be aware of as a result of ground effect because Induced drag decreases, and any
excess speed in the flare may cause floating.
With Ground effect the landing distance increases.
Ground effect is most likely to result in Becoming airborne before reaching recommended take-
off speed.
low wing & low tailplane constellation will have the greatest effect on the ground effect
Relationship between the CL and Speed in Level Flight
If No compressibility effect an aeroplane maintains straight and level flight at the same angle of
attack:
TAS is lower at lower altitude.
TAS is higher at higher altitude.
IAS at different altitudes is the same. (No compressibility = disregard density. Ias is calculated
from density)
Assuming standard atmospheric conditions, in order to generate the same amount of lift as
altitude is increased, an aeroplane must be flown at a higher TAS for any given angle of attack.
When you decrease the angle of attack velocity increase and lift coefficient decrease
If the airspeed is being decreased airplane must Increase the angle of attack to compensate for
the decreasing lift.
If the airspeed is doubled, whilst maintaining the same control surface deflection the
aerodynamic force on this control surface will become four times greater. LIFT = V22 = 4
An aeroplane maintains straight and level flight while the speed is doubled.
The change in lift coefficient will be × 0.25 (LIFT = ½ρ 22 S CL  22 x CL  4 so 1/4 = 0,25)
The change in lift factor will be 4
In straight and level flight at a speed of 1.1 VS, the lift coefficient, expressed as a percentage of its
maximum (CLMAX), would be 83% (LIFT = ½ρ 1,12 S CL  1,12 x CL  1,21. Increased by a factor
of 1,21 but question ask percentage respect its maximum CLMAX so 1/1,21 = 0,83 )
maintaining straight and level flight with a lift coefficient CL = 1 after the speed is increased by
30% the new approximate value of CL would be 60% (LIFT = ½ρ 1,32 S CL  1,32 x CL  1,69.
Increased by a factor of 1,69  so 1/1,69 = 0,59 )
maintaining straight and level flight with a lift coefficient CL = 1 after the speed is increased by
41% the new approximate value of CL would be 50% (LIFT = ½ρ 1,412 S CL  1,412 x CL  1,99.
Increased by a factor of 1,99  so 1/1,99 = 0,50 )
maintaining straight and level flight with a lift coefficient CL = 1 after the speed is doubled the
new approximate value of CL would be 0,25 (LIFT = ½ρ 22 S CL  22 x CL  4. Increased by a
factor of 4  so 1/4 = 0,25 )
An aeroplane is in level flight at 146 kts with a Lift coefficient (CL) of 0.91. If the 1g stall speed is
109 kts, the value of CLMAX is 1,63 (½ρ x 1462 x S x CL0.91 = ½ρ x 1092 x S x CLmax  19397,56 =
11881 x CLMAX  19397,56 / 11881 = CLMAX 1,63 )
The Stall (Stall=Critical angle of attack)
Vs = V x √LOAD FACTOR
Vs = 1 ÷ √cosΦ
Vs higher = VS lower × √(+mass ÷ mass)
The load factor is lift / weight
If the stall speed of an aeroplane is 60 kts, the load factor is 2, the stall speed will be 85 kts.
(Vs = SPEED x √LOAD FACTOR  60 x √2 = 85)
An aeroplane has a stalling speed of 100 kts in a steady level flight. When the aeroplane is flying a
level turn with a load factor of 1.5 the stalling speed is 122 kts
(Vs = SPEED x √LOAD FACTOR  100 x √1,5 = 122)
The stall speed in a 60° banked turn increases by the following factor 1,41
(Vs = 1 ÷ √cos Φ  1,41)
An aircraft maintains a 50° bank angle during a constant altitude turn. Compared to straight and
level flight the stall speed will be greater by a factor of 1,25 (Vs = 1 ÷ √cos Φ  1,25)
Given an initial condition in straight and level flight with a speed of 1.4 VS. The maximum bank
angle attainable without stalling is 60° (Try all answer, 44°, 32°, 30°, 60°. Vs = 1 ÷ √cos 60°  1,4)
Stalling speed in a 15° bank level turn is 60 kts. The stalling speed in a 45° bank level turn is 70 kts
(Vs = 1 ÷ √cos Φ  60 kts × √( cos 15° ÷ cos 45°)= 70kts
An aeroplane has a stall speed of 78 kts at its mass of 6 850 kg. The stall speed when the mass is
reduced to 5 000 kg is 67kts (VS lower = Vs higher × √( lowerKG ÷ higherKG)).
An aeroplane has a stall speed of 100 kts at a mass of 1 000 kg. If the mass is increased to 2 000 kg
stall speed is 141 kts (Vs higher = VS lower × √(higherKG ÷ lowerKG)).
Load factor directly affects stall speed and is the ratio between the total air load imposed on the
wing and the gross weight of an aircraft in flight
The load factor is more than 1 (one) when lift is more than weight.
The load factor is less than 1 (one):during a steady climb.
The load factor is less than 1 (one):lift is less than weight.
The load factor is less than 1 (one):during a steady wings level descent.
The load factor is egual to 1 (one) in steady level horizontal flight
As the centre of gravity is changed, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as
the centre of gravity moves aft.
Comparing the IAS and TAS stall speed at 5000 ft at the higher altitude the IAS stalling speed will
be the same as at sea level but the TAS will be higher.
At very higher altitudes, the stall speed (IAS): increase (due to compressibility effects.)
Stall speed IAS varies only with weight at low altitude.
As altitude is increased, the stall speed (IAS) initially remains constant and at higher altitudes
increases.
Stalling speed (IAS) It remains constant at lower altitudes but increases at higher altitudes due to
compressibility effects.
When a pilot performs a steady horizontal turn, the stall speed increases with the square root of
load factor.
The stall speed (IAS) may be increased by high altitude; icing conditions; forward movement of
the CG.
The stalling speed (IAS) may increase during turbulence and will always increase when banking in
a turn.
The stalling speed (IAS) increase during turn, increased mass and forward CG location.
With an increase in load factor, a forward CG shift, decrease in thrust the stall speed increase
The stall speed increase when pulling out of a dive. (return in level flight increase Vs to normal)
When pulling out of a dive the angle of attack increases.
The stall speed decreases when, during a manoeuvre, the aeroplane nose is suddenly pushed
firmly downwards (e.g. as in a push over).
The stall speed (IAS) decreases when Decreasing weight.
The TAS of an aircraft at the stalling angle of attack at a given weight increases as altitude
increases.
About the stall of a straight wing aeroplane just before the stall the
aeroplane will have a nose-down tendency.
A rectangular wing, compared to other wing planforms, has a
tendency to stall first at the wing root, with the stall progression
towards the wing tip.
On a swept wing aeroplane at low airspeed, the pitch up

phenomenon is caused by wingtip stall.
Low speed pitch up is caused by the spanwise flow on a swept back
wing.
The pitch up tendency of an aeroplane with swept back wings
during a stall is caused by the forward movement of the centre of
pressure.
On a swept wing aeroplane tip stall will occur first, which produces a nose-up pitching moment.
The pitch up effect of an aeroplane with sweepback wings in a stall is due to the wing tip stalling
first.
Low speed pitch up can be caused by the outward drift of the boundary layer on a swept-back
wing.
Wing sweep has a negative influence on stall characteristics as it increases stalling speed and
could cause tip stall. One disadvantage of wing sweepback is the tendency of the wingtip section
to stall prior to the wing root section.
When sweep back increases the centre of pressure has an increased tendency to move forward
as the angle of attack approaches and exceeds the critical angle of attack.
Decreasing forward sweep decreases stall speed.
Increasing sweepback increases stall speed.
Decreasing sweepback decreases stall speed.
The centre of pressure on a straight wing/unswept moves aft as the angle of attack
approaches and exceeds the critical angle of attack.
The centre of pressure on a strongly swept back wing moves forward as the angle of attack
approaches and exceeds the critical angle of attack.
The critical angle of attack is dependent on the design of the wing.
With increasing angle of attack the CP will reach its most forward point just below the stalling
angle.
During a normal recovery of a spin the ailerons are held in the neutral position.
During spin recovery the ailerons should be kept in the neutral position. (use rudder!!!)
If the aspect ratio of a wing increases, the critical angle of attack will decrease.
Fighter jets, low aspect ratio and a high crit AoA, gliders high AR but low crit AoA
During a steady horizontal turn, the stall speed increases with the square root of the load factor.
In a steady, level, co-ordinated turn the load factor "n" greater than 1 and the stall speed VS higher
than in straight and level flight.
Increase of wing loading will increase the stall speeds.
The vane of a stall warning system with a flapper switch is activated by the
change of the stagnation point.
As the stagnation point moves downwards the flapper switch moves
upwards and the stall warning is triggered in an aircraft.
The sensor of a stall warning system can be activated by a change in the location of the stagnation
point. A stall warning vane on an aircraft wing is fitted just below the leading edge.
Compared with stalling airspeed in a given configuration (VS), the airspeed at which stick shaker
will be triggered is greater than VS. (stick shaker advise you before reaching the VS)
The input to a stick shaker comes from angle of attack, and sometimes the rate of change in angle
of attack.
If aeroplane slowly decelerates in level flight from its cruise speed in still air at high altitude stick
shaker activation or low speed buffeting appear.
A stick pusher activates at a higher angle of attack than a stick shaker. (first activate the shaker,
than the pusher)
A stick pusher activate and push the stick forward at or beyond a certain value of angle of attack.
Dangerous stall characteristics, in large transport aeroplanes that require stick pushers to be
installed, are excessive wing drop and deep stall.
A stick pusher pushes the elevator control forward when a specified value of angle of attack is
exceeded.
A jet aeroplane cruises buffet free at constant high altitude. If the aeroplane decelerates during an
inadvertant increase in load factor there is a possibility of accelerated stall.
(Accellerated stall = High angle of attack at Hight speed or High load factor)
It is possible to reduce the spanwise airflow over swept wings, due to adverse
pressure gradients, by wing fences.
The main purpose of a boundary-layer fence on a swept wing is to improve
the low speed handling characteristics.
(fence reduce wing tip stall by maintaining the airflow close to the wing root)
A fixed stall strip/spoiler on the leading edge of the wing at the root will
induce a root stall
The purpose of a fixed spoiler/strip on the leading edge of a wing at the root
is to ensure that the root of the wing stalls before the tip.
The highest probability of a super stall is with Swept wings

Super stall is first with Swept wings than with a T-Tail
Super stall is a condition which is a stable stall with almost a
constant pitch attitude.
Deep stall is cause by swept back wings and a T-tail.
The type of stall that has the largest associated angle of attack is
Deep stall. (30°-40°)
Negative tail stall is a sudden reduction in the downward aerodynamic force on the tailplane.
When negative tail stall occurs, the aeroplane will show a pitch up moment but an uncontrollable
pitchdown moment. (angle of attack is higher and wind push the airplane back)
The combination of a wing with sweepback and a T-tail make an aeroplane prone to deep stall.
The combination of a sweepback and a low horizontal tail make an aeroplane prone to deep stall.
A stick pusher system is fitted to an aeroplane to resolve deep stall problems.
A stick pusher system can be fitted to an aeroplane that exhibits abnormal stall characteristics.
The lift/drag ratio reaches its maximum value at the peak of the
lift/drag curve.
The stalling angle of an aerofoil is approximately 16°

The critical angle of attack remains unchanged regardless of gross
weight.
The stalling angle of a wing is unaffected by a turn.
When an aerofoil is stalled the lift/drag ratio is less than the most
efficient ratio.
The stall speed increases with an increased weight.

A decrease in weight due to fuel consumption in flight will reduce the stalling speed, but the stall
angle remains the same.
At the same weight, with the CG at its forward limit VS is higher, the stalling angle is unchanged.
Stall speeds are determined with the CG at the forward limit.

Minimum control speeds are determined with the CG at the aft limit.
Vsr is the Reference stall speed

Vso is the stall speed in landing configuration
Vs1g is the minimum speed at which the aeroplane can develop a lift force (normal to the flight
path) equal to its weight. Vs1g lift equals weight
Vs1 is the the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specific configuration.
VS1G when lift=weight – VS1 in a specific configuration
The separation (reversal) point is where airflow leaves

the surface of an aerofoil
Airflow separation is characterised by airflow reversal on
the surface of the body.
The transition point is where a laminar boundary layer

+ pressure
mean air -speed
becomes turbulent
The airflow over the wing from the wing surface and up is:
1) accelerated to the transition point (becomes turbulent)
2) accelerated from transition point to separation point
3) after separation point/reversal leaves the surface
As angle of attack is increased, flow separation normally starts on the upper surface near the
trailing edge.
In the stall of the wing the lift decrease and drag increase
(vortex and separation of laminar flow increase drag)
The boundary layer (skin friction layer) of a wing is caused/created by a

layer on the wing in which the stream velocity is lower than the free
stream velocity.
In critical angle of attack, the lift coefficient decreases and the stagnation
point moves rearward
During a spin to the left, both wings are stalled
CLMAX Augmentation
The CLMAX is the maximum CL that can be generated from that aerofoil section and it is stabilized
during the designment. Since reference area S of an aerofoil is fixed the only way to increase
CLMAX Is to change the area using FLAP/SLATS.
A slotted flap will increase the CLMAX by increasing the camber of the aerofoil and re-energising
the airflow.
A plain flap will increase CLMAX by increasing the camber of the aerofoil.
On a highly swept back wing with leading edge slats

fitted outboard and leading edge flap fitted inboard
Flaps (leading/trailing) and slats are fitted to modern

aircraft to reduce take-off, approach and landing
speeds to an acceptable level.
The Krueger flaps are leading edge flaps close to the wing root.
A Krueger flap is part of the lower surface of the leading edge,

hinged at its forward edge.
An aeroplane with swept back wings is equipped with slats and/or leading edge (LE) flaps. One
possible efficient way to arrange the leading edge devices on the wings is Wing roots: LE flaps;
wing tips: slats.
Lowering the inboard flaps causes the wing CP to move inboard towards the wing root.
When the trailing edge flaps are lowered to the fully extended position the wing CP moves
aft/rear and the L/D ratio decreases.
When trailing edge flaps are extended whilst maintaining straight and level flight at constant IAS
the centre of pressure moves aft.
Trailing edge flaps increase lift at a lower Angle of Attack.
Trailing edge flaps increase drag at higher Angle of Attack.
Trailing edge flaps provide the same amount of lift at a slower speed.
Trailing edge flaps extended degrade the minimum glide angle.
When the flaps are extended. The negative angle of attack of the tailplane increases and the
effectiveness of the tailplane increases.
If the increased downwash at the tail plane due to lowering (extending) trailing edge flaps is
considered in isolation a nose up pitching moment will be generated. (flap extended give nose
down, but if we disregard this and we consider only the downwash on tail, increased stability of
stabilizer, the tail is more effective causing a nose up)
From an initial condition of level flight the flaps are retracted at a constant pitch attitude. The
aeroplane will subsequently start to sink.
When trailing edge flaps are extended, the change in pitching moment, will be nose down
The flaps are extended, the aeroplane will subsequently start a climb
During the retraction of the flaps at a constant angle of attack the aeroplane starts to sink
suddenly.
The highest value of the CL/CD ratio is in Clean configuration.
When flaps are deployed the lift coefficient will increase (if not in level flight or same IAS)
When flaps are retracted the lift coefficient will decrease (if not in level flight or same IAS)
The lift coefficient CL of a wing at a given angle of attack is increased by the use of high lift devices.
The purpose of correctly setting the leading and trailing edge devices on the wing of an aeroplane
during take-off, approach and landing is to reduce stall speed, increase CLMAX with minimum
increase in drag for take-off, but with a relatively high drag for approach and landing.
Flap reduce critical angle of attack, Slat, Krueger Flap Increase critical angle of attack.
Compared with the clean configuration, the angle of attack at CLMAX with trailing edge flaps
extended is smaller
The critical angle of attack for the flaps down configuration, compared to flaps up is smaller.
When flaps are extended CLMAX increases and the critical angle of attack decreases.
The main function of a trailing edge flap is to increase the maximum lift coefficient of the wing.
Trailing edge flap extension will decrease the critical angle of attack and increase the value of
CLMAX.
If flaps are extended slightly asymmetrically this would cause a steady (continue) rate of roll which
may be correctable with ailerons.
When Fowler flaps are extended at a constant angle of attack

