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Pharmacological Signiﬁcance of Andrographis

paniculata
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Research Trends
in
Medicinal Plant Sciences
Volume - 8
Chief Editor
Dr. Manzoor Hussain
Professor and Chairman, Department of Botany, Hazara University,
Mansehra, Khyber, Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
AkiNik Publications
New Delhi
Published By: AkiNik Publications
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©AkiNik Publications
Publication Year: 2020
Pages: 124
Paperback ISBN: 978-93-90322-11-4
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Book DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/ed.book.800
Price: ` 739/-
Contents
S. No. Chapters Page No.

1. Indigenous Knowledge on the Medicinal Plants Used by the
Rural Inhabitants of Khetri Region of Kamrup District,
Assam 01-14
(Manash Baruah and Alee Sarma)
2. Medicinal Climbers of Karikkiyur Hills in the Southern

Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India 15-26
(Divya Bharathi G, Saradha M, Jansirani P and P. Samydurai)
3. A Review Study on Pharmacological Properties and Health

Benefits of Prosopis cineraria 27-39
(Aarti Sipani and Daisy Sharma)
4. Pharmacological Significance of Andrographis paniculata 41-70

(Anil Kumar and Rajeshwari Prabha Lahare)
5. An Overview on Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Plant

Tissue Culture Studies of Boswellia serrata Roxb. An
Important Medicinal Plant 71-88
(Sudheer WN and Praveen N)
6. Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Activity in Methanolic

Extract of Alstonia scholaris from Arunachal Himalayan
Region 89-96
(Tridip J. Das, Debmalya Das Gupta, Pallabi K. Hui and Hui Tag)
7. Recent Advances in Solanum trilobatum Research 97-109

(Sini H and Nevin KG)
8. Mentha arvensis L.: A Medicinal Kitchen Herb 111-124

(Dr. Asha D.)
Chapter - 4
Pharmacological Significance of Andrographis
paniculata
Authors
Anil Kumar
Department of Biotechnology, Govt. V.Y.T. PG. Autonomous
College Durg, Chhattisgarh, India
Rajeshwari Prabha Lahare
Department of Biotechnology, Govt. V.Y.T. PG. Autonomous
College Durg, Chhattisgarh, India
Page | 41
Page | 42
Chapter - 4
Pharmacological Significance of Andrographis paniculata
Anil Kumar and Rajeshwari Prabha Lahare
Abstract
Andrographis paniculata is an important medicinal plant of
Acanthaceae family and has widely known for its pharmacological
applications in Homeopathic, Ayurvedic, Chinese, Unani and traditional
systems of medicines. The plant is commercially grown throughout the
world such as India, Pakistan, Shri Lanka, China, South Asia and South
Africa due to its high demand in industries for medicinal purposes.
Terpenoids and flavonoids are the main phytoconstituents of the plant found
mainly in leaves and roots parts. Plant is well known for its vast
pharmacological properties such as anti-malarial, immune stimulatory, anti-
diarrheal, anti-thrombotic, anti-diabetic, anti-pyretic, anti-hyperlipidemic,
anti-venom, antiprotozoal, anti-viral, anti-oxidant, cardio-protective, gastro-
protective, analgesic, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-HIV, anti-diarrheal, and
anti-hypertensive activities. The main objective of present chapter is to sum
up its pharmacological potential, traditional knowledge and clinical studies
of plant.
Keywords: Andrographis paniculata, Acanthaceae, pharmacological
applications, terpenoids, flavonoids
1. Introduction
Medicinal plants and plant derived drugs are the alternative medicine
and extensively used for centuries to cure various ailments. Around the
world about 80,000 plant species have been identified and used as medicinal
plant [1]. In modern times plants play significant role and belief is that they
have vast potential for treatment of diseases and they are supposed to be safe
in use, effective, and simple with no or lesser side effects. Andrographis
paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees is a multipurpose medicinal plant belonging to
family Acanthaceae [2]. The whole parts of plant are bitter in taste and due to
its bitterness property, it is commonly known as “King of Bitter”. The other
vernacular names of the plant include Kalmegh, Kirayat, Bhui neem,
Page | 43
Chirata, Mahatikta, Hempedu Bumi, Vubati, Chiorta, Nilavembu, etc. In
tropical Asian countries the genus Andrographis contains 28 species [3]
whereas in India it contains 21 species in which Andrographis paniculata
was one of them [4]. It has been reported that the plant is grown in different
habitats e.g. dry and wet lands, plains, slopes, waste lands, sea shores, and
hill slopes [5]. It is a kharif crop cultivated in the rainy phase of summer
season. The crop is commercially cultivated in all types of soil having fair
amount of organic matter [2] and having high demand in terms of
pharmaceutical industries, nutritional values, food supplements, food
preservatives and it also promotes growth and health of livestock. It has been
reported that the plant is beneficial for removal of toxins from the body,
lowering body temperature, prevent respiratory infections and also act as
antidote against poison [6]. Traditionally in Asian countries the plant is used
as immune booster to treat fever, herpes, sore throat, and infections in
gastrointestinal and respiratory tract as reported by Wangboonskul et al. [7]
In Asia and Europe the whole plant, leaves and roots were used for folklore
remedy [8]. The WHO has noticed that the herb Andrographis paniculata is
widely used in Asia for cure of fever, herpes, diarrhea, inflammation,
respiratory infection, throat sour, and various other infections [9]. According
to Unani system of medicine, the plant is regarded as emollient, aperient,
anti-inflammatory, astringent, carminative, diuretic, gastric and liver tonic,
anthelmintic [10]. Flowering of plant begins with the onset of monsoon; plant
grows with moderate temperature after the end of monsoon. During
flowering andrographolide the active compound is highly accumulated in
leaves. During monsoon season the crop yields 3.5 to 4 tones/ha of dried
plant. It has been reported that highest concentration of andrographolide was
found in the sample harvested after 110 days of cultivation followed by that
just before flowering stage (130 days) [11]. Highest yield of diterpenoid
lactones was obtained in the plant at 110-120 days old just before the
blooming season [12, 2]. It has been reported that Andrographis contributes
several species such as A. paniculata, A. beddomei, A. elongata, A.
echioides, A. affinis, A. alata, A. glandulosa, A. lineata, A. ovata and A.
serpyllifolia among these species only few having medicinal values used
extensively in Naturopathy, Ayurveda, Homeopathy, Amchi, Modern, Unani
and Siddha medicine systems [13].
2. Taxonomy of the plant
Kingdom: Plantae, Plants
Sub Kingdom: Tracheobionta, Vascular plants
Page | 44
Super Division: Spermatophyta, Seed plants
Division: Angiosperms
Class: Dicotyledonae
Sub class: Gamopetalae
Series: Bicarpellate
Order: Personales
Tribe: Justicia
Family: Acanthaceae
Genus: Andrographis
Species: Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f) Nees [2]
3. Geographical distribution
The plant is distributed widely in different edaphic zones and phyto
geographical regions of America, China, West Indies and Christmas Island
[14]
. It is distributed in Southern and South eastern Asian including India, Sri
Lanka, Java, Indonesia Pakistan and widely cultivated in India, Brunei,
Thailand, Indonesia, China, West Indies such as Jamaica, Barbados and
Bahamas, Hong Kong and the South Western Nigeria and America [2].
Alagesaboopathi15 reported that in India the plant cultivated widely in plains
of all-over South India and from Himachal Pradesh to Assam and Mizoram
at altitudes ranging from 10m to 1400m. The Andrographis species known
as “Periyanagai” such as A. alata (Vahl) Nees, A. lineate wallich ex Nees, A.
echioides Nees are grown widely in South West India, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka at altitudes from 1025 m to 2500m. In India
the plant is found in the states of Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,
Kerala, and Karnataka. In Madhya Pradesh Balaghat district the whole parts
of the plant is used in treatment of malaria and chikungunya [16].
4. Morphology
Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae family) is annual, erect,
branched, herbaceous dicotyledonous flowering plant and distributed mostly
in moist, shady areas with at a height of 30-110cm. The leaves of the plant
are 2-12cm long, 1-3cm width having entire margin, simple glabrous,
arrangement of leaves is lanceolate and shape is acute, pinnate apex with
entire margin. Flowers are perfect, zygomorphic, bracts, white in color with
rose purple spot on the petals and inflorescence is 10-30mm long panicle is
Page | 45
terminal and axillaries with small bract and short pedicle. The flowers
having 5 sepals, corolla tubes are narrow white with yellow top, about 6 mm
long, stamens 2, ovary superior with style exerted. Seed are yellowish brown
in color, shape is sub quadrate, numerous and capsule of the herb is linear-
oblong, acute at both ends, size is 1.9cm × 0.3cm erect, 1-2 cm long and
seeds are very small. Flowering and fruiting period of the plant is December
to April [17]. The total chromosome number in A. paniculata is 25 in
gametophytic and 50 in sporophyte count [18] (Fig1) represents A. paniculata.
Fig 1: Picture showing Andrographis paniculata
5. Phytoconstituents
Several secondary metabolites are present in Andrographis paniculata
such as terpenoids, flavonoids, steroids, alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycoside,
phenol and saponin compounds which exhibits broad range of
pharmacological properties. Duke [19] reported presence of alkaloids,
flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic compounds in A. paniculata. Chen and
Jiang [20] reported presence of flavones, lactones and andrographolide in
aqueous extract of A. paniculata. Andrographolide is a major labdane
diterpenoid constituents of A. paniculata and isolated first time by Gorter [21]
in its pure form and characterize by x-ray crystallographic method. It has
been reported that andrographolide has a-alkylidene and y-butyrolactone,
two olefin bonds at C-8 and C-12 and three -OH at C-3, C-19 and C-14 [22].
Andrographolide is trihydroxy lactone has the molecular formula of
C20H30O5 exhibits anti-inflammatory activity [23]. The melting point of
andrographolide is 228-230 oC and the ultraviolet spectrum λ max in ethanol
is 223 nm. Fujita et al. [24] isolated neoandrographolide, andrographolide, 14-
deoxyandrographolide and three diterpenoids which were andropanoside,
andrograpanin, 14-deoxy-12-methoxyandrographolide. The plant contains
12-deoxyandrographolide, neoandrographolide, and andrographanin
andrographinnes A, B, C, D & E [25]. Thin layer chromatography and column
Page | 46
chromatography was used to isolate four xanthones (3, 7, 8-trimethoxy-1-
hydroxy-xanthone 1, 8-dihydroxy-3, 7-dimethoxy-xanthone, 1,2-dihydroxy-
6,8-dimethoxyxanthone and 4,8-dihydroxy-2,7-dimethoxy-xanthone) from
the root part of the plant and were characterized by mass and nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopic methods and infrared radiation [26].
Different solvents were used for extraction of bioactive compound such as
hexane, acetone, acetone-water, methanol, ethanol, chloroform and
dichloromethane from the aerial parts, whole plant, stems, leaves and roots.
The compound andrographolide was found soluble in ethanol, methanol,
acetic acid, pyridine, but slightly dissolved in ether and water. The plant
contains more than 55 Ent-labdane diterpenoids, 8 quinic acids, 30
flavonoids, 4 xanthones and 5 noriridoids namely andrographidoids A, B, C,
D, and E [27]. It has been reported that nearby 20 diterpenoids and 10
flavonoids have been reported from A. paniculata [28]. Studies suggested that
in leaves andrographolide is present in high quantity where as in seeds it was
found in low quantity [29]. The plant contains 4% of andrographolide
(C20H30O5) the major diterpenoid and its concentration in crude extract was
found 0.8-1.2% and 0.5-6% [30]. Observation showed that the highest yield of
diterpenoid lactones was obtained just before the blooming season or when
the plant is 110-120 days old [2, 29]. A. paniculata contains glucosides;
neoandrographolide, panaculoside, andrographolide, andrographonin,
flavonoids, apigenin 7-4-dimethyl ether, panicalin, diterpenoids; 14-deoxy-
11-oxo-andrographolide, 14-deoxyandrographolide, 14-deoxy-11, 12-
didehydroandrograholide. The aerial parts of the plant contains several
chemical compounds of medicinal importance viz. 5-hydroxy-7,8-
dimethoxyflavone, β-sitosterol, glucoside, carcrol, myristic acids,
chlorogenic, andrographolide, panicolide, eugenol, 5-hydroxy-7,8-
dimethoxyflavone,5-hydroxy-3,7,8, 2’-tetramethoxy flavone, hentriacontane,
dicaffeoylquinic acids, 7-o-methylwogonin, apigenin-7,4’-di-omethylether,
tritriacontane, andrographiside, 3-14-dideoxyandrographolide, β19 oxide, β-
hydroxy-8(17), 12-labadien-16, 15-olide-3 [31]. The five nori iridoids viz.
andrographolide A-E along with curvifloruside was isolated from the roots
of the plant [32]. It has been reported that the compound neoandrographolide
showed anti-hepatotoxic and anti-inflammatory properties. 14-deoxy-11, 12-
didehydroandrographo-lide and 14-deoxyandrographolide possess anti-
hepatotoxic, immune stimulatory and anti-atherosclerotic activity. Two
flavonoid compounds were isolated from the whole part of the plant 5, 7, 2’,
3’-tetramethoxyflavanone and 5-hydroxy-7, 2’, 3’-trimethoxyflavone and
these active molecules of the plant exhibit various therapeutic property like
anti-inflammatory, anti-cancerous, immune modulator, anti-hepatotoxic,
Page | 47
anti-atherosclerotic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-infections effect and anti-
oxidant [33]. The two main compound flavonoids and diterpenoids (which
contain hydroxyl, α, β unsaturated-ϒ lactone, and exomethylene groups in
their chemical structures) from Andrographis paniculata [34]. Fig 2 represents
structures of bioactive components of the plant.
Andrographolide β- sterol 14-deoxyandrographolide
5-hydroxy7-8 14-deoxy-11-
Andrographanin
dimethoxyflavones oxoandrographolide
14-deoxy-11-12
α-sitosterol Oroxylin A
didehydroandrographolide
Page | 48
5-hrdroxy -7, 8, 2’, 3’, Andrographiside Andrographoneo
tetramethoxy flavones
Fig 2: Structures of some bioactive compounds from Andrographis paniculata
6. Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites

