Chapter 6: Fuels and Energy

Energy helps societies flourish. The industrial revolution was fueled by the abundant
availability and use of fossil fuels. It allowed the creation and use of powerful machinery, and
facilitated mass production, thus stimulating economic growth.

However, energy production and its use are the most significant contributors to global warming.
While the industrial revolution brought about great prosperity, it also set in motion the
environmental challenges we have today.

In recent years, global action is directed at sustainable development and climate adaptation.
Research has shifted to create technologies that allow countries to transition to cleaner and
more efficient energy sources.

This chapter aims to examine fuels as sources of energy and discuss some related alternative
technologies and environmental issues.

FUEL TYPES
Fuel is a combustible substance, composed mainly of carbon, which produces a large
amount of heat upon complete combustion. The heat energy generated is used in both
domestic and industrial processes. According to their availability and how quickly they can be
replaced or renewed, fuels are classified as renewable or nonrenewable fuels.

NONRENEWABLE FUELS
Nonrenewable fuels are derived from sources that exist in limited quantities and are
typically formed over millions of years. The most relied-upon source of energy is fossil fuel.
These have formed over millions of years and are being depleted far more rapidly than they are
being formed. Fossil fuels may be solid, liquid, or gaseous.

Coal for heating was replaced by oil during the 1940s and oil was replaced by natural gas soon
after. The exploration of new fossil fuel sources often involves environmentally sensitive regions,
making the search for new supplies of fossil fuels a major political and economic issue.

SOLID FUEL: COAL

Solid fuels include coal and rocket propellant. These are solid materials that can be
ignited to release energy. They are typically cheap, plentiful, and easy to produce.

Table 6.1 Types of Coal Based on Carbon Content

Type of Coal Approximate Carbon Content, %C

Wood 50%
 Peat 57%

Lignite 67%

Bituminous 83%

Anthracite 93.5%

While wood was man's first and most accessible fuel, coal, in its different forms, is the most
widely used solid fuel. Peat forms from partially decomposed organic matter in water-saturated
environments, primarily used for residential and commercial heating purposes. When peat is
fermented, heated, and subjected to high pressure over a long period, lignite coal is formed. It
is used in power plants as fuel to produce steam which drives turbines to generate electricity, in
cement and brick manufacturing, or residential heating as briquettes.

Upon millions of years of further compaction and heating, denser and more carbon-rich
bituminous coal is formed. It is used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation and to
make coke (smokeless fuel) and as a reducing agent for iron ore smelting. Anthracite coal forms
from the final stage of coalification, involving higher pressures, temperature, time, and
significant geological forces. It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, and the
highest energy density of all types of coal. It delivers high energy per its weight and burns
cleanly with little soot, making it ideal for residential and commercial coal stoves and space
heating.

To assess the quality of coal, proximate or ultimate analysis is performed. A proximate analysis
involves the determination of the following:
1. Moisture content: A known amount of finely powdered air-dried coal sample is weighted
in a crucible and heated. It is then cooled and reweighed. The loss in weight is a
measure of the moisture content of the coal. It is expressed in percentage as
𝑊1 − 𝑊2
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑊1
× 100 (E6.1)

2. Volatile matter contents: Other than moisture, coal may contain combustible gases like
H2, CO, and CH4, as well as gases that do not burn, like CO2 and N2. A known amount of
moisture-free coal is heated at 930 – 970ºC, cooled, and reweighed. The amount of
volatile matter is expressed in
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
× 100 (E6.2)
3. Ash content: Ash is the non-combustible component of coal, often composed of various
metal oxides. It is considered an inherent impurity. A measured amount of air-dried coal
is heated at 700 – 750ºC and the solid residue (ash) is cooled and weighed.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
× 100% (E6.3)
4. Fixed carbon: The percentage of fixed carbon can be obtained by subtracting the total
percentage of moisture content, volatile matter content, and ash content from 100.
 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = 100 − % 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − % 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 − % 𝑎𝑠ℎ (E6.4)

Ultimate analysis involved the determination of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and ash
content.
1. Ash is determined in the same way as in proximate analysis.
2. Nitrogen: Using the Kjeldahl method, a known amount of coal is heated with conc.
H2SO4 along with K2SO4(cat.), the nitrogen is converted into (NH4)2SO4. The solution is
cooled and made alkaline with an excess of NaOH. This results in the conversion of
(NH4)2SO4 to volatile ammonia. The product is then distilled into a solution of standard
acid, wherein the excess acid is back-titrated with a standard base from which
percentage nitrogen is determined.