CL and CD increase.
A fowler flap, fully extended position will produce an increase
in wing area and camber.
Extending Fowler flaps to their fully extended position wing
area and camber increase.
Fowler flaps extended a nose-down pitching moment. Deploying a Fowler flap, the flap will move
aft, then turn down. Fowler flap is the most effective one
In order to maintain straight and level flight at a constant airspeed, whilst the flaps are being
retracted, the angle of attack is increased.
If the trailing edge flaps are lowered (fully extended), in order to maintain constant IAS and level
flight the nose must be lowered and thrust increased.
When flaps are extended whilst maintaining straight and level flight at constant IAS, the lift
coefficient will eventually remain the same.
Flap extension maintaining straight and level flight will increase the maximum lift coefficient
(CLMAX) and the drag.
To maintain level flight and IAS, LIFT CONSTANT
Configurations in order of increasing critical angle of attack (reducing stall speed)

1) flaps only extended. (lower crit AoA)
2) clean wings.
3) slats only extended. (higher crit AoA).
CLMAX may be increased by the use of CLMAX (Max Lift) = Max CL

boundary layer control.
leading edge slats.
trailing edge flaps.
all of the above.
The selection that provides the highest positive contribution to CLMAX is slats from Retracted to
Extended.
The difference between the effects of slat and flap asymmetry is that flap asymmetry causes a
large (difficult) rolling moment at any speed whereas slat asymmetry causes a large difference in
CLMAX.
Slat asymmetry causes a yawing moment, whereas flap asymmetry causes a large (difficult)
rolling moment
Slat extension delays the stall to a higher angle of attack.

Deploying a slat will form a slot, deploying a Krueger flap does not.
Slat" is a leading edge device that causes some of the high energy
air to flow over the upper surface of the wing.
For most jet transport aeroplanes, slat extension has a greater effect
on stall speed than flap extension.
A deployed slat will increase the boundary layer energy and increase the suction peak on the
fixed part of the wing, so that the stall is postponed to higher angles of attack. After take-off the
slats (when installed) are always retracted later than the flaps because slats extended give a large
decrease in stall speed with relatively less drag.
Slats re-energise the boundary layer thereby increasing the stalling angle of attack.
A "Slat" is an auxiliary, cambered aerofoil positioned forward of the main aerofoil so as to form a
slot. The use of a slot delays the stall to a higher angle of attack.
The function of the slot between slat and the leading edge is to cause a venturi effect which
energizes the boundary layer.
On a large transport aeroplane, the auto-slat system extends the slats automatically when a
certain value of angle of attack is exceeded.
An automatic leading edge slat is operated by aerodynamic forces acting on the leading edge.
Extension of leading edge flap increases the critical angle of attack.
Extension of slat increases the CLMAX.
An aeroplane has the following flap positions 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°; slats can also be selected. The
highest positive contribution to the CLMAX is with The slats from the retracted to the take-off
position. Slats increases the critical angle of attack.
An aeroplane has the following flap positions 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°; slats can also be selected. Flaps
from 30° to 45° will most adversely affect the CL/CD ratio (Flap down give more drag than lift,
less CLMAX and less (CL/CD ratio)
Vortex generators transfer energy from the free

airflow into the boundary layer.
When vortex generators are fitted they will

normally be found near the wing leading edge.
The purpose of vortex generators is to delay stall by reducing boundary

layer separation.
Means to Reduce the CL - CD Ratio
With extension of a wing spoiler, if the angle of attack remains constant CD is

increased and CL is decreased.
When spoilers are used as speed brakes at same angle of attack, CD is
increased and CL is decreased.
The result of spoiler surfaces deploying are drag increases and lift decreases.
When spoiler are extended in straight and level flight, if the speed and load factor remain
constant CD increases but CL remains unaffected.
Speed brakes (all spoilers symmetrically) are devices used to increase drag in order to maintain a
steeper gradient of descent. (are used to descend rapidly, keep airplane down on landing, thrust
reverse is used to reduce speed on landing)
Spoiler surfaces on the top surface of a wing when operated symmetrically may be used as speed
brakes in flight.
Wing spoilers are deflected symmetrically in flight in order to decelerate the aeroplane and/or
increase its rate of descent. (All spoilers symmetrically it is simply to decelerate or increase
descent rate. Speed brake mode. When turning, spoilers will move asymmetrically to prevent a
yawing turn.)
When roll spoilers are extended, the part of the wing on which they are mounted experiences a
reduction in lift, which generates the desired rolling moment. In addition there is a local increase
in drag, which suppresses adverse yaw. (rolling is annulled by the opposite spoiler)
Spoiler extension increases the stall speed, the minimum rate of descent and the minimum angle
of descent.
When air brakes are deployed the minimum

drag speed will reduce. (Spoiler create more
parasite drag so the parasite curve is steeper
and moves to the left and minimum drag
speed is reached at lower speed.)
The Boundary Layer
When considering the properties of a laminar and turbulent

boundary layer friction drag higher in turbulent.
Friction drag is lower in the laminar layer.
(lower air at 0 speed on skin, the speed above is faster and
is mixed with the lower speed below in a turbulent
+ pressure condition)
mean air -speed A turbulent boundary layer is between the transition and
separation points.
Form drag is higher in laminar flow. (form drag = Airflow impact on leading edge)
A laminar boundary layer is thinner than a turbulent one.

A laminar boundary layer is thinner and has less friction drag than turbulent layer
A laminar boundary layer is a layer where no velocity components exist normal to the surface.
(Component = are two force that influence a vector. Normal=opposed)
A turbulent boundary layer produces more friction drag than a laminar one.
The turbulent boundary layer has more kinetic energy than the laminar boundary layer
The turbulent boundary layer separate less than the laminar boundary because lower pressure
such the airflow to the wing. One important advantage a turbulent boundary layer the turbulent
boundary layer has less tendency to separate from the surface.
Compared with a laminar boundary layer, a turbulent boundary layer is better able to resist a
positive pressure gradient before it separates.
The transition point located on the wing is the point where the boundary layer changes from
laminar flow to turbulent flow.
A laminar boundary layer turns into a turbulent one at the transition point.
Behind the transition point the mean speed and friction drag increase. (mean air increase due to
Bernoulli theory)
Boundary layer has the greatest change in velocity close to the surface when considering velocity
profile perpendicular to the flow
Aerodynamic Degradation
With icing during flight (crit) Angle of attack and controllability decrease, stall speed increase.
Ice, snow or frost formation Decrease critical angle of attack.
Effect of ice, snow or frost is decrease in lift and an increase in drag.
The largest ice build-up will occur, principally, on the frontal areas of the aircraft.
On the skin of an aircraft Skin Friction Drag is going to increase with increasing age
The drag due to an ageing airframe is identified as Skin Friction Drag
Effect of ageing of an aeroplane on the boundary layer is the transition point moves forward and a
larger part is turbulent. Ageing drag is identified in parasite Drag
The effects of very heavy rain (tropical rain) on the aerodynamic characteristics of an aeroplane
are decrease of CLMAX and increase of drag.
The most important problem of ice is reduction in CLMAX.
The aerodynamic effect of ice is most critical during the rotation of the take-off
If ice is present on the leading edge of the wings landing distance is increase by 40-50%
High Speed Aerodynamics

Speeds
Temp
Eat Chicken Tomato Marsala Temp

A descent below the tropopause at constant Mach number and aeroplane mass, lift coefficient
decreases. (TAS2 increase, coefficient of lift decrease, formula ever in balance)
A climb below the tropopause at constant Mach number and aeroplane mass, the lift coefficient
increases. (TAS2 decrease, coefficient of lift increase, formula ever in balance)
During a descent at a constant Mach number the angle of attack will decrease. (Tas is higher)
At a given Mach number, air velocity increases with decreasing altitude. (Air velocity = Tas)
Assuming ISA conditions and a climb above the tropopause at constant Mach number and
aeroplane mass lift coefficient increases. (Tas remain the same above, but density decrease so
coefficient of lift increase, formula in balance)
Assuming ISA conditions and a climb above the tropopause at

constant Mach number and aeroplane mass, the TAS remains
constant. (Mach: TAS ÷ LSS(38.95 x √K)
If IAS is increased when flying at FL390, Mach number increase
Mach number during a climb at constant IAS from sea level to 40 000 ft Increases with increasing
altitude.
During a descent at a constant Mach number the pitch angle will decrease. (more density, more
tas, less angle)
Compressibility effects depend on Mach number
An aircraft is descending at a constant Mach number and a constant

weight. The operational speed that may be exceeded is
VMO (descending, Vmo is the speed that increase more)
A jet transport aeroplane is in a straight climb at a constant IAS and
constant weight. The operational limit that may be exceeded is
MMO (climbing, Mmo is the speed that increase more)
VMO can be exceeded in a descent at a constant Mach number because VMO is an IAS and
descending at a constant Mach will result in an increase in TAS which will increase dynamic
pressure.
The subsonic speed range end at MCRIT 0.75
Transonic speed range is the regime of flight from the critical Mach number up to approximately
M = 1.3
Transonic speed range is the region around Mach 1.
The speed range from approximately M = 1.3 to approximately M = 5 is called the supersonic
range.
In supersonic flight aerofoil pressure distribution is rectangular

In supersonic speed the airflow everywhere around the aeroplane is supersonic.
In the Transonic speed range the aeroplane characteristics are

strongly determined by the Mach number. (in transonic range,
aeroplane have characteristic in order to increase the Mach
number and retard shock wave and drag)
The Transonic speed range both subsonic and supersonic
speeds exist in the flow around the aircraft.
At Transonic speed at which both subsonic and supersonic local speeds occur.
LSS = 38.95 x √K K= (c°+273)

Mach = TAS ÷ LSS  LSS = Mach ÷ TAS
The Mach number is the ratio between the TAS of the aircraft and speed of sound of the
undisturbed flow.
The Mach number is 0.8 and the TAS is 400 kts. The local speed of sound is 500 kts (TAS ÷ Mach)
The Mach number is 0.8 and the TAS is 480 kts. The speed of sound is 600 kts (TAS ÷ Mach)
If CAS is 250 kts and TAS is 380 kts and OAT is -45°C, the Mach number is 0,65 M
(LSS = 38.95 x √K K= (c°+273) Mach: TAS ÷ LSS
Using mental navigation, the local speed of sound may be found using LSS = 644 + 1.2 TAT°c
TAS or LSS are proportional to temperature, Mach is inversely proportional to temperature

Speed of sound increases with temperature increase. (Mach: TAS ÷ LSS(38.95 x √K)
The air velocity (TAS) for a given Mach number increases when the air temperature increases
For a constant TAS the Mach number of the airflow increases when temperature decreases.
(decrease of temp means climbing)
The Mach number corresponding to a given TAS will be lower if the temperature increases.
For a constant flight level and IAS, if the OAT increases, the Mach number will remain constant
The speed of sound is affected only by the temperature of the air

Speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature (unit Kelvin).
Compare Maximum Operating Mach number (MMO) with Maximum Operational Speed (VMO). To
fly as fast as possible in descent from a high cruising level. At first the airplane is limited by its
MMO, thereafter - below a certain altitude - by its VMO.
The Mach number of an airflow is determined by

The airspeed (Mach = TAS ÷ LSS)
The air temperature (Mach = TAS ÷ (38.95 x √K))
Supersonic Shock Waves
Every object moving in the air produce a series of pressure waves in front of it that travel at the
speed of sound in all direction.
A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created by an aircraft traveling
through the air faster than the speed of sound. This shock wave is caused by the airflow that is not
able to diverge in so rapid velocity, it is pushed and rapidly separated a right angle by the leading
edge on the wing shape. The air it is compressed on the wings.
Every airplane not optimized for supersonic airflow have a

different MCRIT that limits the maximum speed . Transport
airplane have usually a Mach Crit at 0.75.
Below MCRIT, the airflow is subsonic around the wings. At Mach CRIT the airflow is local sonic all on
the airplane wings.
If speed is increased just above the MCRIT the Airplane
is much faster than the diverging airflow and cause a
shock wave for impact of this compressed supersonic
air in the upper part. The first shockwave start in the
upper side of the wings where the local airflow faster
(above Mach 1) is pushed up at right angle and is no
more able to remain attached to the wing. The rest of
the air is still in subsonic flow. If the airplane continue
to increase the speed to well above MCRIT the air
around the wings becomes completely in supersonic speed, another shockwave start in the lower
part of the wings.
If the speed is increased more both shockwave move aft to
the trailing edge and another bow shockwave is formed in
front of the nose of the airplane.
The bow wave will first appear at a free stream Mach number just above M = 1.
Critical Mach number is the highest speed possible without supersonic flow over the wing
As the Mach number increases in straight and level flight, a shock wave on the upper surface of the
wing will move towards the trailing edge.
The critical Mach number of an aeroplane is the Mach number above which, locally, supersonic
flow exists somewhere over the aeroplane.
Critical Mach number is the free stream Mach number at which local sonic flow first exists on any
part of the aeroplane. The critical Mach number of an aeroplane is the free stream Mach number
at which for the first time, somewhere on the aeroplane, local sonic flow occurs
At speeds just above the critical Mach number, the drag coefficient will start to increase.
At speeds just above the critical Mach number the L/D ratio will decrease.
The least energy loss through a normal shock wave occurs when the local Mach number is
just above Mach 1. (just below Mach 1 or at exactly Mach 1 is not possible to have shockwave.
Well above Mach 1 shockwave is very strong, just above Mach 1 shockwave give least energy
loss). For minimum wave drag, an aircraft should be operated at Subsonic speeds
The drag divergence Mach number MCDR, also referred to as the "drag divergence speed", is the
Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag on an Aerofoil or airframe begins to increase rapidly
as the Mach number continues to increase. This increase can cause the drag coefficient to rise to
more than 10 times its low speed value.
The drag divergence Mach number is the Mach number at which with increasing flow speed
the drag rises rapidly.
The drag divergence Mach number of an aerofoil section is determined by

the angle of attack.
the profile of the aerofoil.
If the angle of attack is constant, the drag coefficient will start to increase rapidly above the drag
divergence Mach number. (not above MCRIT, but above MCDR)
A shock wave on a lift generating wing will move slightly aft in front of a downward deflecting
aileron.
Above MCRIT, a shock wave will appear first near to the point of
maximum wing thickness.
Above MCRIT the first evidence of a shock wave will appear at the
upper side of the wing.
The first shock waves will occur on the upper surface at the wing root.
A normal shock wave is a discontinuity plane that is always normal to the local flow.surface
A normal shock wave perpendicular to the local airflow.
A normal shock wave can occur at different points on the aeroplane in transonic flight.
In normal shock wave the airflow changes from supersonic to subsonic.
In shock wave the airflow changes direction
Behind a normal shock wave on an aerofoil section the local Mach number is less than 1.
If a shock wave appears on the upper side of a wing or blade element, the centre of pressure It
will move aft towards the trailing edge.
The critical Mach number of an aerofoil is the free stream Mach number at which sonic speed
(M=1) is first reached on the upper surface.
Compared with an oblique shock wave a normal shock wave has a higher loss in total pressure.
Compared with an oblique shock wave a normal shock wave has a higher compression.
In case of supersonic flow retarded by a normal shock wave, a high efficiency (low loss in total
pressure) can be obtained, if the Mach number in front of the shock wave is small but still
supersonic.
Air passes through a normal shock wave. The static temperature increases. (like a wall)
The front of a shock wave move across the Earth's surface at the ground speed of the aeroplane.
The effect of aeroplane mass on shock wave intensity at constant Mach number are Increasing
mass increases shock wave intensity.
If IAS remains constant, the effect of decreasing aeroplane mass is that MCRIT increases.
Whilst flying at a constant IAS and at n = 1, as the aeroplane mass decreases, the value of MCRIT
increases.
Influence of decreasing aeroplane mass on MCRIT at constant IAS MCRIT increases as a result of flying
at a smaller angle of attack.
The loss of total pressure in a shock wave is due to the fact that kinetic energy in the flow is
changed into heat energy.
The velocity behind a normal shock wave is decreased to subsonic.