Secondary metabolites play important role as they are non-essential to
growth and development of plant but contribute plant survival under adverse
condition. The secondary metabolites have important ecological role e.g. in
defense mechanism against predators and as sexual attractants for pollinating
insects [35]. Secondary metabolites are classified into terpenoids, phenolics
and alkaloids whereas tannins, glycoside and saponins are part of them
according to their structure [36]. The most common pathways taken for
biosynthesis of secondary metabolites are shikimic acid pathways for
phenols, tannins and aromatic alkaloids, malonate pathways for phenols and
alkaloids, pentose phosphate pathways for glycosides, polysaccharides and
mevalonic acid for terpenes, steroids and alkaloids. The components used for
biosynthesis of secondary metabolites are derived from acetyl CoA,
mevalonic acid, shikimic acid and 1-deoxylulose-5-phosphate [37].
Terpenoids are polymeric isoprene derivatives and synthesized from acetate
via mevalonic acid pathway and constitute large family of phytoconstituent.
Methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate pathway (MEP) and Mevalonate Pathway
(MVP) are the major pathway for the synthesis of a number of biological
compounds [38]. The synthesis of andrographolide is increased by the
exogenous use of (31.25%) Jasmonic acid (JA) and (56.1%) Gibberellic acid
(GA3) [39].
Page | 49
Fig 3: Biosynthetic pathway of terpene showing the production of the
andrographolide Red color text shows the enzymes of respective product [39]
7. Pharmacological significance
Andrographis paniculata is well known for its pharmacological and
biological activities. The leaves and roots of A. paniculata are generally used
for medicinal purpose for the treatment of dysentery, convalescence after
fever and gaseous distention [40, 41]. Tannins are biologically active against
Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella paratyphi, E. coli, and Candida albicans
[42]
. Flavonoids are known as nature biological response modifier because it
modifies the body reaction to virus and allergies and showed their anti-
inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-allergic and anti-cancer activities43. It has
been reported that to treat diseases like malaria, pain killers and managing
heart diseases alkaloids are being used [44]. Glycosides are the non-volatile
compound and lack fragrance, cleavage of glycosidic bond yields aglycone
which is volatile and fragrant. It has been reported that glycosides are used in
plant protection against insects, microorganisms and herbivores [45]. Steroids
are the important compounds used as herbal medicines, nutrition and
cosmetics. Plant steroids are important for their microbial activities. In
pharmacy steroids are important due to their role in sex hormones [46].
Saponin is mild detergent used to stain intracellular histochemical and also
used to allow antibody access in intracellular proteins. Antioxidant activity
Page | 50
of the plant is due to the presence of phenols which are low molecular
weight secondary metabolites which comprises a largest group of phyto
compounds [47]. The microbial growth should be inhibited at a low tannin
concentration that acts as antifungal agent but at high concentration it
coagulates protoplasm of microorganism [48]. Among the phytoconstituents,
phenols showed anti-oxidant activity whereas flavonoids showed anti-
allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and anti-cancer activities [49].
Table 1 represents the phytocompounds of A. paniculata and their
pharmacological properties.
Table 1: Phytoconstituents and pharmacological application of A. paniculata
Phytoconstituents Biological activities

Antibacterial [1, 53], Antioxidant [23], Antidiabetic [96, 94],
Antipyretic [107, 138], Anticancer [129, 92, 137], Antiviral [65]
Antihelmenthic [136], Anticancer [129, 84, 92], Antihepatitis C
Andrographolide virus [135], Anti HIV [101], Antidiarrhoeal [133], Anti-
inflammatory [80, 23, 86, 85], Hepatoprotective [102, 134],
Antimalarial [69], Common cold [139], Cardiovascular [95],
Antifertility [124], Antivenom [120].
[105, 131], [80],
Antipyretic Anti-inflammatory
14-deoxy andrographolide
Cardiovascular [108], Anticancer [129]
Antioxidant [90], Anti-inflammatory [80], Antidiarrheal [133]
Neoandrographolide
Antipyretic [107], Antiviral [65], Hepatoprotective [132]
Deoxyandrographolide Anti-inflammatory [80], Antipyretic [107]
Andrographiside Hepatoprotective [103]
5-hydroxy-7,8-dimethoxy Antimalarial [69], Antiprotozoal [67, 52, 73, 74], Anti-HIV [100]
flavones
Dehydroandrographolide Antipyretic
Andrograpanin Anti-HIV [100]
1,2-dihydroxy-6,8- Anti-malarial [65]
dimethoxy-xanthane
Bis- andrographolide Anti-HIV [100]
14-deoxy-11,12- Antiviral [65], Antipyretic [131], Anticancer [129],
didehydroandrographolide Cardiovascular [130, 108], Anti-HIV [100, 65].
Besides, some major pharmacological significance has been illustrated as follows---
7.1 Antibacterial activity