3. Sulfur: A known amount of coal is burnt in a constant-volume calorimeter with oxygen to

convert sulfur into sulfates. The residue is digested with dilute HCl and precipitated as
BaSO4 by the addition of BaCl2 solution. The precipitate is then filtered, washed, dried,
and heated to a constant weight from which the percentage of sulfur is calculated.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 32.06

% 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 233.4
× 100% (E6.5)
4. Carbon and hydrogen: A known amount of coal in a combustion tube is burnt in excess
pure oxygen. The carbon and hydrogen of the fuel are converted to CO2 and H2O
respectively. The gaseous products are passed through two bulbs containing known
weights of KOH and CaCl2 respectively. The excess weight of KOH and CaCl2 indicates
the amount of CO2 and H2O absorbed which are produced from the combustion of coal.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 12.01
% 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 44.01
× 100% (E6.6)
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 2.016
% 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 18.02
× 100% (E6.7)
5. Oxygen
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 100 − % 𝑜𝑓 (𝐶 + 𝐻 + 𝑁 + 𝑆 + 𝐴𝑠ℎ) (E6.8)

Although coal is cheap and plentiful, it is a "dirty" fuel that contaminates our environment and
contributes to the carbon dioxide imbalance in our atmosphere as well as nitrogen oxides from
the combustion process. It also contains sulfur, which introduces sulfur dioxide and sulfur
trioxide into the atmosphere — a key component of acid rain. There is also the problem with
the disposal of its byproduct, ash.

LIQUID FUEL: CRUDE OIL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

Oil is a major liquid fuel, formed by refining petroleum or crude oil. Crude oils are made
up of hydrocarbons, in particular: alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons. It was formed in Earth’s
crust over the course of millions of years by the anaerobic decomposition of animal and
vegetable matter by bacteria. Crude oil varies in its properties and composition from one
country to another and from field to field. These differences are due to viscosity, volatility, and
animal and vegetable matter composition.

Crude oil is treated by physical and chemical processes to produce various petroleum products.
The crude oil is separated into various fractions by fractional distillation. The resultant fractions
are then finally subjected to purification into desired useful products. The total process is called
refining of petroleum and the plant where these are done is called refinery. The process involves
the following steps:
1. Removal of water: Crude oil is allied to flow between very highly charged electrodes.
The colloidal water droplets coalesce to form large drops and separate from oil.
2. Removal of sulfur: Sulfur is precipitated as CuS using CuO and filtered from the oil.
3. Fractional distillation: The crude petroleum is heated at about 400ºC in a distillation
column made of stainless steel. As the hot vapor moves upward, it condenses and the
various components of the crude oil are separated according to their boiling points.
Higher boiling fractions condenses first followed by lower boiling fractions and are drawn
off as shown

Figure 6.1. Crude Oil Fractional Distillation and Its Products

The most important fractions collected from the column are

1. Petroleum Ether (C5 to C7)
2. Gasoline or petrol or transportation fuel (C5 to C8)
 3. Kerosene or jet fuel (C10 to C16)
4. Diesel (C15 to C18)

Other than engine fuel applications, petroleum products are also used as

1. Bitumen — mixed in asphalt for road construction

2. Lubricating oils, waxes, and polishes — this includes a coating on food packaging, for
waterproofing and preserving freshness.
3. Refined oil — used in creating plastics, resin, synthetic fiber, industrial solvents, and
even soaps and detergents.
4. Ligroin — used as a solvent in organic compounds
5. Liquified petroleum gas — household LPG is the lightest product of crude oil
fractionation.

The demand for various crude oil products is not in proportion to what can be naturally
produced. Hence, it is necessary to chemically alter the various proportions of natural oil
fractions. This is called reforming and is accomplished by the use of various catalysts. Reactions
are designed to provide the fuels required and the chemicals needed for the petroleum industry.

Despite the wide applicability of petroleum, it is more expensive than solid fuel due to higher
production and storage costs, a greater fire hazard, the risk of oil spills, and the specialized
equipment required for more efficient combustion.

GASEOUS FUEL: NATURAL GAS

Natural gas, typically methane with small amounts of ethane, propane, or butane, is
formed under the earth by the decomposition of the vegetable matter lying underwater. It is
extracted from underneath the oil-bearing regions and oil fields through a process called
hydraulic fracturing (fracking).

It is mainly composed of methane, ethane, propane, butane, and a trace amount of other
hydrocarbons along with hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and monoxide. Natural gas primarily
consisting of CH4 and some lower molecular weight hydrocarbon gases is called dry or lean and
that with a higher proportion of ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and high molecular weight
hydrocarbon gases, in addition to CH4 is called wet or rich natural gas.

It is mainly used as a domestic and industrial fuel or as raw materials for methanol and
formaldehyde preparation.

RENEWABLE FUELS
Renewable fuels originate from sources that can be naturally replenished within a
relatively short timeframe. It offers a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative
to fossil fuels. Depending on the specific technology, location, and purpose, any of the following
renewable fuel sources can be used.

BIOFUELS
The most common approach to producing biofuels is to transform plant sugars and other
carbohydrates into combustible liquids. These are derived from organic materials such as
groups, agricultural byproducts, or algae. The use of feedstocks, land utilization, and potential
impacts on food production and biodiversity are currently being considered to improve the
efficiency, sustainability, and commercial use of available production techniques.

Ethanol
An alcohol-based alternative fuel is made by fermenting and distilling crops such as corn,
barley, or wheat. It can be blended with gasoline to increase octane levels and improve
emissions quality.