To increase the critical Mach number of a conventional aerofoil section its
thickness to chord ratio should be reduced.
The velocity behind an oblique shock wave is

decreased but still remains supersonic.
Considering an oblique shock wave:

The Total pressure in front is higher
The Mach number in front is higher
The local speed of sound in front is lower
The static temperature in front is lower
The static pressure in front is lower
The density in front is lower
Considering an oblique shock wave: Considering an expansion wave:

The Total pressure behind is lower The Total pressure in front is lower
The Mach number behind is lower The Mach number in front is lower
The local speed of sound behind is higher The local speed of sound in front is higher
The static temperature behind is higher The static temperature in front is higher
The static pressure behind is higher The static pressure in front is higher
The density behind is higher The density in front is higher
Considering an expansion wave:

The Total pressure behind is higher
The Mach number behind is higher
The local speed of sound behind is lower
The static temperature behind is lower
The static pressure behind is lower
The density in behind is lower
When the air is passing through a shock wave, the density will increase. (air is compressed)
When supersonic airflow passes through an oblique shock wave

static pressure increase
density increase (air is pressed)
local speed of sound increase
When an aircraft is flying at speeds above Mach 1, pressure

disturbances from the aircraft will affect only the flow within the Mach
cone. (inside the cone)
In supersonic flight, all disturbances produced by an aeroplane are
within the conical zone, depending on the Mach number.
In supersonic flight, any disturbance around a body affects the flow only within the Mach cone.
The sonic boom of an aeroplane flying at supersonic speed is created by shock waves around the
aeroplane.
M = 1/sin mu
The value of the Mach number if the Mach angle equals 45° is 1.4
The relation between the Mach angle (mu) and the corresponding Mach number is sin mu = 1 / M
If the Mach number in supersonic flight is increased, the Mach cone angle will
decrease
Shock stall is a stall due to flow separation caused

by a shock wave.
Shock stall is separation of the boundary layer
behind the shock wave.
When shock stall occurs, lift will decrease because
flow separation occurs behind the shock wave. Shock induced separation can occur behind a
strong normal shock wave, ranging from low to high angles of attack. Shock stall occurs when the
lift coefficient, as a function of Mach number, reaches its maximum value.
The angle of attack that have the smallest value is in Shock stall.
In the transonic range lift will decrease at the shock stall due to the separation of the boundary
layer at the shock waves. Shock induced separation results in decreasing lift.
The additional increase of drag at Mach numbers above the critical Mach number is due to drag
wave
Increasing aeroplane mass at constant IAS, MCRIT decreases as a result of flying at a greater angle
of attack
The effect of a shock wave on control surface hinge moment will be rapid fluctuation of hinge
moments, causing a high frequency "buzz".
Shock waves cannot occur at speeds below MCRIT.
On a typical transonic Aerofoil the transonic rearward shift of the Centre of Pressure (CP) occurs at
about Mach 0.89 to Mach 0.98
MCRIT is the free stream Mach number at which somewhere about the airframe Mach 1 is reached
locally.
Deflecting a control surface down will cause MCRIT to decrease. (Increase chamber with flap down
accelerate supersonic flow, MCRIT occur before/decrease.)
Effect of exceeding MCRIT on the stick force stability of an aeroplane with swept-back wings
without any form of stability augmentation is a decrease, due to loss of lift in the wing root area.
The consequences of exceeding MCRIT in a swept-wing aeroplane may be buffeting of the

aeroplane and a tendency to pitch down.
A sharp increase in drag coefficient of a given wing or blade section at a constant angle of attack is
determined by the Mach number of the airflow. (exceeding MCRIT create a huge increase of drag)
"Tuck under" is caused by an aft movement of the centre of pressure (CP) of the wing and a
decreasing downwash angle at the location of the stabilizer (Cp move forward in subsonic, but
move aft in supersonic speed)
"Tuck under" is caused by an aft movement of the centre of pressure of the wing.
"Tuck under" is caused by a reduction in the downwash angle at the location of the horizontal
stabiliser. A contributing factor to " Tuck under " is a reduction in the downwash angle at the
location of the horizontal stabiliser.
"Tuck under" is the nose down pitching tendency as speed is increased in the transonic range
"Tuck under" can occur only above the critical Mach number.
The Mach trim system will prevent tuck under.

The Mach trim system is able to compensate for the tuck under effect by decreasing the incidence
of the trimmable tailplane.
The Mach trim function minimize the adverse effects of changes in the position of centre of
pressure.
The effect of Mach trim on stick forces for power operated controls Is to maintain the required
stick force gradient.
In the event of failure of the Mach trimmer the Mach number must be limited. (speed reduced)
A Mach trimmer corrects insufficient stick force stability at high Mach numbers.
The Mach trim system will adjust the stabilizer, depending on the Mach number. elevator
A Mach trimmer corrects the change in stick force stability of a swept wing aeroplane above a
certain Mach number.
An aeroplane is flying through the transonic range whilst maintaining straight and level flight. As
the Mach number increases the centre of pressure of the wing will move aft. This movement
requires a pitch up input of the stabilizer.
The position of the centre of pressure on an aerofoil of an aeroplane cruising at supersonic speed
when compared with that at subsonic speed is further aft.
An aeroplane should be equipped with a Mach trimmer, if at transonic Mach numbers the
aeroplane displays an unacceptable decrease in longitudinal stick force stability.
The movement of the aerodynamic centre of the wing when an aeroplane accelerates through the
transonic range causes an increase in static longitudinal stability. (move to about mid chord (50%
chord position). Pitch down moment means more stability)
When the speed over an aerofoil section increases from subsonic to supersonic, its aerodynamic
centre moves from approximately 25% to about 50% of the chord, move to mid chord.
If a symmetrical aerofoil is accelerated from subsonic to supersonic speed the centre of lift will
move aft to the mid chord. (50% chord position)
As the flight Mach number increases from subsonic to supersonic, the centre of pressure moves to
the mid chord position.
When altitude increases, the stall speed (IAS) will increase due to increasing compressibility
effects as a result of increasing Mach number.
The increase in stall speed (IAS) with increasing altitude is due to the compressibility effects.
In transonic flight the ailerons will be less effective than in subsonic flight because aileron
deflection only partly affects the pressure distribution around the wing.
As an aircraft accelerates through the transonic speed range the

coefficient of drag increases then decreases.
In the transonic range CLMAX will increase and the 1g stalling speed will
decrease
Remember shock wave: first increase drag, after passing the air drag decrease
Means to Influence MCRIT
A function of vortex generators in the transonic regime is to reduce boundary layer separation
drag when shock waves form.
Vortex generators on the upper side of the wing decrease wave drag (no MCRIT but DRAG).
Vortex generators mounted on the upper wing surface will decrease the shock wave induced
separation.
Two methods to increase the critical Mach number are thin aerofoils and sweep back of the wing.
MCRIT is increased by sweepback, thin aerofoils and area ruling.

Sweep of a wing or rotorblade delays appearance of shock waves due to the decrease of the
velocity of the air, perpendicular to the leading edge (decrease perpendicular air pushed at right
angles, decrease waves)
The application of the area rule on aeroplane design will decrease the wave
drag.
Some aeroplanes have a "waist" or "coke bottle" contoured fuselage. This is

done to apply area rule.
Increasing wing sweepback increases the drag divergence Mach number.

Decreasing wing sweepback decreases the drag divergence Mach number.
Increasing wing sweepback increases MCRIT
Decreasing wing sweepback decreases MCRIT.
Compared to straight wings of the same aerofoil section sweep wings have a
slower onset of the transonic drag rise and a higher CD in supersonic flight.
Compared to a straight wing of the same aerofoil section a wing with a 30º sweep-back should
theoretically have an MCRIT 1.154 times the MCRIT of the straight wing. However, in practice the
swept wing will gain half that increase.
A sweepback wings is one with the least effective high lift devices
The critical Mach number can be increased by an increase of the sweepback of the wings.
The swept back wing has the advantage of higher critical Mach number.
Typical shape characteristics of a supercritical aerofoil section are a larger

nose radius, flatter upper surface and negative as well as positive
camber. A supercritical section has a flatter top surface.
A supercritical wing will develop no noticeable shock waves when flying
just above MCRIT. One property of a supercritical wing aerofoil, compared to a conventional one is
it allows a wing of increased relative thickness to be used for approximately the same cruise
Mach number.
Large camber / thick aerofoil would result in the lowest value of MCRIT (tin aerofoil is better)
Thick aerofoils and large angles of attack produce the lowest MCRIT values
Reducing the thickness / chord ratio on a wing will

delay the onset of shock wave formation.
reduce the transonic variations in lift coefficient.
reduce the transonic variations in drag coefficient.
Buffet Onset
The critical speed where the speed is too low and

too high at the same time is called coffin corner
The speed range between high and low speed

buffet increases during a descent at a constant IAS.
A jet aeroplane is cruising at high altitude with a

Mach number, that provides a buffet margin of 0.3g
incremental. In order to increase the buffet margin
to 0.4g incremental the pilot must fly at a lower
altitude and the same Mach number.
Buffet onset, Aerodynamic ceiling. Higher and lower Stall speed

For each altitude and mass there are 2 limiting speeds - low and
high speed buffet. These 2 speeds limit the range of operating
speeds at this altitude and mass. As the aeroplane climbs higher, this
speeds range get narrower. At the maximum altitude there will be
only 1 speed available. High speed buffet is an aerodynamic
limitation referred to as the "coffin corner".
In practice the pilot would never fly at aerodynamic ceiling (not to be
confused with the service ceiling). In aerodynamic ceiling if you
encounter a gust and your speed decreases, you stall because of low
speed condition; if the gust causes a speed increase you stall
because of overspeed and shock waves form.
Mach buffet are Transonic buffet caused by the separated turbulent boundary layer striking the
airframe with considerable force causing a high amplitude vibration, which physically shakes the
whole aircraft.
Mach buffet occurs following boundary layer separation due to shock wave formation.
Mach buffet is a flight phenomena that can only happen at Mach numbers above the critical Mach
number
The high speed buffet is induced by boundary layer separation due to shock wave formation.
The high speed buffet is induced by interaction between shock wave motion and flow separation.
From the Buffet Onset Boundary chart you obtain the values of the Mach number at which low
speed and Mach Buffet shock stall occur at different weights and altitudes.
If a jet aeroplane slowly accelerates in level flight from its cruise speed in still air at high altitude
the type of buffet are Mach buffet.
No, Is not acceptable that a transport aeroplane fly at a higher Mach number than the 'buffet-
onset' Mach number in 1g flight
During a push-over manoeuvre the buffet free range increases.

When initiating a steady horizontal turn from steady straight level flight
the buffet free range decreases.
When mass decreases the buffet free range increases.
When mass increases the buffet free range decreases.
When altitude increases the buffet free range decreases.
When altitude decreases the buffet free range increases.
When speed increases the buffet free range does not change. (Altitude and mass influence)
The significance of VA for jet transport aeroplanes is reduced at high cruising altitudes because
buffet onset limitations normally become limiting.
A jet transport aeroplane weighing 100 tons carries out

a steady level 50° bank turn at FL350. The buffet free
speed range extends from M = 0.69 to M > 0.84.
The maximum cruise altitude can be limited by a 1.3 g

load factor because when exceeding that altitude
turbulence may induce high speed or low speed buffet.
A manoeuvre with a load factor of 1.3 will cause buffet

onset.
Level flight: 1g
Cruising at: FL340
Aircraft mass: 110 000 kg
CG: 35 %
Low buffet onset speed: M 0.52
High buffet onset speed: M 0.84
It is determined that at FL310 at a given mass buffet free flight is possible between M = 0.74 and M
= 0.88. If the aeroplane is suddenly pulled up the lower Mach number increases and the higher
Mach number decreases.
At an aircraft weight of 70 000 lbs your aerodynamic ceiling in
1g level flight will be FL420
Stability
Static and Dynamic Stability
Static Stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its original position when it's
disturbed.
Static Positive (Remain in initial attitude)
Static Neutral (Remain in new attitude when disturbance finish)
Static Negative (Continue to go further away after get a disturbance)
Dynamic Stability means how an airplane responds over long time to a disturbance. If airplane is
statically unstable, cannot be dynamically stable, but if the airplane is statically stable it can be
dynamic unstable.
Dynamic Positive (Remain in initial attitude)
Dynamic Neutral (Remain in new attitude when disturbance finish)
Dynamic Negative (Continue to go further away after get a disturbance)
Static stability means that following a disturbance from the equilibrium condition, a force and/or
moment is generated that tends to counter the effects of that disturbance.
Positive static stability of an aeroplane means that following a disturbance from the equilibrium
condition the initial tendency is to return towards its equilibrium condition.
An aeroplane that tends to return to its pre-disturbed equilibrium position after the disturbance
has been removed is said to have positive static stability. (if disturbance is not removed and
return in equilibrium is dynamically stable)
If an aircraft has static longitudinal instability, it will be dynamically unstable.

A statically unstable aeroplane is never dynamically stable.
Dynamic stability is possible only when the aeroplane is statically stable about the relevant axis.
A statically stable aeroplane can show positive, neutral or negative dynamic longitudinal stability.
An aeroplane that has positive static stability can be dynamically stable, neutral or unstable.
If an object is statically unstable, it will move in the direction of the displacement. (diverge)
After encountering a disturbance an aeroplane oscillates about the lateral axis at a constant
amplitude. The aeroplane is statically unstable - dynamically neutral.
As the stability of an aeroplane increases its manoeuvrability decreases.