Nowadays, bacterial resistance becomes a serious problem so that it is
necessary to search for new drugs as antibacterial agent. It has been reported
that the natural products isolated from medicinal plants play the major
source of antibacterial agent used for treatment of various disease [50].
Hexane, chloroform and methanol extract of Andrographis paniculata and
Page | 51
andrographolide showed antibacterial activity against both gram negative
and gram-positive microorganism [51]. The ethanol extract of A. paniculata
showed inhibitory activity against gram positive and gram-negative bacteria
[52]
. It has been studied that the ethanolic extract and andrographolide
compound showed neither bacteriostatic nor bactericidal action against
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli,
Shigella sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Streptococcus pyogenes, Legionella pneumophila but it exhibited
bacteriostatic activity against Legionella pneumophila and Bordetella
pertussis [53]. The extracts of A. paniculata showed antibacterial activity at
different concentration i.e. 1000, 500, 250μg/disc against skin disease [54].
The ethanol leaf extract exhibits antibacterial activity against Escherichia
coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris and Streptococcus pneumonia
by using disc diffusion method [55]. Leaves and stems of A. paniculata
extract isolated in petroleum ether, acetone, and chloroform and showed
antimicrobial potential against Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus
pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia and Proteus vulgarism [56]. The aqueous leaf
extracts of A. paniculata possess antibacterial activity against gram positive
bacteria i.e. Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus aureus [57]. It has been
investigated that the plant A. paniculata serves as an antimicrobial agent
against pathogenic microorganism [58, 59, 60, 61].
7.2 Anti-malarial activity
Malaria is an endemic disease caused by Plasmodium a protozoon and
widespread in tropical and sub-tropical countries affecting a large number of
populations. Najib et al. [62] found that within 24 hours the growth of malaria
parasite was reduced with 0.05mg/ml of chloroform extract of Andrographis
paniculata whereas 2.5mg/ml of methanolic extract was used to inhibit the
growth at 48 hours. It has been reported that 1-8-dihydroxy-3,7-
dimethoxyxanthone,1,2,-dihydroxy-6,8-dimethoxyxanthone,4,8-dihydroxy-
2,7-dimethoxy-xanthone and 3,7,8-trimethoxy-1-hydroxy-xanthon present in
roots of Andrographis paniculata showed anti-malarial activity against
Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei [63]. Nowadays,
Plasmodium falciparum acquires resistance against some of the commonly
used anti-malarial drugs like mefloquine, chloroquine, mepacrine,
primaquine, sulphadoxine, pyrimethamine [64]. Dua et al. [65] studied that
(4μg) of 1, 2-dihydroxy-6,8-dimethoxy-xanthane obtained from A.
paniculata showed anti-plasmodial activity against P. falciparum. The
methanolic extract of A. paniculata was used to reduce the multiplication of
P. falciparum [66]. The anti-malarial activity was observed against
Page | 52
Plasmodium berghei and P. falciparum due to the presence of antioxidant
enzyme in the former and xanthones in the latter having potential for
reactivation of superoxide dismutase in A. paniculata [67]. Goel et al. [68] have
examined antiprotozoal activity against Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma
cruzi and Leishmania infantum from xanthones extracted from the roots of A.
paniculata and did not found any promising effect up to pharmacological
significance. It has been reported that andrographolide and 5-hydroxy-7, 8-
dimethoxy flavones showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium
berghei and demonstrated that andrographolide (53.9±3.1%) showed better
inhibition than 5-hydroxy-7, 8-dimethoxy flavones (15.4±2.9%) [69]. Due to
reactivation of one of the key antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, it
has been reported that P. berghei the causative agent of malaria was
inhibited by A. paniculata extract [70]. Studies suggested that A. paniculata
showed antimalarial activity against P. falciparum [71]. A. paniculata along
with Goniothalamus scortechinii and Aralidium pinnatifidum showed anti-
malarial activity against P. falciparum as evaluated by lactate dehydrogenase
assay whereas all the extracts exhibited the growth inhibitory action against
malaria parasite [72]. Xanthones isolated from the roots of A. paniculata
showed anti-malarial activity [73] and antiprotozoal activity against T. brucei,
T. cruzi and Leishmania infantum [74].
7.3 Antioxidant activity
Free radicals are harmful for cells as they disturb the major metabolic
pathways and damage cells and tissues. Antioxidant property of plant is
attributed by high content of flavonoid and phenol. Andrographolide reduces
the neutrophil count in rat by inducing the ROS production [23]. The aqueous,
methanolic and ethanolic extract of Andrographis paniculata was reported as
having antioxidant property [75]. The hydroxyl radical scavenging activity is
more effective in the leaf extract of A. paniculata [76]. It has been reported
that the aqueous extract of A. paniculata enhance the activities of catalase,
superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-transferase enzymes and reduces
lactate dehydrogenase enzyme activity [77]. A. paniculata extract act as
antioxidant and are able to remove free radicals and prevent cell damages
and stress responsible for many degenerative disorders [78]. The antioxidant
activity in A. paniculata was found effective in reactivation of enzyme
superoxide dismutase and its activity was examined by DPPH radical
scavenging assay and confirmed by total reducing capacity [79].
Page | 53
7.4 Anti-inflammatory activity
In folk medicine Andrographis paniculata bioactive components e.g.
andrographolide, neoandrographolide, deoxyandrographolide were used
reduce inflammation. Andrographolide prevents the production of oxygen
radical by human neutrophils and inhibits COX-2 expression in human
fibroblast cells [80]. The andrographolide and its derivatives showed anti-
inflammatory effects against dimethylbenzene-induced ear edema due to
inhibition of NO and PGE2 production in mice [81]. The active components
of A. paniculata e.g. andrographolide, neoandrographolide, deoxy-
andrographolide were used for lowering inflammation in folk medicine [82].
Andrographolide have anti-inflammatory activity, it inhibits the neutrophil
adhesion or transmigration reaction through suppression of Mac-1 up
regulation [83]. In mice the crude extract of plant and andrographolide can
induce cell differentiation in myeloid leukemia cell [84]. The compound
andrographolide possess an anti-inflammatory activity and it induces the
expression of nitric oxide synthesis by inhibiting the protein synthesis
activity [85]. It has been reported that in rats the chloroform extract of A.
paniculata stem showed anti-inflammatory activity in hind paw oedemic
model for acute inflammation [86]. Concentration dependent anti-
inflammatory activity was recorded for diterpene lactones,
neoandrographolide the isolated compounds from the methanol extract of A.
paniculata [87]. It has been reported that in vitro and in vivo anti-
inflammatory effects of andrographolide, where the release of inflammatory
cytokines was inhibited by andrographolide [88]. Andrographolide is used as
an alternative medicine in the treatment of autoimmune disease as it exhibits
anti-inflammatory effects [89]. Neoandrographolide showed in vivo and in
vitro anti-inflammatory activities where administration of dimethyl benzene
in mice showed significant reduction of ear edema [90].
7.5 Anti-cancer activity
Cancer is also treated by herbal medicinal plants. The cell growth is
inhibited by andrographolide and the EGFR (epidermal growth factor
receptor) and TfR (transferring receptor) are also affected by
andrographolide. Andrographolide possess anticancer activity [91]. IL-6
played a key role in inflammatory response which results in activation of
androgen receptor, growth and differentiation of cell and development of
prostate cancer. The diterpene lactone, andrographolide isolated from
Andrographis paniculata is used to inhibit expression of IL-6 and
suppression of signals mediated by IL-6 [92]. The andrographolide increases
the expression of CYP1A1 mRNA [93].
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7.6 Hypoglycemic activity
It has been reported that in rabbits the aqueous extract of Andrographis
paniculata is helpful in lowering hyperglycemia after glucose administration
in which the absorption of glucose was inhibited by A. paniculata [94].
Investigation showed that the aqueous extract of A. paniculata was effective
in lowering hyperglycemia in rats [95]. The aqueous extract of A. paniculata
showed antidiabetic activity [94, 96]. The ethanol leaf extract having capacity
to lower hyperglycemia along with oxidative stress and also concluded that
andrographolide is active compound to lower down sugar level [96]. It has
been also investigated that the diabetes mellitus induced by streptozotocin
gets lowered by the oral intake of A. paniculata [97]. Wibudi et al. [98] have
also confirmed antidiabetic property of the plant.
7.7 Anti-HIV activity
The anti-HIV activity was found in crude extract of Andrographis
paniculata in H9 cell line [99]. It has been reported that anti-HIV activity is
exhibited by seven compounds isolated from methanol and hexane extract of
A. paniculata i.e. andrographolide, andrograpanin, bis-andrographolide, 14-
deoxy-11, 12-didehydro-andrographolide, 5-hydroxy-7,8-dimethoxy-
flavone,5-hydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyflavonone,14-deoxyandrographolide [100].
In a clinical trial it has been investigated that in 13 HIV patients the cell
cycle regulation in HIV1 infected individuals was inhibited by
andrographolide by raising the level of (CD4+) lymphocyte [101].
7.8 Hepatoprotective activity
Andrographolide exhibits hepatoprotective activity. It has been
investigated that the liver damages induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats
and mice were treated by andrographolide extracted from leaf of
Andrographis paniculata and found positive result [102]. Among 26 different
formulations, A. paniculata was one of them used in ayurvedic medicine for
treatment of liver disorders. The hepatoprotective activity was observed in
mice when treated with tert-butyl hydroperoxide or carbon tetra chloride103.
The diterpenoids and andrographolide showed efficient choleretic potential
for treating liver disorders in rats such as hepatitis and also damages induced
by carbon tetrachloride, galactosamine and paracetamol [102, 104].
7.9 Anti-pyretic activity
In folk medicine Andrographis paniculata is used for lowering body
temperature in many Asian countries. The aqueous extract of A. paniculata
was used for reducing the body temperature and elongation of
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pentobarbitone-induced sleeping time [105]. It has been reported that ethanol
extract of A. paniculata (2.5gm) showed antipyretic effects on rabbits which
was as effective as (300mg/kg) aspirin [106]. In China, it has been investigated
that the active ingredients such as andrographolide, dehydroandrographolide,
neo-andrographolide are useful to lower the body temperature in rats by
inhibiting the activity of fever inducing agents like hemolytic Streptococcus,
Pneumococcus, and 2,4 dinitrophenol [107].
7.10 Cardiovascular activity
The plant is widely recommended in cardiovascular therapy in many
parts of world. The extract of Andrographis paniculata was used for
dissolving blood clots by promoting the activation of fibrinolysis [107]. The
cardiovascular activity was studied in anaesthetized rats in which the arterial
pressure and heart rate was reduced by 14-deoxyandrographolide and 14-
deoxy-11, 12-didehydroandrographolide [108]. The crude extract of A.
paniculata was used for lowering the risk of damage to the heart muscle
after myocardial infarction in rabbits in which the nitric oxide label is
maintained by the plant and found effective in protecting endothelial
functions [109]. Observation showed that in human the platelet activating
factor (PAF) and eicosanoids are the main inflammatory mediators and the
platelet activating factor is inhibited by andrographolide [110]. The clinical
studies on rats showed anti-hyperglycemic effect of andrographolide in
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [111].
7.11 Psycho-pharmacological activity
The clinical and pharmacological study demonstrated that the aqueous
extract of Andrographis paniculata act as depressant in central nervous
system and showed motor in-coordination and muscle relaxant activity [112].
It has been reported that the plant extract of A. paniculata showed positive
impact for protection of neurodegeneration [113].
7.12 Upper respiratory infections
Several authors have reported positive response of extract of
Andrographis paniculata in upper respiratory tract infections [114, 115]. In
China, it has been observed that the oral administration of andrographolide
showed effective results against respiratory infection. During common cold
A. paniculata reduces the body temperature along with respiratory tract
infection [116].
7.13 Anti-venom activity
Andrographis paniculata possess anti-venom activities and have been
also reported from different parts of the world. It has been reported that 10
Page | 56
patients of viper bite were cured by taking the formulations of A. paniculata
[117]
. The methanol extract of A. paniculata showed potent venom reducing
activity of Daboia russelli [118]. The tribal peoples of Raigarh district of
Chhattisgarh are using the plant extract for the treatment of snake bite [119]. It
has been studied that at dose quantity of 2g/kg bw A. paniculata showed
anti-venom activity against Cobra snake [120]. The crude extract of A.
paniculata at the dose quantity of 1g/kg bw possess anti-scorpion venom
activity [121].
7.14 Effects on reproductive system
It has been reported that in pregnant mice abortion is induced by
administration of Andrographis paniculata in addition, it was also found that
in humans the placental chorionic trophoblastic cells were suppressed by the
activity of this herb [122]. Clinical studies on pregnant female mice showed
failure when treated with A. paniculata mixed food during mating period
with normal male mice [123]. In male albino mice spermatogenesis was
inhibited by dried leaf powder of A. paniculata and andrographolide and
several changes were observed in seminiferous tubules, epididymis, seminal
vesicle, leydig cells, and ventral prostate and coagulating glands have been
reported degenerative in nature. Thus it was confirmed that the compound
andrographolide can act as male contraceptive [124]. A. paniculata showed
antifertility as well as pregnancy terminating activity [125].
7.15 Contradictions
The plant was classified as class2b “herb not to be taken during
pregnancy” according to botanical safety handbook [126]. The extract of
Andrographis paniculata in higher quantity causes adverse health problems
like headache, gastric discomfort vomiting anaphylactic effects and by
reducing the blood clotting activity, platelet aggregation it induces severe
bleeding and bruising activity [127]. Andrographolide causes loss of appetite,
gastric problems, and nausea on overdosing of crude extract [128].
8. Conclusion
Andrographis paniculata is a wonder plant with wide range of
pharmacological properties. The plant is well known for its ethnomedicinal
claims and used for treatment of various diseases such as liver toxicity,
cardiovascular disease abdominal problems, central nervous system, snake
bites, cancer, HIV, respiratory infection, viral infection, fever, diarrhea,
common cold, bacterial infections etc. The plant is not toxic but overdosing
may cause critical health problems. Besides its wider pharmaceutical uses
the drug is recommended unsafe during pregnancy. As A. paniculata is used
Page | 57
for medicinal purpose for long time in acute and chronic diseases, it should
be therapeutically safe for clinical purpose. So on the basis of present text it
is essential to find out other entire group of phytocompounds and to evaluate
their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics for wider application.
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major diterpenoid constituents of Andrographis paniculata Biochem
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pharmacol. 1993; 40:131-136.
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Assistant Professor, Department of Dairy Microbiology, College of Dairy Science vibration to the piece of knowledge
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Management Ludhiana, Punjab, India and tunneling, about diving and driving
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Processing, Computer Vision and
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Copyright © 2022 Apple Academic Press Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Emerging Challenges in
Teaching Literature and
Language in the Virtual World
Editor in Chief
Dr. Somali Gupta
Associate Editor
Dr. Suchitra Gupta
Emerging Challenges in
Teaching Literature and
Language in the Virtual World
Editor in Chief
Dr. Somali Gupta
Associate Editor
Dr. Suchitra Gupta
First Impression: 2020
© Dr. Somali Gupta
Editor in Chief: Dr. Somali Gupta

Associate Editor: Dr. Suchitra Gupta
ISBN: 978-93-86238-97-9
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Editorial Board
Dr. Mita Chakraborty

Dr. Qamar Talat
Dr. Surekha Jain
Dr. Mercy George
Dr. Tarlochan Kaur
Dr. Meena Mann
i
Contents
Editorial Board .............................................................................................................. i