Pros: Produces lower carbon emissions compared to gasoline, can be produced from a variety of
agricultural crops and biomass, and with minor modifications, can be used in existing
gasoline-dependent engines.

Cons: Lower energy density compared to gasoline – needs higher volume to produce the same
amount of energy, requires significant amounts of water, energy, and land to produce and
process the required crops.

Biodiesel
These are typically produced from soybean oil, canola oil, palm oil, tallow, or used
cooking oil. Producing biodiesel requires a chemical process called transesterification. Biodiesel
is commonly used in transportation, agricultural machinery, and power generation.

Pros: Lower carbon emissions compared to traditional diesel fuel, can be used in existing diesel
engines without any major modifications, and extends the life of diesel engines by providing
additional lubrication.

Cons: Production may cause edible vegetable oils shortage, higher production costs than
traditional diesel, may produce higher nitrous oxide emissions in some engines, and may require
special handling and storage due to its higher viscosity.

Biogas
Gaseous alternative fuel is generated from the anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter like agricultural byproducts, animal manure, food waste, or wastewater. Once impurities
like carbon dioxide are removed from the product, biogas can be used directly as fuel for
heating, transportation, or electricity generation.
Pros: Improves waste management practices, can be produced from a variety of sources which
does not compete with human food sources, and provides a use for methane, which is a potent
greenhouse gas.

Cons: Requires a constant supply of organic waste materials for reliable fuel production, may
require additional steps to remove impurities, requires significant modification of current fuel
infrastructure, and risk of methane leakage during production and transportation.

SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is abundant, clean, and renewable, making it one of the most widely
adopted renewable fuel sources. It can be directly converted into electrical energy by
photovoltaic and photogalvanic cells (solar cells) or transformed into gaseous fuels such as
hydrogen by the photoelectrolysis or photocatalytic (solar) decomposition of water.

Pros: Inexhaustible and produces no greenhouse emissions, can be installed in individual

buildings on the roof or walls, can be situated on open land or on solar farms, has a long
lifespan and relatively low maintenance, and may be combined with compatible storage systems
for continuous power supply.

Cons: The level of energy production is dependent on shading and weather conditions, high
initial costs for infrastructure, large land requirements for large-scale applications, and the
production and disposal of solar panels may have negative impacts on the environment.

WIND ENERGY
Wind power is a rapidly growing source of electricity generation via wind farms or even
smaller turbines on an individual scale. Wind turbines are typically installed in areas with strong
and consistent winds, such as open plains or coastal areas. The rotating blades of wind turbines
capture the kinetic energy of the wind and spin a generator which produces electricity.

Pros: Abundant, renewable, does not produce greenhouse gases during operation, can be
installed inland or offshore, and suitable for rural areas.

Cons: Energy levels produced may vary with wind availability, creates noise pollution, may
negatively affect local bird and bat population, and requires a large expanse of land for
commercial applications.

HYDROPOWER
Hydropower makes use of the kinetic energy from flowing or falling water to produce
electricity. It is one of the oldest and most common forms of renewable energy. The
development of highly efficient turbines has increased the output of power stations and allowed
for their installation in many new areas. Both large-scale hydropower plants and small-scale
hydro systems are used worldwide.
Pros: Reliable and consistent source of energy, offers significant production capacity in
large-scale power plants, has well-established storage and distribution infrastructure, and serves
as multipurpose reservoirs for water supply, irrigation, and flood control.

Cons: Negatively impacts river ecosystems and fish populations, and disrupts surrounding land
and communities for dam construction.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal power plants extract heat from the Earth through wells drilled into
geothermal reservoirs. The heat is carried to the surface through hot water or steam. These are
then used to drive a turbine which generates electricity.

Pros: Reliable source of energy and produces no greenhouse gases, requires less land than
other renewable energy sources, and is applicable in various geological settings.

Cons: Areas with appropriate geothermal resources are limited, have high upfront costs for
exploration and infrastructure, increased chance of land sinking and earthquakes, and may lead
to decreased water levels in underground reservoirs.

CHAPTER QUESTIONS

1. Can geothermal energy be considered both a renewable and nonrenewable resource?

Why or why not?
2. What major energy source(s) is/are used in the province?
3. A 0.300 g coal sample is analyzed for its nitrogen content by the Kjeldahl method. If
25.0 mL of 0.100 M H2SO4 is required for titration, what is the percent nitrogen content
of the sample?
4. Given the data below, what is the percentage of fixed carbon in the sample?

Crude sample mass 10.0000 g

Dried sample mass 9.2654 g

Sample mass after heating to 950ºC 9.0073 g

Mass of solid residue 3.6820 g

5. The production of biodiesel from a batch of soybean oil yielded 500 liters. If the
transesterification process resulted in a 90% conversion of the oil, what was the initial
volume of soybean oil?
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Dabelstein. W. (2022). Handbook of Fuels: Energy Sources for Transportation. Wiley-VCH
Roussak. O. (2013). Applied Chemistry: A Textbook for Engineers and Technologists. Springer
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