As the stability of an aeroplane decreases its manoeuvrability increases.
If the sum of moments in flight is not zero, the aeroplane will rotate about the centre of gravity.
If the total sum of moments about one of its axis is not zero, an aeroplane would experience an
angular acceleration about that axis.
For an aeroplane to possess dynamic stability, it needs static stability and sufficient damping.
One of the requirements for positive dynamic stability is positive static stability
The aeroplane motion, schematically illustrated in the annex, is an example

of a dynamically unstable periodic motion.
If a body is dynamically unstable, any oscillations would be divergent
If an aircraft has negative dynamic and positive static stability, this will
result in divergent oscillations.
Static and Dynamic Longitudinal Stability

Line 3 in pitching moment coefficient Cm versus angle of attack shows a
statically stable aeroplane
A static airplane must have a decreasing angle of attack
The pitching moment coefficient versus angle of attack

The CG position is further aft at line 1 when compared with line 4.
In its curved part at high angles of attack line 2 illustrates increasing

static longitudinal stability.
CG located at the neutral point of a given aeroplane at low and

moderate angles of attack is line 2.
The CG position is further forward at line 4 when compared with line 1.
Regarding the pitching moment coefficient Cm versus angle of attack

diagram
Line 1 shows an aeroplane with reducing static longitudinal instability
at very high angles of attack.
Line 1 have static longitudinally instability at all angles of attack
Line 2 have neutral static longitudinal stability at all angles of attack
Line 3 shows an aeroplane with reducing static longitudinal stability at high angles of attack.
Line 3 shows an aeroplane with greater static longitudinal stability at low angles of attack than
that shown in line 4.
Static longitudinal stability is greater at line 4 when compared with line 3 at low and moderate
angles of attack.
Line 4 shows an aeroplane with increasing static longitudinal stability at very high angles of
attack. Line 4 is statically longitudinally stable at all angles of attack
The aeroplane exhibit static longitudinal stability in the part 1
The aeroplane exhibit neutral static longitudinal stability on point 2
The aeroplane exhibit static longitudinal instability on part 3

Assuming no pilot input the motion of the aeroplane in the diagram
shows static longitudinal stability and dynamic longitudinal
instability.

shows neutral dynamic longitudinal stability.

shows dynamic longitudinal stability.
The value of the manoeuvre stability of an aeroplane is 150 N/g. The stick force required to
achieve a load factor of 4 from steady level trimmed flight is 450 N.
(load factor of 1 is 150, to reach 4 increase 3 times to 450)
When moving the CG forward the stick force per g will increase.
Every transport airplane have a manoeuvre stability of 1g and the airplane can be forced to the
limit manoeuvring of 2,5 g force.
When the stick force required to achieve a load factor of 2.5 from steady straight and level
trimmed flight is 225 N, the value of the manoeuvre stability (means 1g) of that aeroplane is 150 N
(2,5g-1g = 1,5. 225 / 1,5 = 150 N)
When the stick force required to achieve a load factor of 2.5 from steady straight and level
trimmed flight is 375 N, the value of the manoeuvre stability (means 1g) of that aeroplane is 250N
(2,5g-1g = 1,5. 375 / 1,5 = 250 N)
The manoeuvre stability (means 1g) of a large jet transport aeroplane is 280 N/g. Stick force
required, if the aeroplane is pulled to the limit manoeuvring load factor (means 2,5g) from a
trimmed horizontal straight and steady flight (cruise configuration) is 420 N (if 280 N = 1g. limit
2,5g – 1g = 1,5g required. So 280 N x 1,5 = 420 N)
If a stick force of 20 lbs is required to pull 4g from the position of trim, the stick force gradient is
6.6 lbs/g (4g-1g = 3g. 20 / 3 = 6,6 lbs)
If the maximum pull force acceptable is 50 lbs and the design limit load factor of the aircraft is 6g,
stick force/g that must be achieved to permit the aircraft to be manoeuvred to its design load
factor limit is 10 lbs (6 - 1 = 5 . 50 / 5 = 10)
If the CG is located beyond the forward CG limit This can lead to an unacceptably high value of
manoeuvre stability. (is too negative stable that can be difficult to pitch up)
The neutral point of an aeroplane is the point where the aeroplane becomes longitudinally
unstable when the CG is moved beyond it in an aft direction.
For a statically stable aeroplane, the relationship between the neutral point and centre of gravity
(CG) is such that the neutral point is located aft of the CG. (NEUTRAL POINT EVER AFT)
Position of the CG in relation to the neutral point when the CG is on the aft limit is In front of the
neutral point.
If the aircraft is properly loaded the CG, the

neutral point and the manoeuvre point will be in
the order given, forward to aft:
CG, neutral point, manoeuvre point.
The "manoeuvre point" is the CG position where
the moment from the wing lift and the tail lift
are equal during manoeuvring, and this position
is always behind the neutral point. "Neutral point" is the point along the longitudinal axis where
the position of the CG causes neutral stability Consequently, an unstable aircraft shows a natural
tendency to diverge from the trimmed flight attitude. Therefore, the CG must be always located IN
FRONT of the neutral point during all phases of flight and the distance between the CG and the
neutral point is referred to as the "static margin". The distance between the CG Datum and the CG
Neutral Point in straight and level flight is called the CG static Margin
For a normal stable aeroplane, the centre of gravity is located with a sufficient minimum margin
ahead of the neutral point of the aeroplane.
CG ahead of the neutral point ensures static longitudinal stability
The magnitude of the stick force required to pitch, for an aircraft with manual controls, is
determined by the distance the CG is forward of the neutral point.
Longitudinal static stability is created by the fact that the centre of gravity is located in front of
the neutral point of the aeroplane.
The CG of an aeroplane is in a fixed position forward of the neutral point. Speed changes cause a
departure from the trimmed position. An increase of 10 kts from the trimmed position at low
speed has more effect on the stick force than an increase of 10 kts from the trimmed position at
high speed.
If an airplane exhibits poor longitudinal stability in flight, to increase the stability we can Increase
the horizontal stabilizer surface area.
Positive static longitudinal stability means that a nose down moment occurs after encountering
an up-gust.
Longitudinal stability is directly influenced by centre of gravity position.
The aft CG limit can be determined by the minimum acceptable static longitudinal stability.
An aft CG shift increases longitudinal manoeuvrability.

An aft CG shift decreases static longitudinal stability.
The most aft CG location may be limited by:

insufficient stick force stability.
excessive in-flight manoeuvrability.
The contribution of the wing to the static longitudinal stability of an aeroplane depends on CG
location relative to the wing aerodynamic centre.
The manoeuvrability of an aeroplane is best when the CG is on the aft CG limit.
The forward CG limit is determined primarily by minimum control response. The aft CG limit is
determined primarily by decreasing stability.
A forward CG shift increases static longitudinal stability.

Forward movement of the CG will reduce control response and increase stability.
A forward CG shift decreases longitudinal manoeuvrability.
Forward movement of the CG will increase stability and reduce controllability.
When the CG is close to the forward limit very high stick forces are required in pitch because the
aircraft is very stable.
The most forward CG location may be limited by:

insufficient flare capability.
insufficient in-flight manoeuvrability.
With the CG on the aft limit the control forces required to pitch the aircraft would be less than
with a forward CG.
An in-flight move of the CG of an aircraft further aft will reduce the longitudinal stability.
If CG moves behind the aft limit there is Insufficient manoeuvre stability.
A CG location beyond the aft limit leads to an unacceptable low value of the manoeuvre stability.
The centre of gravity moving aft will increase the elevator up effectiveness.
The max aft position of the centre of gravity is amongst others limited by the minimum value of
the stick force per g.
The effect of a Centre of Gravity (CG) shift to a more aft location is the static longitudinal stability
is reduced and the required control deflection is smaller.
Effect of an aft shift of the centre of gravity on static longitudinal stability and the required control
deflection for a given pitch change Static longitudinal stability reduces and the required control
deflection reduces.
Given an aeroplane in steady, straight and level flight at low speed, the lowest value of wing lift is
required at CG aft and high thrust.
Given an aeroplane in steady, straight and level flight at low speed, the highest value of wing lift is
required at forward CG and low thrust.
An aeroplane, with a CG location behind the centre of pressure of the wing can only maintain a
straight and level flight when the horizontal tail loading is upwards.
The horizontal tailplane provides the greatest positive contribution to static longitudinal stability
For an aircraft in steady level flight, if the tail plane is producing a download, the CP of the wing
must be aft of the CG.
Positive camber of an aerofoil not affect static longitudinal stability no effect, because camber of
the aerofoil produces a constant pitch down moment coefficient, independent of angle of attack.
The effect of the wing downwash on the static longitudinal stability of an aeroplane is negative.
The purpose of the horizontal stabilizer is to give the aeroplane sufficient longitudinal stability.
A longitudinal dynamic oscillation can take two forms. One of these, the "long period oscillation",
involves slow changes in altitude and speed.
When an aeroplane has zero static longitudinal stability, the pitching moment coefficient "Cm"
versus angle of attack line is horizontal.
TRIM HAS NO EFFECT ON STABILITY

With a downward adjustment of a trim tab in the longitudinal control system the stick position
stability remains constant.
The effect of elevator trim tab adjustment on the static longitudinal stability of an aeroplane
No effect.
Upward deflection of a trim tab in the longitudinal control results in the stick position stability
remaining constant.
During landing of a low-winged jet aeroplane, the maximum elevator up deflection is normally
required when the flaps are fully down and the CG is fully forward.
The stick force per G must have both an upper and lower limit in order to assure acceptable
control characteristics.
A pitch up could be caused by forward movement of the centre of pressure.
A phugoid refers to dynamic longitudinal stability.
Damping is the property that slows down the rate or diminishes the amplitude of vibrations or
cycles.
Damping of the phugoid is normally very weak.

The short period oscillation should always be heavily damped.
Long period (phugoid) oscillations are characterised by long period of damping.
A short period oscillation should always be heavily dampened. (Short period oscillation are more
difficult to be controlled by the pilot)
If the airspeed increases and decreases during longitudinal phugoid oscillations, the aircraft
can be easily controlled by the pilot.
During a phugoid the speed varies significantly, whereas during a short period oscillation it
remains approximately constant.
During a phugoid altitude varies significantly, but during a short period oscillation it remains
approximately constant.
During a short period oscillation, the altitude remains approximately constant, whereas during a
phugoid it varies significantly.
The short period mode is an oscillation about the lateral axis.

The phugoid motion is a long term oscillation around the lateral axis.
If the aircraft has a nose up pitch displacement, the effective angle of attack of the tail plane
changes and causes the tail plane to apply a nose down moment.
When an aeroplane with the centre of gravity forward of the centre of pressure, the vertical load
on the tailplane will be downwards.
The air loads on the horizontal tailplane (tail load) of an aeroplane in straight and level cruise flight
are generally directed downwards and will reduce in magnitude as the CG moves aft.
At constant EAS, as height increases Damping in all axes is reduced. (less density, less damping)
A pilot recognise static stick force stability when to maintain a speed below the trim speed
requires a pull force.
A pilot recognise static stick force stability when To maintain a speed above the trim speed
requires a push force.
A negative contribution to the static longitudinal stability of conventional jet transport aeroplanes
is provided by the fuselage. (fuselage is heavy, nose down = negative contribution)
The stick force gradient is the force required to change the load factor of the aircraft a given
amount.
A high limit load factor enables the manufacturer to design for a lower stick force per g.
Stick force per g is dependent on CG location.
The stick force stability and the manoeuvre stability are positively affected by A forward CG
movement in case of the stick force stability and a forward CG movement in case of the
manoeuvre stability
A requirement for positive static longitudinal stability of an aeroplane is, that the neutral point is
behind the centre of gravity.
A wing with positive camber provides a positive contribution to static longitudinal stability, when
the centre of gravity of the aeroplane is in front of the aerodynamic centre of the wing.
An aeroplane exhibits static longitudinal stability, if, when the angle of attack increases the
change in total aeroplane lift acts aft of the CG. (CoP aft of CoG=CoG forward)
The aerodynamic contribution to the static longitudinal stability of the

nacelles of aft fuselage mounted engines is always positive.
aerodynamic contribution means disregard thrust.
A bob weight and a down spring have the same effect on the stick
force stability.
Static Directional Stability

Directional stability is the stability around the normal axis. (vertical)
With lateral wind the nose point ever to the wind direction
The contribution to the static directional stability of a straight wing with high aspect ratio and
without dihedral is always negligible.
The contribution of swept back wings to static directional stability is positive
The effect of a wing sweepback on static directional stability is a stabilizing effect.
Regarding a sideslip, with the relative airflow coming from the left, on an aeroplane that exhibits
both directional and lateral stability (remember, wind push on tail)
The initial tendency of the nose of the aeroplane is to move to the left
The initial tendency of the right wing is to move down.
Regarding a sideslip, with the relative airflow coming from the right, on an aeroplane that exhibits
both directional and lateral stability (remember, wind push on tail)
The initial tendency of the nose of the aeroplane is to move to the right
The initial tendency of the left wing is to move down.
An aeroplane has static directional stability. In a sideslip to the right, initially the nose of the
aeroplane tends to move to the right.
An aeroplane has static directional stability if, when in a sideslip with the relative airflow coming
from the left, initially the nose of the aeroplane tends to yaw left.
Static directional stability is the tendency of an aeroplane to recover from a skid without control
input from the pilot.
A dorsal fin provides a positive contribution to static directional stability

The purpose of a dorsal fin is to maintain static directional stability at large
sideslip angles. Static directional stability is mainly provided by the fin
Increasing the size of the fin increases the directional stability.
A dorsal fin increases the contribution of the vertical tail plane to the static directional stability,
in particular at large angles of sideslip.
A dorsal and a ventral fin both have a positive effect on static directional stability,
Not lateral
The effect of a ventral fin on the static stability of an aeroplane is as follows:

longitudinal – no effect
lateral - negative
directional - positive
An aeroplane's sideslip angle is defined as the angle between the speed vector and the plane of
symmetry.
An aircraft demonstrates positive static directional stability. This relate to the interaction between
the aircraft's yawing moment coefficient Cn and its sideslip angle (ß)
Cn is positive and the aircraft experiences a positive sideslip angle.
Static Lateral Stability
You improve static lateral stability by

High wing.
Large and high vertical fin.
Dihedral
Sweepback
You reduce static lateral stability by

Anhedral.
Forward sweep.
Low wing (less stable than high wing)
Ventral fin. (less stable than dorsal)
Sweepback of a wing positively influences:

static lateral stability, roll
static longitudinal stability, pitch up/down
dynamic longitudinal stability. pitch up/down
Sweep back provides a positive contribution to static lateral stability.
Static lateral stability will be increased by the use of a high, rather than low, wing mounting.
Static lateral stability will be decreased by the use of a low, rather than high, wing mounting.
Lateral static stability is determined by aircraft response to sideslip. (stability is a response)
The effect on static lateral stability of an aeroplane with a high wing as compared with a low wing
is a positive dihedral effect.
Positive static lateral stability is the tendency of an aeroplane to roll to the left in the case of a
sideslip (with the aeroplane nose pointing to the left of the incoming flow).
The primary purpose of dihedral is to increase static lateral

stability.
An increase in geometric dihedral in a steady sideslip
condition at constant speed would increase the required
lateral control force. (is more stable, control force are higher to roll)
To hold a given sideslip angle and airspeed, increased dihedral would increase the stick force.
The effective dihedral of an aeroplane component means the contribution of that component to
the static lateral stability. Wing dihedral contributes to static lateral stability.
Static lateral stability will be increased by reducing wing

anhedral. Anhedral increase static lateral manoeuvrability
and decrease lateral stability. Static lateral stability will be
decreased by increasing wing anhedral.
Anhedral decreases the static lateral stability of an aeroplane.
A slideslip to the right is created by Right wing down and left rudder.
A slideslip to the left is created by Left wing down and right rudder.
Static lateral stability will be decreased by reducing wing sweepback.