Introduction .................................................................................................................. ii
Preface .......................................................................................................................... iii
1. Virtual Learning During Covid 19: Boon or Curse? ........................................1
Dr. Alka Dutt
2. Challenges & Opportunities of Online Teaching: A Rational View ................6
Dr. Archana Singh and Er. Kuhoo Singh
3. Challenges of Technological Approach in Pedagogical Methods:
Teaching of Literature and Language in Virtual Classroom ........................11
Alka Borade
4. Transfer of Learning in Virtual Environment: A New Perspective ..............16
Tabassum Khan and Dr Somali Gupta
5. Teaching Literature in Virtual World: Opportunities and Challenges.........30
Gitanjali Netam and Dr. Tarlochan Kaur Sandhu
6. India Faces Pandemic Covid-19 Disrupts of Teaching and
Challenges of Poor Students .............................................................................36
Dr. Devashish Haldar
7. The Impact of Linguistic and Social Factors on English
Foreign Language Students’ Free Writing ......................................................42
Dr. Ebtisam Ibrahim Hassan Mohmmad
8. Acquisition Rich Classroom- Opportunities and Challenges .........................54
Ethina V.
9. Overcoming Challenges in Virtual Teaching ...................................................59
Honorene Harold Johnson
10. Emerging Challenges in Teaching Literature and
Language in the Virtual World.........................................................................64
Dr. Jessica
11. Covid 19: Challenging and Changing Approaches
of Teaching English ...........................................................................................67
Kusum Joshi
12. Challenges Faced While Teaching of English in the
Virtual Classroom in India ...............................................................................72
Lakshmi Pramod
v
India Faces Pandemic Covid-19 Disrupts of
Teaching and Challenges of Poor Students
Dr. Devashish Haldar
1. INTRODUCTION
The pandemic has significantly disrupted the higher education sector as well,
which is a critical determinant of a countries economic future. Sometime in
second week of March, state governments across the country began shutting
down school and colleges temporally as a measure to contain the spread of the
novel corona virus. It’s close to a month and there is no certainty when they
reopen. This is crucial time for the education sector- board examinations,
nursery school admissions, entrance test of various universities and competitive
examinations, among others, are all held during this period. After this days
passed by with no immediate solution to stop the outbreak of covid-19, school
and university closures will not only have a short- term impact on the
continuity of learning for more than 285 million young learners in India. This
paper will highlight the challenges which poor students facing India in general
Chhattisgarh.
2. VIRTUAL LEARNING ARE THE BLESSING OF PANDEMIC IN

TEACHING AND ITS CHALLENGES
Transformation is a part of life. Perhaps it is the best and last opportunity for
the teachers to educate the society virtually. Opportunity does not come every
day. Now it is the right time to fight for education for all through virtual
classroom. Virtual-environment plays a fundamental role in education. It is
very difficult and challengeable to teach and learn literature through virtual
classroom. Literature requires vast explanation and critical appreciations which
is impossible through the online mode. Language learners need practice for
learning skills. Still the well sophisticated digital tool and techniques are not
developed for literary studies. This virtual learning is more successful
developed countries. Teaching literature and language online is an important
concern, in the virtual world. Through e-learning teachers can’t understand the
exact method and approach to adopt for their students. It is very difficult and
challengeable to teach and learn literature and language through virtual
classroom. The virtual classroom is not possible in places like Chhattisgarh,
36
India Faces Pandemic Covid-19 Disrupts of Teaching and Challenges of Poor Students
Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Rajasthan and many other villages of Maharashtra,

where 2G internet speeds is provided in many villages in interior areas.
2.1 The Covid-19 Pandemic has Changed Education System in Learning

Platforms
The effects of corona virus in the life of students, parents and teachers.
Bringing the covid-19 pandemic has sparked a global realization that our
current way of life does not work. It has broken hour perception or what is
normal deconstructed society as we know it. So, what could the current effects
of this global pandemic mean for the future of education system. Some factors
affecting the evolution of the education system are as follows:-
a) A change in the purpose of learning
b) The utilization of innovative methods of education
c) Creating tighter relationships with technology in education sector.
2.2 How is the Indian Education Sectors Responding to Covid-19?
In response to significant demand, many online learning platforms are offering

free access to their services, including platforms like BIJU’S a Bangalore-
based educational technology and online tutoring firm founded in 2011, which
is now the world’s most highly valued educational technology company. Since
announcing free live classes on its think and learn app, other companies are
bolstering capabilities to provide a one-stop. Shop for teacher and students for
example:- Vedantu, Doubtnet, Unacademy, Topper, Test Book, Grade up
began offering teacher and students unlimited video conferencing time, auto-
translation capabilities real-time-co-editing of project work and smart calendar
scheduling, amongst other features.
2.3 Collaborative Classroom is Helpful to assist our Future e-Learning
Collaborative classroom are the learning environment of the future. Schools

and colleges around the world are saying goodbye to the conventional lecture-
based learning space where the students remain inert in their respective seats
and the teacher remains at the head of the class. In these new collaborative
environments, teacher transition from doing all the talking to purposely
creating opportunities for student to learn. At the same time, they are
facilitating their learners? Thoughts and discussions about what they learn. In
37
Emerging Challenges in Teaching Literature and Language in the Virtual World
this paper reflect how to collaborative classrooms help further and discover
resources to help learners to through e-learning.
3. LANGUAGE PROBLEM IN PEDAGOGY AND ITS DISRUPTION

ON ONLINE EDUCATION
The language problem had become a major issue in India’s progress in the field
of school and colleges. Apart from problems of language pedagogy generally
used in Indian school and colleges, such teachers are rather thin on the ground.
Most teachers teaching English can do little more than read from a text book.
According to study, a very large proportion of teachers were not confident
teaching in English. India follows the three-language formula, where children
are to be taught in Hindi, English and Regional language, with school having
the freedom to decide the sequence in which these languages are taught, as well
as the medium of teaching. As we know, Hindi is common official language in
India. So, every state follows their regional or Hindi and English languages in
education system. Parents, even in rural areas, know about the huge Hindi or
Regional languages. Those parents are financially well who has given
opportunities to their children study in private schools. Online/virtual classes
available material and language in process by 70-80% so the problem faces
village poor students because they are Hindi medium preferably. Almost 60-
70% students in rural area, who read learn in Hindi medium, because of their
low income or poor financial condition. So, in this case majority of
Hindi/Regional language medium students raised all over India, after that they
cannot give important to learning in English languages. The case of our online
learning in Hindi or Regional languages will not better develop for online
courses. English language at the advance level of online learning or read and
practicing. So, we can tell that English is a global language. People often talk
about English a global language. With more than 350 million people around
the world speaking English as the first language.
3.1 Lack of Smart Phone, Poor Connectivity a Challenge for Teachers and
Students Online Learning
Teachers are facing several challenges in the online mode of learning and
teaching. The online platform may be the only way to reach students during
lockdown, but digital medium comes with its own challenges. Most of the
students and teachers living in remote areas are facing trouble due to slow
internet connectivity. In higher institution like IIT have found that about 10%
of their students are not equipped to assess online classroom instruction from
home. A survey by IIT-Kanpur revealed that 9.3% of its 2789 students, who
38
responded to the survey, cannot download any material sent by the institute or
study online. Every day, the classes are being conducted via Zoom, Google
meet, whatsapp and many other app, for 2 to 3 hours, but a communication gap
affects understanding. The videos get paused in the live feed due to server
issues so he/she missed their live session. Not to clear their doubts.
3.2 Academicians are Facing Challenges in Conducting Online Classes
In online teaching we have lots of advantage, but we also need to recognize

their limitations. Students may sometimes get frustrated due to the lack of
human contact, the absence of a teacher and an inability to discuss it with their
classmate so the students and teacher may need space where they can resolve
their queries and practice with real tools, study materials i-e books, library and
a health environment. I am a professor and I believe that students are getting
impatient or boring due to the challenges of the online module. “When we start
a live class, most students get connected, but after a certain period, they start
leaving due to poor connectivity or communication gaps”. With the lockdown,
the teacher is solving their queries over email. The students who could not
participate in live classes in Zoom or other such platform, for them we are
uploading notes, video lectures and assignments creating a separate platform
i-e cgschool.in. But according to the teacher, live classes often got disturbed
due to continuous buffering and slow internet, so students mainly choose one
to one interaction via-whatapps as there is less chance of disturbance due to
lesser load.
4. REMOTE AREAS POOR STUDENTS ARE BADLY HITTED
During this lockdown the situation is worse for these from remote non-urban
areas. Highlighting India’s poverty and digital device, poor connectivity and
lack of smart gadget is providing a hassle for many students. The students who
are coming mostly from families of fishermen, farmers, fruit sellers, street
venders and home servants. Many students don’t have smartphone or laptops to
attend online classes or get work on whatsapp because of their financial
problem, they how to be afford this expensive expenditure. In lockdown period
it’s to be more tuff for their service. So low income families students does not
fulfill their minimum daily needs. So how could they purchase smart phone
and internet connection? Covid-19 has created a challenge for rural areas
students. The question is how those people who are not economically well of
assess the resources what happens to education to education. But today’s
reality is different. A large part of India is not used on social media and a very
high percentage is not too connected on the mobile. Most of the platforms used
39
Emerging Challenges in Teaching Literature and Language in the Virtual World
by institution and colleges do not have sophisticated technology, than how to

be students can follow the audio-video lectures and virtual lesson. In
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Rajasthan, Odisha and many other villages of
Maharashtra where 2G internet speed is provided village interior areas, Jammu
& Kashmir and we know for online classes or learning 4G internet speed is
necessary. In my experience, for this reason many government school and
colleges have not taken online classes and not only government school and
colleges many private school and colleges are faced this problems. I hope, over
a period of time, we must mentally shift to the new system and the government
has to improve connectivity, the government schools and colleges have taken
to online classes and it has succeeded. Many teachers feel the things and they
can try to solve their problems over a phone call or video calls. “Learning
cannot stop even if schools and colleges are closed”.
5. CONCLUSION
Society has to embrace technology of education and technology in education

then society can transform from pandemic to pan academic. It’s a modern
education system. Coming future will be competition to traditional education
system like a black board, chalk, pencil and technical education system like an
online classes, providing online course material and emphasis to the virtual
classes.
References
• Mitra Arnab. (2020). Poor connectivity lack of smart phones: online
learning a challenge for teachers, students. The Indian Express
• Kumar Rohit. (2020). Lockdown is disrupting a generation’s education,
what can be done?.WIRE
• Choudhury Richa. (2020). Covid-19 pandemic: Impact and strategies for
education sector in India. Economic Times. Government.com
• Hardy Dr. Liz. (2017).ELearning Industry
• (2020). Covid-19 pandemic disrupts India’s face-to-face medium of
teaching. Televisory (Blog)
• Cathy Li. (2020). The covid-19 pandemic has changed education for ever.
This is how. Farah Lalani. World Economic Forum
• (2020). Covid-19 lockdown: How the pandemic bringing change in Indian
education system. India Today
• Juranova ema. (2018). My thought on online learning. Medium.com
40
• Chandra Avik. (2020). Online learning: A solution to disruption in

education? Ghosh Atanu. Economic Times
• Lederman Doug. (2020).Will shift remote teaching be boon or bane for
online learning. INSIDE HIGHER ED
• Govindaranjan Vijay.(2020).What the shift virtual learning could mean for
the future of higher education. Srivastava Anup. Harvard Business Review
• Luthra Purnima. (2020).4 Ways covid-19 could change how we educate
future generations. Mackenzie Sandy. World Economic Forum
• Language in school: If you don’t understand, how can we learn? World
Education Blog.
41
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Chapter
Salen and Related Ligands