Static lateral stability will be increased by increasing wing sweepback.
Sweepback of a wing provides a positive dihedral effect.
One advantage of mounting the horizontal tailplane on top of the vertical fin is to improve the
aerodynamic efficiency of the vertical fin.
Static lateral stability should not be too large, because too much aileron deflection would be
required in a crosswind landing.
Excessive static lateral stability is an undesirable characteristic for a transport aeroplane because
it would impose excessive demands on roll control during a sideslip.
When flaps are extended Lateral stability is decreased. (roll better, more lift)
For an aircraft with neutral static lateral stability, following a wing drop the wing would remain in
its displaced position.
To increase the static lateral stability By increasing the aspect ratio of the vertical stabiliser,
whilst maintaining a constant area.
For a sideslip condition at constant speed and sideslip angle, where the geometric dihedral of an
aeroplane is increased the required lateral control force increases.
An aeroplane's bank angle is defined as the angle between its lateral axis and the horizontal
plane.
Dynamic Lateral/Directional Stability
Moments or motions that interact in a Dutch roll are Rolling and yawing.
An example of a combined lateral and directional periodic motion is a Dutch roll.
Dutch roll can happen at Mach numbers below the critical Mach number
Yaw damper suppresses the tendency to Dutch roll

Dutch roll is corrected by a yaw damper
Dutch roll = + more lateral stable (+Pitch)

Spiral = + more directional stable (+Yaw)
An aeroplane is sensitive to Dutch roll when static lateral stability is much more pronounced than
static directional stability.
An increased static lateral stability will increase the tendency to Dutch roll
Recommended action following failure of the yaw damper of a jet aeroplane is to Reduce altitude
and Mach number.
If the static lateral stability of an aeroplane is increased, whilst its static directional stability
remains constant its sensitivity to dutch roll increases.
An aircraft's tendency to Dutch roll may be reduced by increasing the anhedral angle of the wings.
An example of a combined lateral and directional aperiodic motion is a spiral dive.
Sensitivity for spiral dive will occur when the static directional stability is positive and the static
lateral stability is relatively weak. (spiral roll instability)
An aeroplane with an excessive static directional stability in relation to its static lateral stability,
will be prone to spiral dive (spiral roll instability)
Static lateral stability should not be too small because the aeroplane would show too strong a
tendency to spiral dive.
An aircraft is placed in a level balanced turn and the controls released. It is spirally unstable if
the bank steadily increases.
With swept back wings. With increasing altitude and constant IAS the static lateral stability will
increase and the dynamic lateral-directional stability decreases.
With a swept wing aircraft, with an increase in altitude, Static lateral stability remains the same,
dynamic lateral-directional stability decreases.
Control
General
Aeroplane manoeuvrability increases for a given control surface deflection when IAS increases.
Aeroplane manoeuvrability decreases for a given control surface deflection when IAS decreases.
The axes of an aircraft by definition must all pass through the centre of gravity.
Rotation about the longitudinal axis of an aeroplane can be achieved by

aileron deflection and/or rudder deflection.
Rolling is the rotation of the aeroplane about the longitudinal axis.
Rotation around the longitudinal axis is called rolling
Lateral control is achieved by the ailerons, resulting in a motion around the
longitudinal axis.
The function of ailerons is to rotate the aeroplane about the longitudinal axis.
The normal axis of an aircraft is an axis passing through the CG,

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Directional control is achieved by the rudder, resulting in a motion around
the normal axis.
Rotation around the normal axis is called yawing
The pilot uses the rudder to provide control around the normal axis.
Rudder controls yaw
The lateral axis is also sometimes referred to as the pitch axis.

The pitch angle is defined as the angle between the longitudinal axis and the
horizontal plane.
Rotation about the lateral axis is called pitching
Pitch is movement around the lateral axis.
The elevators control the aircraft around the lateral axis.
The elevator is the primary control surface for control about the lateral axis
and is operated by a forward or backward movement of the control wheel or stick.
To pitch an aeroplane nose up, the pilot applies backpressure on the control column and moves the
elevator relatively upwards, increasing the negative camber of the tailplane and elevator.
When the control column is moved back and to the left the left aileron moves up and the
elevators move up.
When the control column is moved forward and to the right the elevators move down, the right
aileron moves up and the left aileron moves down.
Given
theta = pitch angle
gamma = flight path angle
alpha = angle of attack
theta = gamma + alpha. (pitch angle = flight path angle + angle o attack)
Pitch (Longitudinal) Control
Center of Gravity (CG) position is predominantly used to determine the correct setting (position)
of the trimmable horizontal stabilizer for take-off
When ice is present on the stabilizer, deflection of flaps may cause the stabilizer to stall and a
vertical dive.
An aircraft is approaching to land with its CG at the FWD limit. Compared to a situation with CG at
the AFT limit, the control forces in pitch during the flare will be higher and VREF would be higher .
When the landing gear is lowered, given that the CG does not move longitudinally, to maintain
level flight, the download on the tail plane must increase
On an aircraft with an all-moving tail plane, backward movement of the control

wheel in flight causes a decrease in tail plane incidence and a nose up pitch.
A jet transport aeroplane exhibits pitch up when thrust

is suddenly increased from an equilibrium condition,
because the thrust line is below the CG. (low engine)
If an increase in power make the nose to rise, this is the
result of the line of thrust being below the CG.
Low speed pitch-up can be caused by a significant thrust
increase with podded engines located beneath a low-
mounted wing.
Advantage of a variable incidence tailplane over a fixed incidence tailplane with elevator and trim
tab is Less trim drag and maximum elevator authority retained.
Horizontal control surface shown in the figure is All-flying tail.
An advantage of engines mounted on the rear fuselage over those mounted in wing pods
Longitudinal trim is less affected by changes in thrust.
An advantage of locating the engines at the rear of the fuselage, in comparison to a location
beneath the wing, is less influence on longitudinal control of thrust changes. (aft engine have
smaller asymmetric problems due to inboard position of engine)
On a jet aeroplane (engines mounted below the low wing) if the thrust is suddenly increased the
elevator must be deflected downward.
For a given elevator deflection, aeroplane longitudinal manoeuvrability increases when the CG
moves aft.
For a given elevator deflection, aeroplane longitudinal manoeuvrability decreases when the CG
moves forward. If the centre of gravity is moved to forward the manoeuvrability will decrease.
The elevator deflection required for a given manoeuvre will be larger at low IAS when compared
to high IAS.
The elevator deflection required for a given manoeuvre will be smaller at high IAS when
compared to low IAS.
The elevator deflection required for a given manoeuvre will be smaller for a aft CG position when
compared to an forward position.
The elevator deflection required for a given manoeuvre will be larger for a forward CG position
when compared to an aft position.
When the CG position is moved forward, the required elevator deflection to achieve an increase
in load factor will be larger.
When the CG position is moved forward, the elevator deflection to achieve a decrease in load
factor will be smaller.
The forward CG limit is mainly determined by the amount of pitch control available from the
elevator.
When the CG moves from the aft limit to the forward limit and the pilot wants to make a change in
pitch manoeuvrability decreases due to static longitudinal stability.
A conventional stabilizer on a stable aeroplane in a normal cruise condition:

contributes to the total lift of the aeroplane.
may stall before the wing, in icing conditions, with large flap settings, unless adequate design
and/or operational precautions are taken.
is necessary to balance the total pitch moment of the aeroplane.
Yaw (Directional) Control
Full rudder deflection is limited on CAT transport aeroplanes, A full rudder deflection could cause
an excessive load on the structure of the aeroplane.
If the right rudder pedal is pushed forward the rudder moves to the right and the aircraft yaws to
the right.
When the rudder pedals are moved to cause a yaw to the left the left pedal is moved forward and
the rudder moves to the left.
The vertical fin of an aircraft is a symmetrical aerofoil It could stall if the fin angle of attack is too
great.
Roll (Lateral) Control
The outboard ailerons (if fitted) are not active in cruise.
Outboard ailerons (if present) are normally used in low speed

flight only.
The purpose of inboard ailerons to reduce wing twist at high speed.
The outboard ailerons (if present) are de-activated with Flaps (and slats) retracted or speed above
a certain value. The outboard ailerons are typically used only when the flaps are extended.
Aileron deflection causes a rotation around the longitudinal axis by changing the wing camber
and the two wings therefore produce different lift values resulting in a moment about the
longitudinal axis.
The primary roll controls on a conventional aeroplane are the ailerons.
A jet aeroplane equipped with inboard and outboard ailerons is cruising at its normal cruise Mach
number. In this case only the inboard ailerons are active.
Adverse yaw during a turn entry is caused by decreased induced drag on the lowered wing and
increased induced drag on the raised wing.
When a turn is initiated, adverse yaw is the tendency of an aeroplane to yaw in the opposite
direction of turn mainly due to the difference in induced drag on each wing.
One method to compensate adverse yaw is a differential aileron.

Adverse yaw is counteracted by the use of differential ailerons
Adverse yaw is compensated during entry into and roll out from a turn by differential aileron
deflection.
Correct example of differential aileron deflection to initiate a left turn is Left aileron up 5° / right
aileron down 2°.
In a turn, differential ailerons reduce the drag on the up-going wing.

Differential aileron deflection equalises the drag of the right and left aileron.
On an aircraft with a differential aileron control system, when the control wheel is turned to the
right the left aileron moves down and the right aileron moves up through a greater angle.
An aeroplane fitted with differential ailerons is initiating a level turn to the left the left aileron
moves up more than the right aileron moves down.
In a differential aileron control system the control surfaces have a larger upward than downward
maximum deflection.
An aeroplane uses rudder aileron cross-coupling coupling to prevent adverse yaw. If the aeroplane
is rolled to the right The left aileron is deflected down, the right aileron is deflected up and the
rudder is deflected to the right automatically. (rudder goes in direction of flight)
An aeroplane uses rudder aileron cross-coupling coupling to prevent adverse yaw. If the aeroplane
is rolled to the left the left aileron is deflected up, the right aileron is deflected down and the
rudder is deflected to the left automatically.
When rolling out of a steep banked turn, what causes the lowered aileron to create more drag
than when rolling into the turn is the angle of attack of the wing being raised is greater as the
rollout is started.
Form drag is the component of drag that increases most when an aileron is deflected upwards
If a turbulent gust causes an aeroplane to roll the up-going wing experiences an increase in angle
of attack.
When an aircraft is rolled to the left, adverse yaw will be reduced by a

Frise aileron being effective on the left wing.
Frise ailerons have an asymmetrical leading edge that protrudes below
Frise the lower surface of the wing, causing high drag.
The aileron on which the leading edge protrudes below the wing when
the aileron is raised, but not above it when the aileron is lowered is a
Frise aileron.
For a given IAS and angle of aileron deflection, increasing altitude will increase the rate of roll.
(fixed IAS = Increase in Tas at higher altitude. Rate of turn is not reduced at high speed, but you
must roll more to have the same rate of turn, roll rate increase)
Spoilers mounted on the wing upper surface can be used to assist the ailerons.
Spoilers are operated asymmetrically to provide roll control.

Spoilers installed on a typical large transport aeroplane are upper wing surface devices and their
deflection can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
Flaperons are controls, which combine the function of flaps and ailerons.
An aeroplane have spoilers and both inboard and outboard ailerons. Roll control during cruise is
provided by inboard ailerons and roll spoilers. In this case outboard ailerons are locked out.
Aircraft is descending in straight flight with the spoilers deployed. If a pilot initiates a descending
turn to the left the spoilers move up on the down-going wing and down on the up-going wing.
During initiation of a turn with speed brakes extended, the roll spoiler function induces a spoiler
deflection downward on the up-going wing and upward on the down-going wing.
In an aircraft fitted with spoilers for lateral control, and not deployed as speed brakes, a roll to the
right is initiated by right spoiler extended, left spoiler retracted.
In a steep turn to the left, when using flight spoilers for roll assistance and at the same time for
reducing the airspeed the right aileron will descend, the left one will ascend, the right spoiler will
retract and the left one will extend.
On an aircraft on which the ailerons are assisted by spoilers to give lateral control, if the control
wheel is turned to the right the right aileron moves up, right spoiler up, left spoiler remains
retracted, left aileron down.
Roll/Yaw Interaction
If the nose of an aeroplane yaws to the left, this causes a roll to the left.
The secondary effects of rudder and aileron deflection rudder: roll; aileron: yaw
Yaw is followed by roll because the yawing motion generated by rudder deflection causes a
speed increase of the outer wing, which increases the lift on that wing so that the aeroplane
starts to roll in the same direction as the yaw.
Left rudder pedal input will cause a left yaw about the vertical axis and left roll about the
longitudinal axis.
Means to Reduce Control Forces
Artificial feel is required with fully powered flight controls.

The primary input for an artificial feel system is IAS.
The aerodynamic force on a control surface increases as speed increases.
The inputs to the Q feel unit are from pitot and static pressures.
To reduce the stick force required, the control surface may be aerodynamic balanced.
The purpose of "aerodynamic balance" of a flying control is to reduce the load required to move
the control.
Stick forces, provided by an elevator feel system, depend on elevator deflection, dynamic
pressure.
When power assisted controls are used for pitch control a part of the aerodynamic forces is still
felt on the column.
The tab in the figure represents a balance tab that also functions as
a trim tab.
Balance tabs move in the opposite direction to control surfaces
and the same direction as trim tabs. A balance tab is a form of aerodynamic balance.
An anti-balance tab moves in the same direction as the control

surface and increases control effectiveness.
Anti-balance tab is a devices used to provide aerodynamic balance
The tab in the figure represents a servo tab. A servo tab moves
opposite of the control surface to which it is hinged.
Concerning primary control surface controlled by a servo tab the position is undetermined during
taxiing, in particular with tailwind.
In a servo tab operated control system, movement of the tab is always in the opposite direction to
the control surface.
A servo tab on the rudder moves when the rudder pedals are moved. (pilots direct connected)
An aeroplane has a servo tab controlled elevator. If the elevator jams during flight Pitch control
reverses direction.
Servo tab Is most commonly used In case of manual reversion of fully powered flight controls
For an aircraft fitted with servo tab operated controls, if external locks are fitted to the main
control surfaces they will prevent movement of the control surfaces but not the control wheel or
the servo tabs.
An aileron control surface is provided with an inset hinge to provide

aerodynamic balance. On an aileron with an inset hinge, the leading edge of
the control surface may protrude above or below the wing surface when the
control is moved. This is to give assistance to the pilot to move the control.
A horn balance in a control system has the purpose to decrease stick forces.
A graduated horn balance prevents over balance resulting from excess balance at high speed.
If the control surface hinge is placed too far back from the control surface leading edge control
surface CP may move ahead of the hinge and cause overbalance.
In general, control forces are reduced by a horn balance, servo tab and spring tab.
Horn balance, balance tab, servo tab can be used to reduce control forces
Servo tab - horn balance - spring tab decrease manoeuvring stick forces (NO TRIM)
Examples of aerodynamic balancing of control surfaces are servo tab, spring tab, seal between the
wing trailing edge and the leading edge of control surface.
Examples of aerodynamic balancing of control surfaces are seal between wing's trailing edge and
leading edge of a control surface, horn balance.
The fundamental difference between a trim tab and a servo tab is that The purpose of a trim tab
is to reduce continuous stick force to zero, a servo tab only reduces stick force.
Aerodynamic balance can be obtained by an internal balance
The spring tab is a modification of the servo tab such that the
movement is proportional to the applied stick force.
A spring tab at high IAS it behaves like a servo tab.
Some airplanes have spring tabs to provide reduction in the pilots
effort to move the controls against high air loads.
Mass Balance
Mass-balancing of control surfaces is used to prevent flutter of control surfaces.
On fully hydraulic powered flight controls there is no need for trim tabs.
When flutter damping of control surfaces is obtained by mass balancing, these weights will be
located with respect to the hinge of the control surface in front of the hinge. (increase stability)
If an aeroplane exhibits insufficient stick force per g, this problem