Ashish K. Asatkar, Mamta Tripathi and Deepali Asatkar
Abstract
The salen and related ligands are very popular among the inorganic chemists due
to multiple reasons such as ease in synthesis, coordinating ability with very long
range of metal ions, facilitating the metal ions to adopt various geometries, ability
of stabilising the metal ion in variable oxidation states and potential applications of
metallosalen in several fields. The most common application of metallosalen is in
the field of catalysis because of their recoverability, reusability, high efficiency, high
selectivity and their capability of working as homogeneous as well as heterogeneous
catalysts for numerous functional group manipulations including asymmetric
synthesis. Molecular magnetism, sensory applications, bioinorganic activities
and medicinal applications of metallosalen are also very promising areas of their
applications. Porous materials involving metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and
supramolecular building blocks are increasingly getting attention of researchers for
the gas absorption and heterogeneous catalysis.
Keywords: salen, salphen, Schiff-base, chelate ligand, metallosalen
1. Introduction
The coupling of aldehyde group with primary amine yields imine bond which is
called Schiff ’s base. Salen ligand system, one of the most studied classes of chelate
ligands, is also a Schiff ’s base ligand. The earliest report of salen-metal complexes
is probably by Pfeiffer et al. in the year 1933 [1]. The word ‘salen’ is composed of
two abbreviations, sal+en; ‘sal’ stands for salicylaldehyde and ‘en’ stands for ethyl-
enediamine. When two equivalents of salicylaldehyde reacts with one equivalent
of ethylenediamine potential tetradentate chelating ligand known as ‘salen’ is
produced (Figure 1).
Usually, these reactions do not need any catalyst and proceed straightforwardly
but sometimes the products may be hydrolysed in reversible manner. To overcome
this problem, dehydrating agents or molecular sieves (3 Å) are used so that the
water molecules produced during the reaction can be absorbed. Dean Stark appara-
tus is also used for the removal of water molecules when water-immiscible solvent
(e.g., toluene or benzene) is used. Sometimes template synthesis is also performed
to get metal-salen complexes directly in which process first metal-salicylaldehyde
complex is prepared in-situ as template then ethylenediamine is added to get
salen ligand. Although, the salen ligands are sensitive towards hydrolysis which
is catalysed by acid, their metal complexes are quite stable and thus to avoid the
hydrolysis of salen ligands during the applications, their metal-complexes are often
used. Metal salen can work even in aqueous medium. Moreover, the salen ligands
have potential to stabilise metal ions in various oxidation states, making them good
candidates as catalysts.
1
Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds
Figure 1.
Synthesis of salen ligand.
Salen ligand possess N2O2 donor sites which offers metal ions to adopt various
geometries such as square planar, tetrahedral, square pyramidal and octahedral as
well, with additional ligand(s) if required. A large number of metal ions have been
introduced to salen to produce variety of complexes [2–4]. A very broad range of
transition metals, main group metals and inner transition metals have been coor-
dinated with salen ligand systems. Being the multidentate ligand, their complexes
often have very high formation constants. Salen based complexes have potentially
been used in several fields like catalysis, biochemistry, electrochemistry, sensors,
molecular magnetism and materials science. Salen-metal complexes are still leading
in the field of homogeneous catalysis for various organic reactions. In the past few
decades, numerous reviews based on salen ligand system have been published,
highlighting its importance [5–8].
2. Salen ligands and derivatives
Several manipulations have been done on parent salen system to develop the
varieties of salen system for various applications. The derivatives of salen are
designed to develop desirable properties like solubility, stability, chirality, catalysis,
extended conjugation, etc. Aromatic ring and diamine linkage (e.g., ethylene link)
are two main portions in salen ligand system, which are used to put various sub-
stituents. 3-,5-Positions of salicylideneimine are frequently used for substitution.
Substitution at 3- and 5-positions of salicylideneimine also improves the catalytic
activities and prevents dimerization as well. The numbering of positions in salen
system is shown in Figure 2. Substitution at aromatic ring of salicylaldehyde is very
popular to enhance solubility of salen ligand and its metal complexes while the
substitution at diamine linkage is commonly used to get the chiral ligand. Another
position available for the substitution is carbon atom of imine bond.
2.1 Chiral salen
The asymmetry is introduced to salen system mostly by the use of chiral

diamine. Chiral salen are of particular importance in asymmetric synthesis as
enantioselective catalyst. Many procedures are known for chiral synthesis of
Figure 2.
Numbered positions in salen ligand.
2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88593
ligands using diamine having one or more stereocentres [9, 10], or a stereoaxis [11],
through the incorporation of axial [12] or planar [13–15] chirality within the sali-
cylaldehyde. Trans-1,2-diaminocyclohexane and 1,2-diphenylethylene-1,2-diamine
are often used as 1,2-diamine to produce the chiral salen. These two chiral salen (2
and 3) are very popular and their several derivatives have been reported [16]. Very
often, tertiary butyl group and long alkyl chain are put to modify solubility, steric
factor and electronic factor.
Chiral binaphthyl salen complexes (4 and 5) have been designed in such a way
that the complexes possess two stereogenic centres and thus considered as second
generation metal salen complexes. One of the stereogenic centres belongs to
binaphthyl unit while other belongs to diamine unit [17–19]. The complexes were
used for non-racemic oxidation of prochiral sulphides.
2.1.1 Non-symmetrical salen
Salen ligand systems have successfully been employed as homogeneous catalysts

for variety of organic functional group manipulations. Very often they are symmetri-
cal and having C2-axis of symmetry. Non-symmetrical ligands bring out further
magnify opportunities for tuning of electronic, steric and catalytic properties and
therefore various nonsymmetrical analogues of salen have also been developed [20].
There are various advantages of unsymmetrical salen over symmetrical salen such as
nonsymmetrical salen with single functional group can be immobilised onto hetero-
geneous and homogeneous traps to recover it after use [21, 22]. Moreover, electron
releasing and/or withdrawing groups can be put on aryl rings of salicylideneimine
part of salen. Presence of electron releasing and withdrawing groups together acts as
push-pull system for electron density. Also, the unsymmetrical salen-metal com-
plexes have shown better enantioselectivity in certain cases [23, 24].
The easiest way to prepare an unsymmetrical salen can be direct two step Schiff
base coupling i.e., the reaction between salicylaldehyde and ethylenediamine in
1:1 molar ratio to get mono-keto-imine product followed by the reaction with
substituted salicylaldehyde (Figure 3) [25–27]. This method do not need any
3
protection of group or presence of special reagent, but the main drawback of this
method is that the stepwise coupling is not much favourable due to the formation
of symmetrical product in first step and lability of imine bonds towards hydrolysis
which reduces the yield of desirable unsymmetrical product drastically. Jacobsen
et al. exhibited another way to prepare nonsymmetrical salen ligand directly by
the reaction of two different salicylaldehyde derivatives and (1R,2R)-(+)-1,2-
diaminocyclohexane L-tartrate in 1:1:1 molar ratio in single spot, but in moderate
yield (Figure 4) [28, 29]. Another approach for the synthesis of non-symmetrical
salen is selective protection of one of the amine groups of diamine compound
followed by Schiff base coupling of another amine group with salicylaldehyde, then
the protected amine group is deprotected and coupled with distinct salicylaldehyde
(Figure 5) [30, 31].
Silica- and polymer-immobilised Co(III)-salen non-symmetrical complexes (6)
have also been developed and successfully used as catalysts for hydrolytic kinetic
resolution of terminal epoxides with better rate, enantioselectivity and recyclability
[32, 33]. Similar Mn(III)-salen non-symmetrical complexes have also been designed
and studied [7]. Rigamonti et al. reported the synthesis of nonsymmetrical salen-
Cu(II) complexes (7–14) by the reaction of salicylaldehyde/5-nitrosalicylaldehyde
Figure 3.
Direct two step synthesis of nonsymmetrical salen ligand.
Figure 4.
Direct one step synthesis of nonsymmetrical salen ligand.
Figure 5.
Protection-deprotection method for the synthesis of nonsymmetrical salen ligand.
4
and ethylenediamine/propylenediamine in 1:1 molar ratio in presence of Cu(II) ion

and pyridine followed the addition of differently substituted salicylaldehyde and
their nonlinear optical properties were studied and correlated with the structural
diversities [34]. Salen ligand with methyl group at ethylene backbone is known as
“salpn” (15). Salpn and its complexes have been used as additive in engine oil [35].
2.2 Conjugated salen
When phenylenediamine (phen) is taken in place of ethylenediamine during

the reaction, the ligand formed is known as “Salphen” or sometimes “Salophen”
(16). Salphen has extended conjugation with rigid planarity when coordinated with
metal ion in square planar, octahedral or square pyramidal geometry, which is a very
important criterion for material applications. Their photophysical properties can be
fine-tuned by putting suitable substituents. Pietrangelo et al. synthesised thiophene
capped salen ligands and their V, Ni and Cu copper complexes (17) and electro-
chemically polymerised them [36]. Asatkar et al. reported the synthesis of thiophene
analogue of salphen (18) by taking 2-formyl-3-hydroxythiophene in place of
salicylaldehyde and their Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes [37]. However, the complexes
could not be electrochemically polymerised as thiophene capped salphen did.
Even more complicated salphen have been developed by linking/merging two or

more such units either through phenelene or salicylaldehyde [38] Bis-salphen scaf-
fold ligand can be prepared by the reaction of four equivalents of salicylaldehyde
and one equivalent of 1,2,4,5-benzenetetramine and its derivatives can also be
developed is similar way [39, 40]. Kleij et al. reported the synthesis of unsymmetrical
5
bis-metal-salphen scaffold complexes by partial hydrolysis of parent symmetrical

bis-zinc-salphen scaffold complex followed by Schiff-base coupling with differently
substituted salicylaldehyde derivatives (19–29) [41]. Similarly, another bis-salphen
symmetrical and unsymmetrical ligands (30) are prepared using one equivalent of
3,3′-diaminobenzidene and four equivalents of salicylaldehyde [42, 43]. Salphen
based tri [3+3] (31), tetra [4+4] and hexa [6+6] macrocycles have also been prepared
using 2,3-dihydroxybenzene-1,4-dicarbaldehyde and 1,2-phenylenediamine [44–47].
2.3 Salen based metal organic framework
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), is a fascinating classification of porous

materials that can exits as self-assembled via coordination of metal aggregation/
ions with organic linkers [48–50]. Shultz et al. synthesised MOF using pyridine
functionalized Salen-Mn complex and tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)benzene [51].
The MOF was further used to prepare new MOFs with change in metal ion.
The Mn-MOF was demetalated first using H2O2 then remetalated with Cr(II),
Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II) ions [52]. Lin et al. reported MOFs using chiral
Mn-Salen functionalized with variable size dicarboxalic acid linkage. The MOFs
exhibited asymmetric epoxidation catalysis with enantiomeric excess as high as
92% [53]. Jeon et al. reported infinite coordination particles based on carboxalic
acid functionalized Salen-Zn complex and studied the gas absorption capacity. The
amorphous material showed excellent hydrogen gas intake capability [54]. Roesky
et al. used carboxalic acid functionalized Salen-Ni complex and lanthanides to
synthesise MOFs [55]. Shape of the framework was found to be dependent of size
of lanthanides.
Kleij et al. found the unique self-aggregation nature of bis-Zn(salophen) [14,
15, 56, 57]. They have secure self-assembly behaviour through linking coordination
motifs that are fundamentally different from those usually found for the self-assem-
bly of mononuclear Zn-salophens [58]. This takes place on both at the interface of
solid-liquid as well in solution. Oligomeric (Zn▬O)n coordination moiety are accus-
tomed inside the assembly and this is quite distinct from mononuclear analogues
6
of Zn(salphen) which form dimeric structures having a classical Zn2O2 central unit
[59]. Multimetallic salen frameworks have been revealed to act as metallohosts form-
ing adduct complexes with further structural ordering upon substrate binding [38].
Nabeshima et al. employed a linear metallohost containing two N2O2 binding units
[60]. Upon metalation with Zn(II) a 1:3 ligand to metal complex forms via a highly
cooperative process. One Zn(II) ion is situated in a C-shaped O6 site in the centre of
the helical complex. Guest exchange was shown to occur through substitution of the
central Zn(II) with rare earth metal and lanthanide cations. Excitingly, the helicity
of the complex is relying on the size of the central guest cation.
3. Analogues of salen
Due to the extended applications of salen ligand systems, their various ana-
logues have been developed and studied. Chalcogen analogues of salen include sul-
phur and selenium derivatives as thiasalen and selenasalen. However, the sulphur
and selenium analogues are relatively less explored because of the volatile nature,
instability, synthetic complications, unpleasant smell and adverse effect of thiol
and selenol compounds. To synthesise the metal-thiasalen/selenasalen complexes,
template synthesis is often used.
Dutta et al. reported the one pot synthesis of thia/selena analogues of salen-metal
complexes (32–37) via oxidative addition of zero valent group ten metals (Ni(0),
Pd(0) and Pd(0)) to S-S/Se-Se bond of bis(o-formylphenyl)disulphide/−diselenide
followed by in situ coupling with ethylenediamine [61]. Panda et al. reported the
synthesis of bis(alkylseleno)salen ligands (38–41) by the reaction of 2-(alkylthio/
seleno)benzaldehyde and ethylenediamine [62]. Their complexation with Pd(II)
and Pt(II) ions exhibited very interesting results. Complexation of 2-(alkylseleno)
benzaldehyde with Pd(II) and Pt(II) ion yielded the formation of unsymmetrical
complexes with the cleavage of one of the alkyl groups from Se-C(alkyl) bonds.
However, the complexation with Pd(II) ions Complexation of 2-(methylthio)
benzaldehyde with Pt(II) ion, reported by Dutta et al., yielded similar unsymmetri-
cal complex (42–46) while the same with Pd(II) ion yielded time dependent product
[63]. When the reaction mixture was refluxed for 5 min the symmetrical complex
(48) with both the methyl groups intact was obtained, but when it was refluxed for
4 h the unsymmetrical complex (47) was obtained.
Benzene rings have also been replaced by other aromatic rings to design the new
salen analogues. Jeong et al. reported the synthesis of pyridine based salen type chi-
ral ligands (49–50) and their complexes and used them as enantioselective catalysts
in Henry reaction [64]. Asatkar et al. reported the thiophene analogues (51–52)
7
of salen ligand system [65]. Interestingly, thiophene analogue of simple salen was
found to exist in different tautomeric forms in solid and solution phases, unlike
salen ligand. Its reaction with Cu(II) ion resulted in the dimeric complex. Another
example of change in aromatic ring is pyrrole based salen type ligand (53), reported
by Berube et al. along with its dimeric samarium(II) complex [66].
4. Applications of salen-metal complexes
M(salen) complexes have unique and exciting class of ligand based complexes
with exceptionally versatile applications ranging from laboratory reaction to
mass scale industries level. Interestingly, metal salen complexes gained popularity
because of their roles in multiple areas few important of them are discussed below:
4.1 Catalysis
Metal-salen complexes appear as both homogeneous and heterogeneous cata-

lyst and have been substantially investigated by researchers for multiple uses [5].
The most attracting feature of metal salen catalysts is that they can be recovered
and reused. Usually found that the salen as catalyst possess high stability revealed
by their high stability constants [7]. When metal salen are applied as catalyst,
demetalation of the complex occurs because of competitive binding with reagents,
solvent or products, may be associated with changes in the oxidation state of
metal in catalytic cycle. Few important reactions catalysed by metal salen includes
Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reductions (MPV) [67, 68], Friedel-Crafts Reactions
[69], Oppenauer oxidation, Tishchenko reactions [70, 68], ene reaction [71],
mixed-aldol condensation [72, 73], Diels-Alder reactions [71], dipolar cycloaddi-
tions, Claisen rearrangements [74] and the cyclotrimerization of isocyanates to
isocyanurates [75].
Interestingly, Metal salen holds important role in many oxidation reactions like
alkene epoxidation [76], asymmetric syntheses of cyanohydrins and amino acids
[77], and oxidation of heteroatom-containing compounds [78]. In biological system
they actively take part in catalytic oxidation of Ni(III) oxidised in the catalytic
cycles of Ni-Fe hydrogenases [79–82], acetyl coenzyme A synthase(ACS) [83–85],
COdehydrogenase [86, 87], and methyl coenzyme M reductase [88]. Mirkhani et al.
have found that the oxidation of diphenyl sulphide mediated by Mn(III)-salphen
and Mn(III)-salen employing terminal oxidant as sodium periodate. The Mn(III)-
salphen complex yields a product mixture of sulfoxide and sulfone (4, 1 ratio) in
100% transformation under mild conditions [89]. This is in contrast to the analo-
gous Mn(III)salen complex which only led 18% (ratio of sulfoxide and sulfone, 2:1).
Mn(III)-salphen catalytic system was also successfully applied towards a variety of
other sulphides and also furnished 100% yields.
Salen complex of heterobimetallic origin have been exclusively examined
for many asymmetric catalytic synthesis [90]. Salen ligands are prepared from
diamines and salicylaldehydes [91], configuration of both of these constituents can
8
easily be changed, sterically modified as per desirable physical and electronically

altered which makes it possible for the synthesis of recyclable and immobilised
salen complexes [7, 92–96]. Shibasaki et al. have used chemoselective complexation
of transition metals at N2O2 coordination core while the rare earth metal utilised
O2O2 core of same ligand. However, the key role for selectivity and reactivity of
these multimetallic catalysts is based on metal ions e.g., coupling of Cu(II) and
Sm(III) yields 66–99% enantiomeric excess (ee) in Mannich-type reactions [97]
whereas Pd(II) and La(III) is the best combination for the asymmetric synthesis in
Henry reaction, yielding product in 72–92% ee [98].
4.2 Molecular magnetism
Magnetic linkage of paramagnetic metal centres with some non-innocent

ligands, in multimetallic salen complexes has produced essential information on
spin interaction mechanisms. The extent of magnetic interaction (whether it be
antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic) is dependent on a number of factors including
the distance between the paramagnetic centres and comparative orientation of the
related magnetic orbitals. The relative ease of synthesis and the distance between
the paramagnetic centres. Single molecule magnets have gained much research
attention since the discovery of spontaneous magnetization below a critical tem-
perature [99, 100]. By applying proper ligand scaffolds, ferromagnetic interactions
can be enforced between metal centres in multimetallic complexes [101]. Glaser
et al. investigated phloroglucinol as a linker between paramagnetic metal salen
units [102–104]. At the time, m-phenylene linkers had been well established in the
organic radical community as an efficient ferromagnetic coupler and had been
used extensively as a means to produce high spin organic radicals [105]. First row
of transition metal V(IV)〓O [106], Mn(III) [107], Fe(III) [108], Ni(II) [109] and
Cu(II) [110] are best fitted coordinating with triple salen.
4.3 Material applications
Metal salen based materials have drawn attraction of material scientists as well
[111]. Metal organic framework (MOF) and zeolite encapsulated salen have porosity
in their bulk material and thus exhibited gas storage properties and thus expected
as gaseous fuel loading materials [6, 112]. Various lanthanide and transition metal-
lanthanide complexes have been found to have excellent luminescence properties
[113]. Yu et al. reported the Zn(II) complex of salen type ligand exhibiting blue
photoluminescence with brightness of around 37.2 cd m−2 [114]. The LED material
also showed excellent thermal stability and thin film coating property. Ni(II), Pd(II)
and Pt(II) complexes of salphen derivatives have also shown LED uses [115, 116].
Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes of thiophene analogue of salphen have been reported as
semiconducting material for field-effect transistor with excellent hole mobilities [37].
Thiophene capped salen-metal (V, Ni and Cu) complexes, Pietrangelo et al., where
electrochemically polymerised as thin film to get conducting polymers. The poly-
merised complex materials exhibited enhanced nonlinear optical properties [36].
4.4 Biological activities
Metallosalens exhibits many biological activities as antimicrobial activity, anti-

oxidant activity [117] and anticancer propensity [118]. Their numerous applications
have been seen in therapeutics and as biosensors. It has been found that the metal
salen have functional enzyme mimic models as superoxide dismutase [119, 120],
and Galactose oxidase mimics [121], Cytochrome P-450 mimics [122], Cytochrome
9
P-450 mimics [123], vitamin B12 [124, 125]. Metallosalens are capable of induc-
ing specific damage to DNA or RNA and have been recommended as footprinting
agents [126, 127]. Salen complexes are versatile (biomimetic) catalysts for impor-
tant organic transformations. Derivatives of diaryl-substituted amines linked with
metal attached with salen as ligand were experimented in number of cancerous cell
lines [128]. Aromatic ring substitution and structural orientation of salen com-
plexes predict the cytotoxicity. Two labile titanium-salen complexes of cis
configuration were discovered as antitumor agents due to its chelating ability as
found in cis-platin [129, 130].
4.5 Sensors
Metal salen complexes have shown the sensory properties for verities of metal ions
and small molecules [2, 38]. Colorimetric and fluoremetric both types of responses
have been observed depending on the sensor and sensing ions. Chan et al. reported
the Pt(II)-salphen based polymeric sensors for the detection of Pd(II), Cd(II),
Hg(II), Zn(II), Mg(II), Ca(II), Li(I) and K(I) ions [131, 132]. Wezenberg et al.
reported Zn(II)-salphen complexes as metal ion sensors based on demetalation of
complexes [133, 134]. Many multimetallic salen complexes have found to be potential
sensory properties [2]. Song et al. reported chiral salen based fluorescent polymeric
sensor for the enantioselective detection of α-hydroxy carboxylic acids showing
fluorescence quenching upon reaction [135]. The same group reported another chiral
salen based fluorescent polymeric sensor for the detection of Zn(II) ion as turn-on
fluorescence response [136]. Salen based chemosensors for the detection of Al(III)
ion based on transmetalation mechanism have also been reported [137].
5. Conclusions
Researcher aims to design or synthesise a molecule with multidirectional use,

for developing such a molecule endless work is needed with clarity of innovation
leading to novelty. Salen is among those important creation, nevertheless molecule
has unimaginable and multiple scope of application ranging from catalysis to
biological activities, or as therapeutic use in many medicinal drugs. Salen and its
derivatives have been extensively studied because the structural configuration of
complex felicitates its importance in various chemical reactions. Widespread use
enhances its reliability as catalyst in oxidation, reduction, asymmetric synthesis
and many more. The nonsymmetrical salen derivatives have signify to be essential
for the preparation of different polymer-supported catalysts that show improved
properties (higher activities, catalyst recycling) as collate with parent mono-nuclear
complexes. Metallic interference adhere tremendous approach in chemical reac-
tion, presence of metallic centres promotes many specific reaction. Henry reac-
tion, Mannich reaction, Diels-Alder reaction, alkene epoxidation and many such
reactions encountered frequently employing salen as transitional part between
reactant and product. Metal organic framework (MOF) using salen ligand is recent
advancement in the field of macromolecule i.e., supramolecular structure attracting
great attention in the field of catalysis and material science. Thus, it is assumed that
in near future salen can escort a bloom in the field of catalysis, magnetism, sensors,
medicinal areas and material sciences.
10
Author details
Ashish K. Asatkar1*, Mamta Tripathi2 and Deepali Asatkar3
1 Department of Chemistry, Government Gundadhur P.G. College, Kondagaon, CG,

India
2 School of Studies in Chemistry, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, CG,

India
3 Department of Chemistry, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur, MP, India
*Address all correspondence to: ashu.asatkar@gmail.com
© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
11
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19
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[128] Saini AK, Kumari P, Sharma V, 2012;77(10):4759
Mathur P, Mobin SM. Varying structural
motifs in the salen based metal [136] Song F, Ma X, Hou J, Huang X,
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Synthesis, crystal structures, molecular based polymer fluorescence sensors for
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[137] Cheng J, Ma X, Zhang Y, Liu J,
[129] Gust R, Ott I, Posselt D, Sommer K. Zhou X, Xiang H. Optical chemosensors
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complexes as tumor therapeutics. based Schiff base complexes. Inorganic
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[130] Tzubery A, Tshuva EY. Trans

titanium(IV) complexes of salen
ligands exhibit high antitumor activity.
Inorganic Chemistry. 2011;50:7946
[131] Guo Z, Tong W-L, Chan MCW.