can be resolved by installing a bobweight in the control system
which pulls the stick forwards.
Trimming
An aeroplane with a forward CG requires the stabiliser leading edge to be lower than for one
with an aft CG in the same trimmed condition.
A tab fitted to zero the loads on the pilot's control column during flight is known as a trim tab.
In order to zero the load if a rearward force on the control column is required to maintain level
flight the elevator trim tab must be moved down.
In general jet transport aeroplanes with power assisted flight controls are fitted with an
adjustable stabiliser instead of trim tabs on the elevator. This is because an adjustable stabiliser is
a more powerful means to generate the tail loads required for these kind of aeroplanes.
After an aeroplane has been trimmed the stick position stability will be unchanged.
The reason for having a trim system on power assisted flying controls is to enable the stick force to
be reduced to zero.
The purpose of a trim tab (device) is to reduce or to cancel control forces.
The trim tab reduces hinge moment and control surface efficiency.
The position of the elevator in relation to the trimmable horizontal stabiliser of an aeroplane with
fully hydraulically operated flight controls that is in trim is Elevator deflection is zero.
(zero deflection in order to not create drag)
A large modern aircraft employs a variable incidence tailplane, trim changes are made by changing
the angle of incidence of the entire tailplane.
When the elevator control surface is moved an adjustable trim tab Remains fixed for all positions.
(trim tab move only when pilot move trim wheel.)
In the unlikely event of an aircraft becoming airborne with the elevator control lock engaged,
operation of an elevator trim tab control in the normal direction to counteract a nose up tendency
would result in an increase of the nose up tendency. (When aileron is jammed the trim act in
opposite direction and increase the problem if used normally)
An elevator trim is less suitable for aeroplanes with a large CG range.
If the elevator trim tab is deflected up, the cockpit trim indicator
shows nose down.
In straight flight, as speed is increased, whilst trimming to keep

the stick force zero the elevator is deflected further downwards
and the trim tab further upwards.
In straight flight, as speed is reduced, whilst trimming to keep the stick force zero the elevator is
deflected further upwards and the trim tab further downwards.
If the elevator trim tab is deflected down, the cockpit trim

indicator shows nose up.
If the elevator trim tab has been moved fully to the aircraft nose
up position, the available aircraft nose up pitch authority will be
reduced.
If the control column is pushed forward, a trim tab on the elevator will not move relative to the
elevator unless the trim wheel is moved.
Deflecting the elevator up, when the trim tab is in neutral, will cause the tab to remain in line with
the elevator
Comparing an elevator trim system with a stabiliser trim system

an elevator trim is more sensitive to flutter.
a stabiliser trim is less sensitive to flutter.
Comparing the differences between a horizontal trimmable stabiliser and an elevator trim tab
A stabiliser trim is a more powerful means of trimming.
A stabiliser trim is more suitable to cope with the large trim changes generated by the high lift
devices on most jet transport aeroplanes.
The effects of a stabiliser trim runaway are more serious.
A horizontal trimmable stabiliser enables a larger CG range.
A trim tab is less suitable for jet transport aeroplanes because of their large speed range.
A jammed trim tab causes less control difficulty.
A trim tab runaway causes less control difficulty.
When trimmed for zero elevator stick force an elevator trim tab causes more drag.
A stabiliser trim is more suitable to cope with the large trim changes generated by the high lift
devices on most jet transport aeroplanes.
The most important factor determining the required position of the Trimmable Horizontal
Stabiliser (THS) for take-off is the position of the aeroplane's centre of gravity.
Aeroplane takes off with the CG at the aft limit and the trimmable horizontal stabiliser (THS) is at
nose down position for take-off rotation will be normal using the normal rotation technique.
Aeroplane takes off with the CG at the forward limit and the trimmable horizontal stabiliser (THS)
is at nose up position for take-off rotation will be normal using the normal rotation technique.
Aeroplane takes off with the CG at the aft limit and the trimmable horizontal stabiliser (THS) is at
nose up position for take-off early nose wheel raising will take place.
Aeroplane takes off with the CG at the forward limit and the trimmable horizontal stabiliser (THS)
is at nose down position for take-off rotation will require a higher than normal stick force.
About a trimmable horizontal stabiliser A trimmed aeroplane with an aft CG requires the
stabiliser leading edge to be higher than in the case of a forward CG in the same condition.
Consider two elevator control systems, the neutral position of the control column after trimming
for a speed decrease
fitted with a trim tab, Control column moves aft,
fitted with fully powered hydraulic controls and an adjustable horizontal stabiliser, Control
column does not change.
for a speed increase
fitted with a trim tab, Control column moves forward,
fitted with fully powered hydraulic controls and an adjustable horizontal stabiliser, Control
column does not change.
An aircraft is equipped with an "all flying tailplane" which has a combined anti-balance and
trimming tab. The top of the trim wheel is moved forward. The tab moves up, so that more effort
is required when the pilot attempts to move the control column to the rear.
One advantage of a movable-stabiliser system compared with an elevator trim system is that it is
a more powerful means of trimming.
The position of the elevator in relation to the trimmable horizontal stabilizer of a power assisted
aeroplane the position depends on speed, the position of slats and flaps and the position of the
centre of gravity.
To perform a landing with the stabilizer jammed in the cruise flight position you choose a higher
landing speed than normal and/or use a lower flap setting for landing.
The effect on landing speed when a trimmable horizontal stabiliser jams at high IAS is In most
cases, a higher than normal landing speed is required.
A stabiliser trim is able to compensate larger changes in pitching moments.
To counteract a right wing low tendency, a fixed tab on the left aileron would be moved down
causing the left aileron to come up.
When an aileron trim control in the cockpit is moved to correct a tendency to fly left wing low, an
aileron trim tab on the left aileron will move up which causes the left aileron to move down and
the right aileron to move up.
The primary purpose of equipping the power assisted flying control systems with trim capability is
to bring the control forces to zero in steady flight.
Limitations
Operating limitations
VLE is defined as the maximum landing gear extended speed.
VNE is defined as never exceed speed.
MMO can be exceeded in a climb at a constant IAS because maintaining a constant IAS requires an
increase in TAS.
Wing flutter is prevented by locating mass in front of the torsion axis of the wing.
Wing mounted engines extending ahead of the wing contribute to wing flutter suppression.
Excessive free play or backlash reduces the speed at which control surface flutter occurs.
Resistance to flutter increases with increasing wing stiffness.
The risk of flutter increases as IAS increases.
If flutter occurs, IAS should be reduced.
Aero-elastic coupling affects flutter characteristics.
If climbing at VMO, it is possible to exceed MMO.
VMO is a CS-25 aeroplane speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in any regime of flight
(climb, cruise, or descent), unless a higher speed is authorised for flight test or pilot training
operations.
Considering a high speed transport jet aeroplane, If flaps are selected to the fully extended
position at a speed greater than VFE flap movement will typically be prevented by the flap load
relief system.
For most jet transport aeroplanes, the maximum operating limit speed, VMO is replaced by MMO at
higher altitudes.
Aileron reversal at high CL results from the down-going

aileron increasing the semi-span angle of attack beyond the
critical.
Aileron reversal may be caused by the wing twisting and
reducing incidence when the aileron is lowered.
Aileron reversal may be caused by twisting of the wing above reversal speed.
Control surface flutter Is a destructive vibration that must be damped out within the flight
envelope.
Control surface flutter can be eliminated by mass balancing of the control surface.
Flutter of control surfaces is a divergent oscillatory motion of a control surface caused by the
interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertia forces and the stiffness of the structure.
Control surface flutter is a rapid oscillation of the control surface in flight.
Aileron flutter can be caused by cyclic deformations generated by aerodynamic, inertial and
elastic loads on the wing.
Flutter sensitivity of an aeroplane wing is reduced by locating the engine ahead of the torsional
axis of the wing.
Wing flutter may be caused by a combination of bending and torsion of the wing structure.
Wing flutter can be prevented by ensuring that the wing CG is ahead of its torsional axis.
In a high speed descent at MMO you will reach VMO at FL270
Manoeuvring Envelope
VA decrease by half of the mass decrease

An aircraft is flown at 20% below its normal mass. Because of this, VA will be 10% lower.
When the aeroplane's mass decreases by 19% the VA is 10% reduced.
When the aeroplane's mass decreases by 10% the VA is 5% lower.
An aircraft has a mass of 60 000 kg and a limiting positive load factor of 2.5 g. VA is calculated as
the EAS at which full positive elevator deflection will give the limiting load factor at the stall, and is
237 kts. If the aircraft mass is reduced to 40 000 kg by fuel burn, the new VA is 194 kts (reduced
mass 33%, speed reduce by half of that number 17%)
Positive manoeuvring limit load factor for a large transport aeroplane with flap extended is 2.0
The limit load factor of a large transport aeroplane is 2.5
The negative manoeuvring limit load factor for a large jet transport aeroplane is -1 g
The negative manoeuvring limit load factor for a normal category aircraft is -1.52 g
The manoeuvring limit load factor for a light aeroplane (EASA CS-23) in the normal category is 3.8
The manoeuvring limit load factor for a light aeroplane in the utility category is 4.4
Manoeuvring limit load factor determines VA

The VA is the maximum speed at which maximum elevator deflection up is allowed.
If an aircraft is flying at a speed above VA a full elevator deflection could cause a structural
damage.
The aeroplane structure when flying at a speed just exceeding VA It may suffer permanent
deformation if the elevator is fully deflected upwards.
When determining VA load factor limit should be taken in account
For an aeroplane with one fixed value of VA, VA is the speed at which the aeroplane stalls at the
manoeuvring limit load factor at MTOW.
If the "ultimate load factor" is exceeded may happen Structural failure.
The manoeuvring speed VA, expressed as indicated airspeed, of a transport aeroplane depends on
aeroplane mass and pressure altitude.
The stall speed line in the manoeuvring load

diagram runs through a point where the speed =
VS, load factor = +1.
Vs=1g
The stall speed lines in the manoeuvring load
diagram originate from a point where the speed
= 0, load factor = 0.
The stall speed line in the manoeuvring load diagram runs through a point where the
speed = VA, load factor = limit load factor.
Assuming no compressibility effects VA >= VS × √(n)

The relationship between the stall speed VS and VA (EAS) for a large transport aeroplane can be
expressed in the following formula VA >= VS × √(2,5)
VC is a speed which is chosen by the designer and which is used to assess the strength
requirements in cruise.
VMO should not be greater than VC.
The load factor is greater than 1 (one) when lift is greater than weight.
Gust Envelope
LOAD FACTOR = LIFT / WEIGHT
Gust load factor
Proportional - Wing area / slope lift X AoA / EAS
Inversely Proportional - wing load / Altitude / Mass
Load factor is increased by upward gusts.
All other relevant factors being constant a load factor increase by a Vertical gusts.
When the EAS increases/decreases, the gust load factor increases/decreases
When the wing area increases/decreases, the gust load factor increases/decreases.
Increasing/decreasing the aspect ratio of the wing will increase/decrease the gust load factor.
Increasing/decreasing the speed will increase/decrease the gust load factor.
When the mass decreases/increase, the gust load factor increases/decrease.
When the altitude decreases/increase, the gust load factor increases/decrease.
When the wing loading decreases/increase, the gust load factor increases/decrease
Wing planforms least affected by turbulence are Swept, low aspect ratio.
Wing shape or wing characteristic is the least sensitive to turbulence swept wings.
Flight in severe turbulence may lead to a stall and/or structural limitations being exceeded.
An aircraft flying at a given EAS is subject to a positive gust of 50 kts. An increase in positive g-force
"felt" by the aircraft is More with a high aspect ratio straight wing.
The extreme right limitation for both V-n (gust

and manoeuvre) diagrams is created by the
speed VD
VD In gust and manoeuvre load diagrams, the most

limiting speed is VD
The gust load diagram has a symmetrical shape with respect to

the n = 1 line for speeds above VB.
In a gust load diagram and its impact on the gust load factor The
steeper the slope of the lift curve, the greater the gust load
factor.
Gust values used in the V-n diagram are 50 ft/sec, 66 ft/sec, 25 ft/sec.
A correct design gust value is 66 ft/sec at VB. B high movement with gust at high speed
A correct design gust value is 50 ft/sec at VC. C
A correct design gust value is 25 ft/sec at VD. D less movement with gust at high speed.
All gust lines in the gust load diagram originate from a point where the speed = 0, load factor = +1.
VRA is the recommended turbulence penetRAtion air speed.
VB is the design speed for maximum gust intensity. (Vblow)

The load factor in turbulence may fluctuate above and below 1 and can even become negative.
LOAD FACTOR = LIFT / WEIGHT balance 1g = straight and level
New VS = oldVS x √n
Load factor increase/decrease by half of VS change
Load factor = CL / oldCL
A fundamental difference between the manoeuvring limit load factor and the gust limit load
factor is, that the gust limit load factor can be higher than the manoeuvring limit load factor.
An aeroplane maintains straight and level flight at a speed of 1.2VS. If a vertical gust causes a load
factor of 1.6, the load factor n caused by the same gust at a speed of 2VS would be not relevant.
The gust at 1.2 VS would cause a stall. (New VS = oldVS x √n)
factor of 2.5, the load factor n caused by the same gust at a speed of 1.2VS would be irrelevant,
since the aeroplane would already be in a stalled condition at 1.5VS with that gust. (New VS =
oldVS x √n)
factor of 2.1, the load factor n caused by the same gust at a speed of 2VS would be
irrelevant, since the aeroplane would already be in a stalled condition at 1.1VS with that gust.
(New VS = oldVS x √n)
An aeroplane maintains straight and level flight at a speed of 2VS. If a vertical gust causes a load
factor of 2, the load factor n caused by the same gust at a speed of 1.3VS would be 1.65
(speed - 0,7, gust load factor -0,35)
factor of 1.9, the load factor n caused by the same gust at a speed of 2VS would be 2.00
(speed + 0,2, load factor +0,1)
factor of 2.7, the load factor n caused by the same gust at a speed of 2VS would be 3.00
(speed + 0,3, load factor +0,15)
In straight and level flight at 300 kts assuming the angle of attack remains constant initially and the
load factor reaches a value of approximately 1.2 the speed will have increased by 30 kts. (New VS
= VS x √n)
An aeroplane in straight and level flight at 200 kts is subjected to a sudden disturbance in speed.
Assuming the angle of attack remains constant initially and the load factor reaches a value of 1.44
the speed will have increased by 40 kts. (New VS = oldVS x √n)
The speed will have increased by 40 kts. (New VS = oldVS x √n)
An aeroplane in straight and level flight at 100 kt is subjected to a sudden disturbance in speed.
The speed will have increased by 50 kt. (New VS = oldVS x √n)
The speed will have increased by 20 kts. (New VS = oldVS x √n)
the speed will have increased by 30 kts (New VS = oldVS x √n)
An aircraft is in straight, level flight has a CL of 0.42, and a 1° increase in angle of attack would
increase the CL by 0.1. Following a gust that increases the angle of attack by 3°, what load factor
would the aircraft be subject to 1,7 (load factor increase by 0.3, so 0.42+0.3 = lift 0.7 / weight
0,42 = 1.7)
The lift coefficient (CL) of an aeroplane in steady horizontal flight is 0.4. Increase of angle of attack
of 1° will increase CL by 0.09. A vertical up-gust instantly changes the angle of attack by 5°. The load
factor will be 2.13 (load factor increase by 0.09x5, so 0.4+0.45 = lift 0.85 / weight 0,4 = 2.13)
The lift coefficient (CL) of an aeroplane in steady horizontal flight is 0.35. Increase in angle of attack
of 1° will increase CL by 0.079. A vertical up-gust instantly changes the angle of attack by 2°. The
load factor will be 1.45 (load factor increase by 0.079 x 2 = 0.158 + 0.35 = 0.508/0,35 = 1.45)
An aeroplane flying at 200 kts in straight and level flight is subjected to a disturbance that suddenly
decreases the speed by 80 kts. Assuming the angle of attack remains constant, the load factor will
initially decrease to 0.36. (New VS = oldVS x √n)  √n = (New VS / VS)
An aeroplane flying at 200 kts in straight and level flight is subjected to a disturbance that suddenly
increases the speed by 80 kts. Assuming the angle of attack remains constant, the load factor will
initially increase to 1.96. (New VS = oldVS x √n)  √n = (New VS / VS)
Extending flaps in turbulence reduces the stall speed but will reduce the margin to structural
limitations.
The gust load factor due to a vertical up-gust increases when the gradient of the CL-alpha graph
increases.
Propellers
Conversion of Engine Torque to Thrust
The blade angle of a propeller is the angle

between the propeller chord and the plane of
rotation of the propeller.
The angle of attack of a propeller blade

BLADE ANGLE element is the angle between the blade
OR element chord line and the resultant air speed
PITCH vector.
Propeller blade angle of attack is the angle

between the chord and the relative airflow.
The difference between a propeller's blade angle and its angle of attack is called the helix angle.
The blade angle of a propeller is usually referenced at 75 % of blade radius.