Axially rotating (Pt-salphen)2
phosphorescent coordination
frameworks. Chemical
Communications. 2009:6189
[132] Sun S, Tong W-L, Chan MCW.

Alternating poly(Pt-salphen)-
(p-phenyleneethynylene) as
phosphorescent conjugated
linear-rod and coilable sensory
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ISSN 2456-3455
EXPRESSIO N Vol. ill, Issu e 4 and 5 Mar ch
d Se
sEA&Cfl ' an p tembe.r 2019
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RESSION ISSN 2456-3455
RESEARCH EXP Vol. N, Issue 6, March 2021
Darra Adam Khel a Supermarket of Illicit Ar

ms :
A Security Concern
Shakeel Husain* .
V.Y.T. PG. Autonomou s COllege, Durg ' Chhattisgar h.
Abstract
Illicit arms availability in neighbourhoods are alwa
ys a threat to external and internal security. Due
the geopolitics of Afghanistan, superpowers and to
non-state actors were active in that region for
Consequently, the FATA area of Pakistan and Ada deca des.
m Khel in particular became an oasis for arms Prod
and traders as well as terrorists and drug traffi ucers
ckers. America and the former Soviet Union
Afuhanistan with the latest weapons from 1979 to 1989 poured
. A major part of that stockpile came to the gray mark
/'oarra
0 Adam khel . Same thing happened whe n America
and Nata arrived in Afghanistan after 9/11.
et
Pakistan army and ISi a major and decisive play
er in this illicit arms trade which poses a big secu
for India n policy makers. rity concern
Keywords: Afghanistan, America, Darra Adamkh
el, gray market, illicit arms trade, pakistan.
Paki stan used to steal a large part of the weap
ons sent by the US through Pakistan in the cont
Afghanistan. From 1979 to 1993, he did this work ext of
with great gusto. He has also mastered the copy
these stolen weapons. As a result, the M-16 assa ing of
ult rifle is easily available there in the gray mark
arms seller Orak zai says that there is no such wea et. One
pon which they cannot imitate. He can copy anyt
Turkish Ziga na pistols, American Beretta hand guns hing from
, to Chinese 30-caliber weapons. They guarante
copies to be as good as the original.(khan, 2017) e their
This is just one example of Pakistan's arms thief
According to Pakistani newspaper Dawn, Pakistan mark et.
imports small arms worth 134 million dollars annu
But this does not include illegal imports, the pleth ally.
ora of weapons rom the poro us Afghan border,
dozens of arms traffickers operate.(Hammad,2012) where
$200 million worth of small arms enter Pakistan
every year.A country that has only 0.7 doctors for illegally
a population of 170 million and only 0.6 hosp
per 1000 people, where less than 7 percent of the peop ital beds
le are in college There, 4 out of 100 people have
weapons, and for every valid weapon there are 9 licensed
illegal weapons.(Hammad, 2012) The M-16 rifle
~istol is a status symbol in Pakistan. The extent and Beretta
is that weapons are also available on rent here.
W12)This happens in the world probably only in Paki (Hammad,
stan. The large quantities of light and small arms
?3ve to the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet America
intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 were supp lied
>akistan. Half of these weapons and sometim through
es even more were stolen by the Pakistan Arm
he ia:iyber Pakhtoon Darra Adamkhel has remained y. Sinc e then,
the biggest arms market of illicit arms in the
Quality US and Nato military assault rifles and hand world.
th guns are finding their way into the illegal arms
f e Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FAT mark ets
A), M-16 assault rifles and Bere ttas- stan dard issue
•~_the U~ arm y-ar e selling like hot cakes, despite weapons
their high prices...M-16 assault rifles and Bere
.ihtary P1:tols--stolen from the US army and othe tta 9mm
r Nata allies in Afg hani stan -are in dem and
~?me qmte the status symbol among the coun try's and have
uppe r class ... A Beretta 9mm is available for Rsl.5
piece; the M-16 rifles are sold for RsS lakh ... Peop lakh
le only buy an M-16 if it is guar ante ed it is a
m ~ fro~ the US Army with a 'property military
~f of the US gove rnm ent' stamp. Beretta hand
ac~ured m Italy but used by the US anny as sidearms guns
." (Alam and· Aha mad 2014) Therefore the Afgh
are
~ ~ afJways a fortune for illicit arms traders and manufac
18
an
- aeg15 0 pak army and ISI. ture rs of Darra Ada mkh el undo ubte dly unde r
) rresponding Auth . E .
or. ma1 1: alssplato@gmail.com • Mobile No.
8319735275
[84)
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research and development in the field of medicinal plants-
mediated nanoparticles, biopolymer, biotechnology, and
antimicrobial and biomedical research. This new volume,
Green Nanomaterials: Sustainable Technologies
and Applications, explores a number of eco-friendly
technologies in green materials synthesis, which are of
considerable importance. It takes an inter- and cross-
multidisciplinary approach to the green chemistry of
nanoengineering and green nanotechnology application in
materials research. It provides informative coverage of this
exciting and dynamic new field as well as relates the
fundamentals of soft-nanomaterials fabrication and brand CONTENTS
new spectroscopic integration. Preface
1. Bio-Inspired Self-Assembly Green Nanomaterials for
Multifunctional Applications
The book explores bio-inspired self-assembly green S. I. Asiya and Kaushik Pal
nanomaterials for multifunctional applications as well as
2. Fabrication of Green Biopolymeric Nanocomposites
the design and synthesis of green polymeric nanomaterials
I. Samy, Kareem M. Abd El-Rahman, Amal Elhussieny,
for a number of pharmaceutical and biomedical M. Faisal, and Nicola. M. Everitt
applications, including biosensors, drug delivery,
3. Designing and Synthesis of Green Polymeric Nanomaterials for
antimicrobial applications, etc. Also discussed is the
Pharmaceutical Applications
fabrication of green polymer nanocomposites from waste Alaa A. A. Aljabali, Mazhar S. Al Zoubi, Khalid M. Al-Batanyeh,
and natural fibers, such as chitin fiber, chitin whisker Alaa Alqudah, Mohammad A. Obeid, Parteek Prasher, Vijay Mishra,
fiber, cellulose fiber, nano cellulose fiber, eggshells, and Gaurav Gupta, Poonam Negi, Deepak N. Kapoor, Harish Dureja,
cotton waste. Saurabh Satija, Dinesh Kumar Chellappan, Kamal Dua, and
Murtaza M. Tambuwala
The book is a unique mixture of exclusive ideas from peer- 4. Natural Green Biopolymers (Chitosan and Collagen) Extraction,
reviewed papers, reports from the latest research Characteristics, and Biomedical Applications
newsletters, mini reviews, and invited papers on key Aparna Tirumalasetti, Kesana Surendra Babu, Mannam
developments in the field. It will be a helpful resource for Krishnamurthy, Murthy Chavali, and Enamala Manoj Kumar
scientists and researchers, industry professionals, and 5. Biosensor and Drug Delivery Application by the Utilization of
faculty and advanced students in this area. Green Nanotechnology
Meegle Mathew, Appukuttan Saritha, and Kuruvilla Joseph
6. New, Simple, and Cost-Effective Synthesis of Green
Nanotechnology in Anti-Microbial Applications
Tean Zaheer
7. Antimicrobial Applications of Green Synthesized Nanoparticles
and Nanocomposites of Silver
Jaison Jeevanandam, Bala S. C. Koritala, Malakondaiah Suresh,
Stephen Boakye-Ansah, and Michael K. Danquah
8. Plant Extract: Isolation, Purification, and Applications of Green
Nanomaterials Stabilization
US office: 1265 Goldenrod Circle NE, Canadian office: 4164 Lakeshore Road S. Sreevidya, Kirtana Sankara Subramanian, Yokraj Katre,
Palm Bay, FL 32905 Burlington, ON L7L 1A4 Canada Anil Kumar, and Ajaya Kumar Singh
Tel: 732-998-5302 / Fax: 866-222-9549 Tel: 289-937-6300, Fax: 866-222-9549
Email: info@appleacademicpress.com Index
Email: info@AppleAcademicPress.com
Contents continued on side 2

www.appleacademicpress.com
side 2
Green Nanomaterials ABOUT THE EDITOR

Kaushik Pal, PhD, is a Distinguished Professor at Laboratório de
Biopolímeros e Sensores, Instituto de Macromoléculas, Universidade do
Sustainable Technologies Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and a former scientist at Wuhan University,
Republic of China. Prior to that, he was a Visiting Professor at the
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and
and Applications Nanotechnology (IIUCNN) School of Energy Materials, Mahatma
Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India, as well as Chief-Scientist
and Faculty (CAS) Fellow at the Chinese Academy of Science. In the year
2020, he received the Honorìs Cauśa Doctor of Science (DSc) award
15 color & 42 b/w illustrations.
from the Ministry of Education, Govt. of Malasia, Institut Kemahiran
254 pages with index. Tinggi Belia Negara, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia.
ISBN hard: 978-1-77188-965-0.
Dr. Pal supervises a significant number of students pursuing their
ISBN ebook: 9781003130314. bachelor, master, PhD, and postdoctoral degrees. He has published more
$169.95 US | £131.00 hardback. than 110 significant research articles papers in several international top-
March 2022. tier journals, including those published by IOP Nanotechnology, Royal
Chemical Society, Elsevier, Springer, IEEE publications, CRC Press,
Apple Academic Press, etc. He has also edited and published book
chapters and review articles. Dr. Pal is an editorial member of the World
Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Current Graphene Science,
Journal of Chemical Reviews, and others. Professor Pal is an expert
group leader as well as the associate member of various scientific
societies, organizations, and professional bodies. He was the chairperson
of 35 national or international events, symposia, conferences,
workshops, summer internships and has contributed many plenary,
keynote, and invited lectures worldwide. He has also been a reviewer of
over 150 journal articles.
Dr. Pal’s awards include the Marie-Curie Experienced Researcher

(Postdoctoral Fellow), offered by the European Commission in Greece
and the Brain Korea (BK-21), National Research Foundation Visiting
Scientist Fellowship in South Korea. He also served as Research
Professor (Group Leader & Independent Scientist) at Bharath University
(BIHER), Research and Development, Chennai, India.
Dr. Pal’s research interests include nanofabrication, functional

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GREEN NANOMATERIALS
Sustainable Technologies and Applications
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GREEN NANOMATERIALS
Sustainable Technologies and Applications
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Edited by
Kaushik Pal, PhD.; DSc
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First edition published 2022
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: Green nanomaterials : sustainable technologies and applications / edited by Kaushik Pal, PhD.
Names: Pal, Kaushik, editor.
Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20210280352 | Canadiana (ebook) 20210280425 | ISBN 9781771889650 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774639665 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003130314 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Nanostructured materials—Environmental aspects. | LCSH: Nanotechnology—Environmental aspects.
Classification: LCC TA418.9.N35 G74 2022 | DDC 620.1/15—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Pal, Kaushik, editor.
Title: Green nanomaterials : sustainable technologies and applications / edited by Kaushik Pal.
Description: First edition. | Palm Bay, FL : Apple Academic Press, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references
and index. | Summary: “Recent technological advancements in green nanotechnology have opened a brand
new avenue for research and development in the field of medicinal plants-mediated nanoparticles, biopolymer,
biotechnology, and antimicrobial and biomedical research. This new volume, Green Nanomaterials: Sustainable
Technologies and Applications, explores a number of eco-friendly technologies in green materials synthesis, which
are of considerable importance. It takes an inter- and cross-multidisciplinary approach to the green chemistry of
nanoengineering and green nanotechnology application in materials research. It provides informative coverage
of this exciting and dynamic new field as well as relates the fundamentals of soft-nanomaterials fabrication and
brand new spectroscopic integration. The book explores bio-inspired self-assembly green nanomaterials for
multifunctional applications as well as the design and synthesis of green polymeric nanomaterials for a number of
pharmaceutical and biomedical applications, including biosensors, drug delivery, antimicrobial applications, etc.
Also discussed is the fabrication of green polymer nanocomposites from waste and natural fibers, such as chitin
fiber, chitin whisker fiber, cellulose fiber, nano cellulose fiber, eggshells, and cotton waste. The book is a unique
mixture of exclusive ideas from peer-reviewed papers, reports from the latest research newsletters, mini reviews,
and invited papers on key developments in the field. It will be a helpful resource for scientists and researchers,
industry professionals, and faculty and advanced students in this area”-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021036350 (print) | LCCN 2021036351 (ebook) | ISBN 9781771889650 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774639665 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003130314 (ebook)
Subjects: MESH: Nanostructures | Nanotechnology | Biocompatible Materials
Classification: LCC R857.N34 (print) | LCC R857.N34 (ebook) | NLM QT 36.5 | DDC 610.285--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021036350
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021036351
ISBN: 978-1-77188-965-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-77463-966-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00313-031-4 (ebk)
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About the Editor
Kaushik Pal, PhD.; DSc

University Centre for Research and Development (UCRD),
Chandigarh University, Punjab, India.
Kaushik Pal received his Doctorate (PhD)
Author Copy
in Physics from the University of Kalyani
(India). He is the Associate Professor-in-
Charge at University Centre for Research and
Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University
, India. Most recently awarded Honorís Causà
Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) from Higher National
Youth Skills Institute (IKTBN) Sepang, Govt.
of Malaysia as well as achieved ‘Gold Medal’
awarded by the Prinminister of Malaysia for
significant contribution of Graphene Face Mask formulation and Green
Energy Revolution strategies. Entire academic career Prof. Pal received
the prestigious Marie Curie Postdoctoral Fellowship (Greece) offered
by European Union Sponsorship, and the Chief-Scientist Faculty Fellow
(PDF) nominated by Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) foundation in
Wuhan University, China. As a distinguished academician, Prof. Kaushik
has contributed innovative discoveries and smart teaching cultivated at
the top-tier institutions, e.g. Instituto de Macromoléculas, Universidade
do Rio de Jàneiro (Brazil), University of Maribör (Slovenia), Yarmouk
University (Jordan), and IIUCN-Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam,
Kerala (India). A well-known expert supervisor for PhD/Postdoctoral
scholars and an experienced group leader to builds Inter- and cross multi-
disciplinary centers of excellence, resulted more than 120-significant
articles in peer-reviewed (SCI/Scopus) International journals and
partially edited or authored 26-renowned books with reputed publishers.
Besides, he associated with several scientific societies, organizations,
and professional bodies. The most current research spans are focusing on
Nanofabrication, solid-state condensation, renewable energy materials,
functional materials, CNTs/graphene, liquid crystalline optical materials,
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vi About the Editor
polymer, bio-inspired materials, switchable device, spectroscopy, drug

delivery, tissue engineering, switchable device modulation, flexible and
transparent electrodes, super capacitor, optoelectronics, green chemistry,
green chemistry, sensors.
Author Copy
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Contents
Contributors.......................................................................................................... ix
Abbreviations...................................................................................................... xiii
Preface................................................................................................................ xix
Introduction....................................................................................................... xxiii
Author Copy
1. Bio-Inspired Self-Assembly Green Nanomaterials for
Multifunctional Applications...................................................................... 1
S. I. Asiya and Kaushik Pal
2. Fabrication of Green Biopolymeric Nanocomposites............................. 29

I. Samy, Kareem M. Abd El-Rahman, Amal Elhussieny, M. Faisal, and
Nicola. M. Everitt
3. Designing and Synthesis of Green Polymeric Nanomaterials for

Pharmaceutical Applications.................................................................... 47
Alaa A. A. Aljabali, Mazhar S. Al Zoubi, Khalid M. Al-Batanyeh, Alaa Alqudah,
Mohammad A. Obeid, Parteek Prasher, Vijay Mishra, Gaurav Gupta, Poonam Negi,
Deepak N. Kapoor, Harish Dureja, Saurabh Satija, Dinesh Kumar Chellappan,
Kamal Dua, and Murtaza M. Tambuwala
4. Natural Green Biopolymers (Chitosan and Collagen) Extraction,

Characteristics, and Biomedical Applications......................................... 65
Aparna Tirumalasetti, Kesana Surendra Babu, Mannam Krishnamurthy,
Murthy Chavali, and Enamala Manoj Kumar
5. Biosensor and Drug Delivery Application by the Utilization of

Green Nanotechnology............................................................................ 113
Meegle S. Mathew, Appukuttan Saritha, and Kuruvilla Joseph
6. New, Simple, and Cost-Effective Synthesis of

Green Nanotechnology in Anti-Microbial Applications....................... 131
Tean Zaheer
7. Antimicrobial Applications of Green Synthesized

Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites of Silver........................................ 147
Jaison Jeevanandam, Bala S. C. Koritala, Malakondaiah Suresh,
Stephen Boakye-Ansah, and Michael K. Danquah
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viii Contents
8. Plant Extract: Isolation, Purification, and Applications of

Green Nanomaterials Stabilization........................................................ 189
S. Sreevidya, Kirtana Sankara Subramanian, Yokraj Katre, Anil Kumar, and
Ajaya Kumar Singh
Index.................................................................................................................. 219
Author Copy
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Contributors
Khalid M. Al-Batanyeh
Department of Biological Sciences, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Alaa A. A. Aljabali
Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan,
E-mail: alaaj@yu.edu.jo
Author Copy
Alaa Alqudah
Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
S. I. Asiya
Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Bharath University, 173 Agharam Road,
Selaiyur, Chennai – 600073, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: asiya_najeeb@yahoo.com
Kesana Surendra Babu

Department of Chemistry (PG Studies), Shree Velagapudi Rama Krishna Memorial College,
Nagaram – 522268, Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India
Stephen Boakye-Ansah
Department of Chemical Engineering, Henry M. Rowan College of Engineering, Rowan University,
201 Mullica Hill Road, Glassboro, NJ – 08028, United States
Murthy Chavali
NTRC-MCETRC and Aarshanano Composite Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Guntur District – 522201
Andhra Pradesh, India, Tel.: +91-8309337736; +91-9642878182,
E-mails: ChavaliM@gmail.com; ChavaliM@outlook.com
Dinesh Kumar Chellappan
Department of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil,
Kuala Lumpur – 57000, Malaysia
Michael K. Danquah
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, TN – 37403, USA
Kamal Dua
The discipline of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Health, University of Technology, Sydney,
NSW – 2007, Australia
Harish Dureja
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak – 124001, India
Amal Elhussieny
Center of Nanoscience and Technology (CNT), Nile University, Nile Avenue, Giza, Egypt
Kareem M. Abd El-Rahman

Department of Materials Science, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University,
Alexandria, Egypt
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x Contributors
Nicola. M. Everitt
Bioengineering Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham,
University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
M. Faisal
Center of Nanoscience and Technology (CNT), Nile University, Nile Avenue, Giza, Egypt
Gaurav Gupta
School of Pharmacy, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jagatpura, Jaipur – 302017, India
Jaison Jeevanandam
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University,
CDT 250, Miri – 98009, Sarawak, Malaysia, E-mail: jaison.jeevanandam@gmail.com
Kuruvilla Joseph
Author Copy
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Valiyamala,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, E-mail: sarithatvla@gmail.com
Deepak N. Kapoor
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management
Sciences, Solan – 173229, India
Yokraj Katre
Department of Chemistry, Kalyan PG College, Bhilai Nagar, Durg – 490006, Chhattisgarh, India
Bala S. C. Koritala
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Washington State University, Spokane, WA – 99202, USA; Sleep and Performance Research Center,
Washington State University, Spokane, WA – 99210, USA
Mannam Krishnamurthy
Department of Chemistry (PG Studies), Shree Velagapudi Rama Krishna Memorial College,
Nagaram – 522268, Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India; Varsity Education Management Limited,
Ayyappa Society Main Road, Hyderabad – 500081, Telangana, India
Anil Kumar
Department of Biotechnology, Government V.Y.T. PG. Autonomous College, Durg – 491001,
Chhattisgarh, India
Enamala Manoj Kumar

Bioserve Biotechnologies (India) Private Ltd., Hyderabad, A Reprocell Company, 3-1-135/1A,
CNR Complex, Genome Valley Main Road, R.R. District, Mallapur, Hyderabad – 500076,
Telangana, India
Meegle S. Mathew
Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Valiyamala,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India, E-mail: meeglesmathew@gmail.com
Vijay Mishra
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab – 144411,
India
Poonam Negi
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management
Sciences, Solan – 173229, India
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Contributors xi
Mohammad A. Obeid
Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Kaushik Pal
University Centre for Research and Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University, Punjab, India.
E-mails: kaushikpal@whu.edu.cn; kaushikphysics@gmail.com
Parteek Prasher
Department of Chemistry, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun – 248007, India
I. Samy
Assistant Professor, Engineering Department, Nile University, Cairo, Egypt; Center of Nanoscience
and Technology (CNT), Nile University, Nile Avenue, Giza, Egypt; Department of Industrial
Engineering and Service Management, School of Engineering, Nile University, Nile Avenue, Giza,
Author Copy
Egypt; Smart Engineering Systems Research Center, Nile University, Nile Avenue, Giza – 116453,
Egypt, E-mail: isamy@nu.edu.eg
Appukuttan Saritha
Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri,
Clappana, Kollam, Kerala, India, E-mails: kjoseph.iist@gmail.com; sarithatvla@gmail.com
Saurabh Satija
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab – 144411,
India
Ajaya Kumar Singh
Department of Chemistry, Government V.Y.T. PG. Autonomous College, Durg – 491001,
Chhattisgarh, India, E-mail: ajayaksingh_au@yahoo.co.in
S. Sreevidya
Department of Chemistry, Kalyan PG College, Bhilai Nagar, Durg – 490006, Chhattisgarh, India
Kirtana Sankara Subramanian

Department of Food Science, Faculty of Veterinary and Agriculture Science,
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
Malakondaiah Suresh
Loyola Institute of Frontier Energy, Post Graduate and Research Department of Advanced Zoology
and Biotechnology, Loyola College, Chennai – 600034, Tamil Nadu, India
Murtaza M. Tambuwala
SAAD Center for Pharmacy and Diabetes, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science,
Ulster University, Coleraine, UK
Aparna Tirumalasetti
Department of Chemistry, International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), Nuzvid Campus,
Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Nuzvid (RGUKTN)-AP, Mylavaram Road,
Nuzvid – 521202, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, India
Tean Zaheer
Department of Parasitology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan,
E-mail: teanzaheer942@gmail.com
Mazhar S. Al Zoubi
Department of Basic Medical Studies, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
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Non Commercial Use

Author Copy
Abbreviations
ACh acetylcholine
AChE acetylcholinesterase
AD Alzheimer’s disease
ADSCs adipose-derived stem cells
AFM atomic force microscopy
Author Copy
Ag Argentum
AgNO3 silver nitrate
Al aluminum
ALP alkaline phosphatase
AMPs antimicrobial peptides
APTE 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane
ASE accelerated solvent
Au aurum
BA bio-active
BCP biphasic calcium phosphate
Bi bismuth
BSA bovine serum albumin
BTE bone tissue engineering
C carbon
C chromatographic
CaP calcium phosphates
Cat-CS catechol modified-chitosan
CBD-BDNF collagen-binding neurotrophic factors
CeO2 cerium dioxide
CHyA collagen–HyA
CO carbon monoxide
Co cobalt
CO2 carbon dioxide
COSs chitooligosaccharides
CSD chitosan derivatives
CTAB cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
Cu copper
DAD diode array detector
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