The reference section of a propeller blade with radius R is usually taken at a distance from the
propeller axis equal to 0.75 R.
Forces acting on a blade

The forces acting on a propeller are thrust and torque.
Torque
Total Reaction
Thrust
Relative Airflow
Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller blade element

would travel in a forward direction during one revolution.
The geometric pitch of a propeller is the theoretical distance a

propeller would advance in one revolution at zero blade angle of
attack.
The effective pitch of a propeller is the actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution.
The effective pitch of a propeller depends on AoA. Change angle change distance and efficiency
Propeller slip is the difference between the geometric pitch and the effective pitch.
Constant-speed propellers deliver better performance than fixed-pitch propellers because they
operate at a relatively high propeller efficiency over a wider speed range than a fixed pitch
propeller.
If the RPM lever of a constant speed propeller is moved forward during a glide with idle power and
whilst maintaining constant airspeed, the propeller pitch will decrease and the rate of descent will
increase. (forward in take off)
Propeller efficiency may be defined as the ratio between usable (power available) power of the
propeller and shaft power.
The correct sequence of cross-sections representing propeller

blade twist is sequence 2.
From root to the extremities the blade angle

of a fixed pitch decreases because the
extremities run much faster than root
A propeller blade is twisted from root to tip to

maintain a constant angle of attack along the
whole length of the propeller blade.
The twisting of a propeller blade from root to tip has been made to provide a constant angle of
attack from root to tip
Propeller blade twist is the varying of the blade angle from the root to the tip of a propeller
blade.
A constant speed propeller reduces fuel consumption over a range of cruise speeds.
A constant speed propeller improves take-off performance as compared with a coarse fixed pitch
propeller.
A constant speed propeller improves propeller efficiency over a range of cruise speeds.
A constant speed propeller maintains near maximum efficiency over a wider range of aeroplane
speeds than a fixed pitch propeller.
A propeller with a small blade angle is referred to as being in fine pitch. (fine=fino)
A propeller with a large blade angle is referred to as being in coarse pitch. (coarse=grosso)
A cruise propeller has a greater geometric pitch compared with a climb propeller.
A coarse pitch propeller is less efficient during take-off and in the climb, but more efficient in the
cruise, when compared with a fine pitch propeller.
At a given RPM the propeller efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller is maximum at only one value of
TAS
A propeller with little blade twist is referred to as being in fine pitch.
A propeller with significant blade twist is referred to as being in coarse pitch.
A fixed pitch propeller is usually at too coarse an angle for take-off. (fixed is for cruise, coarse)
During Take-off run angle of attack is highest in a fixed pitch propeller's
For a fixed-pitch propeller the blade angle of attack will decreases during the take-off.
For a fixed-pitch propeller, the blade angle of attack can become negative during high-speed idle
descent. A fixed pitch propeller's angle of attack is lowest High-speed glide.
For a fixed-pitch propeller designed for cruise, the angle of attack of each blade, measured at the
reference section is optimum when the aircraft is in a stabilized cruising flight.
For a fixed-pitch propeller in flight at a given TAS, the blade

angle of attack will decrease if RPM decreases.
RPM For a fixed-pitch propeller in flight at a given TAS, the blade
angle of attack will increase if RPM increases.
The angle of attack of a fixed pitch propeller blade increases
TAS when forward velocity decreases and RPM increases.
With a fixed pitch propeller increasing speed will decrease propeller angle of attack. Increasing
power and therefore propeller RPM will increase propeller angle of attack
Assuming that the RPM remains constant throughout, the angle of attack of a fixed pitch propeller
will increase with decreasing airspeed.
For a given RPM of a fixed pitch propeller, the blade angle of attack will decrease when the TAS
increases.
For a given RPM of a fixed pitch propeller, the blade angle of attack will increase when the TAS
decreases.
Assuming that the RPM remains constant throughout, the angle of attack of a fixed pitch propeller
will decrease with increasing airspeed.
A typical fixed pitch propeller (e.g. C-172) is designed to achieve its optimum angle of attack at
cruise speed.
Running an engine fitted with a fixed pitch propeller at full throttle with the aircraft stationary and
nose into strong wind will result in higher RPM than in still air.
A typical curve representing propeller efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller

versus TAS at constant RPM
The variation of propeller efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller with TAS at a

given RPM is shown in figure
A rotating propeller blade produces force F that may be resolved into two components:
• a force T perpendicular to the plane of rotation (thrust)
• a force R generating a torque absorbed by engine power
The diagram representing a rotating propeller blade during
reverse operation
The diagram representing a rotating propeller blade during the

cruise
The diagram representing a windmilling propeller

(propeller is driven by the wind and not by the engine)
The diagram representing a feathered propeller
With a constant speed propeller. If the aeroplane speed decreases while manifold pressure
remains constant, propeller pitch will decrease and propeller torque will remain constant.
With a constant speed propeller. If the aeroplane speed increases while manifold pressure
remains constant, propeller pitch will increase and propeller torque will remain constant.
If ice builds up on a propeller during flight The generated thrust will decrease.
Propeller icing increases blade element drag and reduces blade element lift.
Propeller icing reduce propeller efficiency
A reduction in efficiency up to 20 % can be encountered if ice is present on the propeller blades.
The first action in event of propeller runaway (overspeed condition), should be to close the
throttle.
During a glide with idle power and constant IAS, if the RPM lever of a constant speed propeller is
pulled back from its normal cruise position, the propeller pitch will increase and the rate of
descent will decrease.
Propeller efficiency is the ratio of power available (Thrust × TAS) to shaft power (Torque × RPM).
Propeller efficiency can be expressed as power output divided by power input.
About a constant speed propeller the blade angle increases with increasing aeroplane speed.
The pitch angle of a constant-speed propeller varies slightly in medium horizontal turbulence
The aerodynamic loads on a propeller which produce forward thrust will tend to bend the tips
forward.
Propeller torque is caused by the forces caused by the airflow on the propeller.
If the propeller pitch, within its constant speed range and at constant power, during descent at
constant IAS is decreased, the aeroplane lift to drag ratio will decrease and the rate of descent
will increase.
If the propeller pitch, within its constant speed range and at constant power, during descent at
constant IAS is increased, the aeroplane lift to drag ratio will increase and the rate of descent will
decrease.
For an aeroplane equipped with a two-position variable pitch propeller it is advisable to select a
fine pitch for take-off and climb.
A variable pitch propeller during take-off will move towards Fine pitch to ensure that the engine
can develop its maximum power.
For any propeller thrust is the component of the total

Torque aerodynamic force on the propeller parallel to the
Total Reaction
rotational axis.
Thrust
Thrust parallel to rotational axis, airflow
Torque perpendicular to rotational axis,
Relative Airflow
Engine Failure
FEATHERED WINDMILLING
COARSE FINE
A feathered propeller causes less drag than a windmilling propeller.
A windmilling propeller produces drag instead of thrust.

The greatest drag produced by the variable pitch propeller on a piston engine will occur when the
propeller is windmilling.
An engine failure can result in a windmilling propeller (with more drag) and a non-rotating
propeller (with less drag). The windmilling drag is much higher than for a feathered propeller.
If the propeller pitch of a windmilling propeller is decreased during a glide at constant IAS the
propeller drag in the direction of flight will increase and the rate of descent will increase.
If the propeller pitch of a windmilling propeller is increased during a glide at constant IAS the
propeller drag in the direction of flight will decrease and the rate of descent will decrease.
When compared with a non-feathered propeller, a feathered propeller improves the handling of
a multi-engine aeroplane with one engine inoperative.
When the blades of a propeller are in the feathered position the drag of the propeller is then
minimal.
The blade angle of a feathered propeller is approximately 90 degrees.
With a propeller feathered there will be minimum drag on the propeller.
Design Features for Power Absorption
Increasing tip speed to supersonic speed increases propeller noise.

Increasing tip speed to supersonic speed decreases propeller efficiency.
Power absorption increases if the mean chord of the blades increases.

Assuming blade shape does not change, power absorption increases if the number of blades
increases.
Increasing the number of propeller blades will increase the maximum absorption of power.
The more blades a propeller has, the more power it is able to absorb. The limitation on blade
number from an aerodynamic standpoint is the loss of efficiency of one blade if it follows to the
path of the preceding blade too closely.
Disadvantages of excessive increasing of the number of propeller blades is Decreased propeller
efficiency.
The propeller noise can be minimised by increasing the number of blades.
Propeller noise increases when the blade tip speed increases.

For a given engine and propeller blade shape, an increase in the number of propeller blades
allows for a reduction in propeller noise.
Increasing the camber on propeller blades will, if all else is the same increase the power
absorption capability.
If the chord of its propeller blades increases Propeller efficiency decreases and power absorption
increases. (larger blades are more powerfull but less efficient)
Propeller "solidity" (area ratio) is the ratio of the total frontal area of all the blades to S.
To calculate the "area ratio" (solidity) of the propellers you divide Area of all propeller blades to
the total circular surface.
If the number of blades on a propeller is increased The solidity of the propeller will increase.
Secondary Effects of Propellers
Counter rotating propellers have the effect of cancelling out the torque and
gyroscopic effects.
Counter rotating propellers is the name of the propeller system, where the
propellers of a twin-engine aeroplane are rotating in opposite directions
CONTRA Rotating Propeller is the name of the propeller system having two
propellers rotating in the opposite direction on the same shaft
Torque effect produce roll

Slipstream effect produce yaw.
Torque+ Slipstream effects are part of the Gyroscopic effect!
Regarding the gyroscopic effect of a clockwise rotating propeller 卐
Pitch up produces right yaw.
Right yaw produces pitch down.
Pitch down produces left yaw.
Left yaw produces pitch up.
A propeller rotating clockwise as seen from the rear tends to rotate the aircraft to the left around
the vertical axis, and to the left around the longitudinal axis.
A propeller is turning to the right when viewed from behind. The asymmetric blade effect in the
climb at low speed will yaw the aeroplane to the left.
The asymmetric blade effect on a single engine aeroplane with a clockwise rotating propeller
produces left yaw.
Propeller gyroscopic effect occurs during aeroplane yaw changes.

Propeller gyroscopic effect occurs during aeroplane pitch changes.
Propeller gyroscopic effect is most noticeable during low speed flight at high propeller RPM.
Constant attitude not give gyroscopic effect.
Gyroscopic precession of the propeller is induced by pitching and yawing.
Asymmetric blade effect increases when engine power is increased

Asymmetric blade effect increases when the angle between the propeller axis and the airflow
through the propeller disc increases.
Asymmetric propeller blade effect is mainly induced by the inclination of the propeller axis to the
relative airflow.
The torque reaction of a rotating fixed pitch propeller will be greatest at low aeroplane speed and
maximum engine power.
Propeller RPM would change the magnitude of the gyroscopic precession effect of the propeller
Given an aeroplane with a propeller turning anti-clockwise as seen from behind, the torque effect
will tend to roll the aeroplane to the right.
Given an aeroplane with a propeller turning clockwise as seen from behind, the torque effect
during the take-off run will tend to roll the aeroplane to the left.
In twin engine aeroplanes with propellers turning clockwise the left engine is the critical engine.
During the take-off roll, when the pilot raises the tail in a tail wheeled propeller driven aeroplane,
the additional aeroplane yawing tendency is due to the effect of gyroscopic precession.
For a tail wheel aircraft with a propeller turning to the right (when viewed from behind), at the
start of the take-off run, asymmetric blade effect causes Yaw to left.
Given two identical aeroplanes with wing mounted engines, one fitted with jet engines and the
other with counter rotating propellers. In case of engine failure. The propeller aeroplane has
more roll tendency. (jet engine have less gyroscopic effect)
In a single engine aircraft with a clockwise rotating propeller (seen from behind), a left yaw is
generated due to the slipstream, striking the fin on the left side.
For a single engine aircraft with a propeller turning clockwise as seen from behind, the slipstream
rotation will cause yaw to the left.
To counteract the effect of slipstream on a single engined aircraft the fin should be placed as far
as possible from the propeller. (tail, vertical fin as far as possible)
Flight Mechanics
Forces Acting on an Aeroplane
In steady level flight the load factor is 1.0
Dividing lift by weight gives load factor.
The four forces acting on an aeroplane in level flight are thrust, lift, drag and weight.
The four forces of lift, weight, thrust and drag in level flight act through the CG.
Weight acts parallel to the gravitational force.
The forces of lift and drag on an aerofoil are, respectively, normal and parallel to the relative
airflow.
Regarding the opposing forces acting on an aeroplane in steady state level flight The opposing
forces are equal.
An aircraft is in level flight at low speed and high angle of attack, the normal axis is nearly vertical.
During the glide, the forces acting on an aircraft are lift, drag and weight.
In a straight steady descent Lift is less than weight, load factor is less than 1.
The descent angle of a given aeroplane in a steady wings level glide has a fixed value for a certain
combination of configuration and angle of attack.
For a straight and steady descent The steeper the descent angle, the greater the difference
between total weight and lift.
When gliding, the speed which will give the minimum rate of descent is less than the speed for
maximum glide range.
Regarding the forces acting on an aircraft in a steady-state descent The sum of all forward forces is
equal to the sum of all rearward forces.
During a straight steady descent, lift is less than weight, because lift only needs to balance the
weight component perpendicular to the flight path.
The maximum glide range of an aircraft will depend on wind and the ratio to lift to drag which
varies according to angle of attack.
True airspeed for minimum sink rate is (i) less than true airspeed for (ii) minimum glide angle, at a
given altitude
A tailwind with constant aeroplane mass compared with zero wind increases the maximum
ground distance during a glide with zero thrust
A tailwind increases the maximum ground distance during a glide
A headwind with constant aeroplane mass compared with zero wind decreases the maximum
ground distance during a glide with zero thrust
A decrease in mass increases the maximum duration of a glide
To cover the greatest distance when gliding, the gliding speed must be the one that gives the
lowest total drag.
Maximum gliding distance of an aircraft is obtained when induced drag and parasite drag are
equal.
The lift to drag ratio determines the horizontal glide distance from a given altitude at zero wind
and zero thrust.
Factors that determine the distance travelled over the ground of an aeroplane in a glide are The
wind and the lift/drag ratio.
An aircraft will achieve the greatest possible gliding distance when it is flown at a speed
corresponding to the highest lift/drag ratio.
Assuming zero wind, an aeroplane in a straight steady glide will achieve the minimum glide angle
at (CL/CD) MAX
If an airplane would perform a vertical↑ climb with constant speed Thrust = Weight + Drag
During a steady climb (flight path angle 90°)↑ thrust equals weight plus drag.
In a climb the weight component along the flight path is balanced by thrust
An aeroplane climbs to cruising level with a constant pitch attitude and maximum climb thrust
(assume no supercharger). (gamma = flight path angle) gamma decreases, angle of attack
increases, IAS decreases.
In a straight steady climb the thrust must be greater than the drag because it must also balance a
component of weight.
During a straight steady climb and with the thrust force parallel to the flight path, lift is the same
as during a descent at the same angle and mass.
During a straight steady climb:

lift is less than weight.
load factor is less than 1.
Cos is longer edge

Sin is smaller edge
Ignoring thrust effects in a steady straight climb at a climb angle
"gamma", the lift of an aeroplane with weight W is W × cos (gamma)
the thrust of an aeroplane with weight W is W × sin (gamma)
In a straight steady climb thrust equals the sum of drag and the weight component along the
flight path, and lift equals the weight component perpendicular to the flight path.
During a climbing turn to the right the angle of attack of the left wing is larger than the angle of
attack of the right wing. (higher wing = higher lift = higher angle)
Drag = W ÷ ratio
Aeroplane mass: 50 000 kg

Lift/Drag ratio: 12
Thrust per engine: 21 000 N
Assumed g: 10 m/s2
For a straight, steady, wings level climb of a four-engine aeroplane, the one-engine inoperative
climb gradient will be 4.3% Drag = W ÷ ratio
Aeroplane mass: 50 000 kg

Lift/Drag ratio: 12
Thrust per engine: 28 000 N
Assumed g: 10 m/s2
For a straight, steady, wings level climb of a three-engine aeroplane, the one-engine-inoperative
climb gradient will be 2.9% Drag = W ÷ ratio
A centripetal force is the horizontal component of the

lift force that equals the weight and makes the airplane
to follow a curved path
In a steady banked turn the lift will equal the resultant

of weight and centripetal force.
Turning motion in a steady, level co-ordinated turn is

created by the centripetal force.
During a correctly balanced turn the lift force provides a centripetal force and a force that
opposes the weight of the aircraft.
The necessary normal acceleration to make an aircraft turn is the horizontal component of lift.
To maintain altitude and airspeed when performing a co-ordinated turn in a jet aircraft pilot
Increase angle of attack and thrust.
An aeroplane is performing a co-ordinated level turn with a constant 30° bank angle. If the
airspeed is increased the rate of turn will decrease and the radius of turn will increase
In order to fly a rate one turn at a lower airspeed, the bank angle must be
decreased and the turn radius will decrease.
In order to fly a rate one turn at a higher airspeed, the bank angle must be
increased and the turn radius will increase.
Comparing two identical aeroplanes, but one is heavier than the other. The minimum possible
radius of turn will be smaller for the lighter aeroplane.
An aeroplane enters a horizontal turn with a load factor n=2 from straight and level flight whilst
maintaining constant indicated airspeed. The lift doubles.
In a steady co-ordinated horizontal turn, lift is greater than in straight and level flight, because it
must balance the weight and generate the centripetal force.
In order to maintain constant speed during a level, co-ordinated turn, compared with straight and
level flight, the pilot must increase thrust/power and angle of attack.
Compared with level flight, the angle of attack must be increased in a steady, co-ordinated,
horizontal turn to compensate for the reduction in the vertical component of lift.
The bank angle in a rate-one turn depends on TAS. (bankΦ = TAS+ 7)
A turn is co-ordinated When the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane at the CG is tangential to the
flight path.
If a pilot initiates a coordinated turn from a straight and level flight and if maintains current
altitude and thrust The speed will decrease.
In a steady, horizontal, co-ordinated turn thrust equals drag, because there is equilibrium of
forces along the direction of flight.
In a steady, level, co-ordinated turn the rate of turn depends upon the TAS and angle of bank.
In a co-ordinated horizontal turn, the magnitude of the

centripetal force at 45° of bank is equal to the weight of the
aeroplane.
Respect to rate and radius of turn for an aeroplane flown in a co-ordinated turn at a constant
altitude For a specific angle of bank and airspeed the rate and radius of turn will not vary.
For shallow flight path angles in straight and steady flight, the following formula can be used
sin(gamma) = T/W - CD/CL (IMPARARE A MEMORIA, RISPOSTE UGUALI)
For an aircraft in level flight, if the wing centre of pressure is aft of the centre of gravity and there
is no thrust-drag couple, the tailplane load must be directed downwards.
In a skidding turn (the nose pointing inwards), compared with a coordinated turn, the bank angle is
too small and the "ball" or "slip indicator" is displaced towards the high wing.
In a slipping turn (nose pointing outwards), compared with a co-ordinated turn, the bank angle is
too large and the "ball" or "slip indicator" is displaced towards the low wing
An aeroplane's flight path angle is defined as the angle between its speed vector and the
horizontal plane.
Slip/Ball is where your body is pushed by G force

An aeroplane performs a turn. If the turn and slip indicator needle is to the left and the ball is
displaced to the right, the correct control input to co-ordinate the turn Less left rudder.
An aeroplane performs a turn. The turn indicator shows a right turn while the slip indicator is left
of neutral. One way to co-ordinate the turn is to apply more right bank.
An aeroplane performs a right turn, the slip indicator is left of neutral. One way to co-ordinate the
turn is to apply more left rudder.
A left turn with not

Turn radius
enough bank
Turn rate
The same aeroplane with the same bank angle and speed, but at a lower mass will turn with
the same rate of turn
An aeroplane performs a steady horizontal, co-ordinated turn with 45 degrees of bank at 230 kts
TAS.
The same aeroplane with the same bank angle and speed, but at a higher mass will turn with the
same radius, but might stall.
Turn radius m = (TAS x 0.5144)2 ÷ (g × tanΦ)

At a true airspeed of 300 kts and in a 45° bank level turn, the radius of turn would be (assume a
value of 10 m/sec2 for g) 2 381 m
The approximate radius of a steady horizontal co-ordinated turn at a bank angle of 45° and a TAS
of 200 kts is 1 km
The approximate diameter of a steady, level, co-ordinated turn with a bank angle of 30° and a
speed (TAS) of 500 kts 23 km (diameter is 2 x turn radius)
During a straight steady climb with a 20% climb gradient, the load factor is equal to 0.98 (load
factor in climb and descend is just steady below 1)
Descend angle sinΦ = (Drag - Thrust) ÷ Weight

Climb angle sinΦ = (Thrust - Drag) ÷ Weight
Lift = W ÷ cos Φ
Load Factor = 1 ÷ cosΦ
The thrust vector in a descent with a 30° angle, a weight of 11 350 N, a lift of
10 320 N and a drag of 11 010 N is 5335
An aeroplane with a mass of 2 000 kg, is performing a co-ordinated level turn at a constant TAS of
160 kts and the bank angle is 60°. The lift is approximately 40000 (60° means 2g, double of mass in
N)
An aeroplane with a mass of 4 000 kg is performing a co-ordinated level turn at a constant TAS of
160 kts and a bank angle of 45°. The lift is approximately 56 000 N
Two identical aeroplanes A and B, with the same mass, are flying steady level co-ordinated
20° bank turns. If the TAS of A is 130 kts and the TAS of B is 200 kts (Tas is higher) the turn radius
of A is less than that of B.
Heading change after 10 seconds of an aeroplane performing a steady and coordinated horizontal
rate one turn 30° (A rate one turn or standard turn is a turn 360° in 2 minute)
Lift increase in a steady level turn at 45° angle of bank, compared to straight and level flight by
41% (load factor = 1 ÷ cos Φ)
With a L/D ratio of 9:1 and flying at 12 000 ft the glide range in still air would be approximately
18NM (1NM = 6080ft so 12000/6080=1.973NM. 1.973 x 9 units = 17.76 NM. )
Asymmetric Thrust
VMC for an aeroplane with unsupercharged engines Decreases with increasing altitude. (less
density, more control)
VMCG is the speed at which directional control can be maintained at engine failure on take-off
using the primary flying controls.
During VMCG determination, the nose wheel steering is not used.

In order to simulate a wet runway, nose wheel steering may not be used during VMCG
determination.
VMCG must be determined using rudder control alone.
VMCG is determined with the gear down.
During VMCG determination, the CG should be on the aft limit.
During VMCG determination, the lateral deviation from the runway centreline may be not more
than 30 ft.
During VMCG determination the aeroplane may not deviate from the straight-line path by more
than 30 ft.
VMCG is determined with the nosewheel steering disconnected Because the value of VMCG must
also be applicable on wet and/or slippery runways
VMCG with increasing field elevation and temperature Decreases, because the engine thrust
decreases.
VMCL is the minimum control speed in the landing configuration.

VMCL can be limited by the available maximum roll rate.
VMCL is the minimum control speed in approach and landing.
VMCL is defined with the aeroplane trimmed For approach with all engines operating.
VMCL can be limited by:

roll rate.
When determining VMCA Maximum take-off thrust and 5° bank angle.

VMCA is certified with a bank angle of not more than 5° towards the operating engine (live engine
low) because although more bank reduces VMCA, too much bank may lead to fin stall.
VMCA depends on the airport density altitude, and the location of the engine on the aeroplane (aft
fuselage or wing).
VMCA is the minimum speed at which directional control can be maintained when:
maximum take-off thrust was set and is maintained on the remaining engines.
a sudden engine failure occurs on the most critical engine.
As the bank angle is decreased from 5° to 0°, the value of VMCA increases. (bank vs good engine)
When the bank angle is increased beyond 5°, there is an increasing risk of fin stall.
At any bank angle above 5 degrees, VMCA will decrease correspondingly.
For a given aeroplane Airport elevation and temperature determine the value of VMCG
In order to maintain straight and level flight when you have just lost your critical engine you must
rudder and bank towards live engine.
In general, directional controllability with one engine inoperative on a multiengine aeroplane is

adversely affected by:
low temperature.
aft CG location.
low altitude. Dense air is bad for gyroscopic effect
In general, directional controllability with one engine inoperative on a multiengine aeroplane is

favorably affected by
high temperature.
forward CG location.
high altitude.
If a twin engine jet aeroplane commences a take-off on runway 27 and the current wind is 210°/15
kts, The left engine is the critical engine in case of an engine failure during take-off run
If an aeroplane, that has experienced a right engine failure continues afterwards in straight and
level cruise flight with wings level Turn indicator is neutral, slip indicator is neutral.
If an aeroplane, that has experienced a left engine failure and continues afterwards in straight and
level cruise flight with wings level Turn indicator is neutral, slip indicator is neutral.
(Turn and slip indicator indicate a turn. No turn means both neutral. hsi indicate a bank angle.)
If an engine fails on a twin engined aeroplane a yawing moment will appear. When the CG is
located at the aft CG limit will provide the least ability to oppose this yawing moment.
During a take-off roll with a strong crosswind from the right, a four-engine jet aeroplane with
wing-mounted engines experiences an engine failure. The failure of the right outboard engine will
cause the greatest control problem
During a take-off roll with a strong crosswind from the left, a four-engine jet aeroplane with wing-
mounted engines experiences an engine failure. The failure of the left outboard engine will cause
the greatest control problem
Equilibrium of moments about the normal axis is provided by rudder deflection.

Equilibrium of forces along the lateral axis requires either bank angle or sideslip or a combination
of both. (about = turning around that axis. Along = maintain stable that axis)
Particular Points on a Polar Curve
Given the following characteristic points on a jet engine aeroplane's polar curve:
Long range cruise (zero wind).
Maximum range cruise (zero wind).
Maximum lift to drag ratio.
Minimum rate of descent (assume zero thrust).
CLMAX
Minimum Glide Angle - Minimum Drag
Minimum coefficient Drag
At the speed for minimum drag (subsonic) The gliding angle is minimum (assume zero thrust).
The speed for minimum glide angle occurs at (CL/CD)MAX

The point showing zero lift is A
The point of minimum horizontal flight speed C

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Subsonic Aerodynamics

Basics, Laws and Definitions

Bernoulli's theorem states that:

Dynamic Pressure is egual to (½ ρ V2) q = (½ ρ V2)

The dynamic pressure is zero when velocity is zero.

Considering subsonic incompressible airflow through a Venturi

Undisturbed Throat Undisturbed

In a convergent tube with an incompressible sub-sonic airflow,

An increase in the flow's temperature will decrease the mass flow.

Static pressure acts in all directions.

In a fluid disregard horizontal plane

(Lift always perpendicular to undisturbed airflow)

Wing loading is the ratio of aircraft weight to wing area.

Drag is acting in the direction of relative wind (airflow) and

The angle of attack is the

The aeroplane angle of attack is the angle between wing

An aeroplane's angle of incidence is the angle between

Relationship between force (F), acceleration (a) and mass (m) is F = m × a

The weight of an object depends on the acceleration due to gravity.

The construction feature of a wing called "wash out" (wing twist) is

Taper Ratio = Tip / Root

Aspect Ratio = wingspan ÷ mean chord

The relative thickness of an aerofoil is expressed in % chord.

In a symmetrical Aerofoil the mean camber line is a straight line co-

An aerofoil is cambered when the line, which connects the centres

Summary Errors correction:

Eat Chicken Tomato Marsala

Two-dimensional Airflow Around an Aerofoil

Lift is generated when:

Typically the CL/CD ratio is maximum at an angle of attack of 4°.

The profile drag of a wing section or blade element is proportional to:

The total drag of an aerofoil in two dimensional flow comprises

The total drag of an aerofoil in three dimensional flow comprises

A flat plate, when positioned in the airflow at a small angle of attack,

In an aerofoil with a positive camber and a positive angle of attack

With increasing downwash, lift generated by the aerofoil

At the stagnation point the static pressure reaches a maximum

as the angle of attack decreases

as the angle of attack increases

The speed at stagnation point is zero and in upper part is faster:

The point, where the single resultant aerodynamic force acts on

When angle of attack is decreased the centre of pressure will

When angle of attack is increased the centre of pressure will

In a symmetric Aerofoil center of pressure & aerodynamic

Body B body will have the highest pressure drag/form drag

Body C body will have the lowest pressure drag/form drag

Order of decreasing drag is B, A, D, C

The correct drag formula is DRAG = CD × ½ RHO × V2 × S

Lift is a function of velocity, wing area, CL and density.

The lift coefficient (CL) is a function of

In a positively cambered aerofoil section the angle of

Considering a positively cambered aerofoil section, the

A positively cambered aerofoil will generate zero lift at a

The lift coefficient of a symmetrical aerofoil section at zero

In a symmetric aerofoil section the angle of attack is zero

When the lift coefficient CL of a symmetrical aerofoil section is

The lift coefficient CL versus angle of attack curve of a

When the lift coefficient CL of a negatively cambered