12 CHAPTER 1.

BASIC EQUATIONS
1.3 Linear elasticity
Let re-formulate the continuity equation (1.2) and momentum equations (1.7) in the
form that is more suitable to model deformations of an elastic solid body when the
stress tensor
ij
depends on deformations.
1.3.1 Deformations
As earlier, a laboratory Cartesian coordinate system (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) is used to describe
deformations of a solid body. Positions of a solid body particle at the initial moment
t
0
and current moment t, are characterised by its locations r
0
= (x
1
0
, x
2
0
, x
3
0
) and
r = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), respectively. If w = (w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) is the particle displacement vector
then
r = r
0
+ w. (1.28)
Neglecting the real particle trajectory, we can treat the motion as the mapping
given by the vector w(x
1
0
, x
2
0
, x
3
0
, t t
0
), and the time interval t t
0
parametrises
the mapping.
Assuming that the deformation is described by smooth functions w(x
1
0
, x
2
0
, x
3
0
, t t
0
)
we can write down the
dr =
r
x
1
0
dx
1
0
+
r
x
2
0
dx
2
0
+
r
x
3
0
dx
3
0
,
and then
|dr|
2
= dr dr =
_
r
x
i
0

r
x
j
0
_
dx
i
0
dx
j
0
.
Thus, the coecients
_
r
x
i
0

r
x
j
0
_
determine the length of the deformed element
|dr|
2
whose initial length was
|dr
0
|
2
=
_
dx
1
0
_
2
+
_
dx
2
0
_
2
+
_
dx
3
0
_
2
.
To characterise the full deformation of a solid element the deformation tensor
ij

is dened by the formulas for its components:

ij
_
x
1
0
, x
2
0
, x
3
0
, t t
0
_

1
2
__
r
x
i
0

r
x
j
0
_

ij
_
. (1.29)
Dierentiating (1.28)
r
x
k
0
=
r
0
x
k
0
+
w
x
k
0
(1.30)
1.3. LINEAR ELASTICITY 13
and accounting the relations
_
r
0
x
i
0

r
0
x
j
0
_
=
ij
we can re-write the tensor deforma-
tion components (1.29) in the following form

ij
_
x
1
0
, x
2
0
, x
3
0
, t t
0
_
=
1
2
_
w
i
x
j
0
+
w
j
x
i
0
+
w
k
x
i
0
w
k
x
j
0
_
.
Then we can replace dierentiating with respect to the initial coordinates x
1
0
, x
2
0
and
x
3
0
for dierentiating with respect to x
1
, x
2
and x
3
what follows from (1.30):

x
k
0
=
x
m
x
k
0

x
m
=
_

mk
+
w
m
x
k
0
_

x
m
.
Thus,

ij
_
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, t t
0
_
=
1
2
__

mj
+
w
m
x
j
0
_
w
i
x
m
+
_

mi
+
w
m
x
i
0
_
w
j
x
m
+
_

mi
+
w
m
x
i
0
__

lj
+
w
l
x
j
0
_
w
k
x
m
w
k
x
l
_
.
Below, we will study small deformations with | w| 1. For such deformations we
can neglect terms of order O
_
| w|
2
_
, and the tensor deformation components are

ij
=
1
2
_
w
i
x
j
+
w
j
x
i
_
. (1.31)
Below we assume that t
0
= 0 that the initial locations x
1
0
, x
2
0
and x
3
0
are taken at
t
0
= 0.
1.3.2 Continuity equation
The integral continuity equation (1.1) can be re-written in the form
_
V
dV =
_
V
0

0
dV
0
,
or, after replacement of the variables,
_
V
0
JdV
0
=
_
V
0

0
dV
0
, J =

det
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_

where J is the Jacobians modulus. Since this is correct for any initial individual
volume V
0
, we can write down the continuity equation in the form:
J =
0
. (1.32)
14 CHAPTER 1. BASIC EQUATIONS
Since
J
2
=
_
det
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
2
= det
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
det
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
= det
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
T
det
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
= det
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
T

_
_
_
_
_
x
i
x
j
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= det
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
1
0
x
2
x
1
0
x
3
x
1
0
x
1
x
2
0
x
2
x
2
0
x
3
x
2
0
x
1
x
3
0
x
2
x
3
0
x
3
x
3
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
1
0
x
1
x
2
0
x
1
x
3
0
x
2
x
1
0
x
2
x
2
0
x
2
x
3
0
x
3
x
1
0
x
3
x
2
0
x
3
x
3
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= det
_
_
_
_
_
_
r
x
i
0

r
x
j
0
__
_
_
_
_
.
Using (1.29), we nally we get the following formula for the Jacobians square:
J
2
= det
ij
+ 2
ij
.
Its substituting into the continuity equation (1.32) leads the equation usually used
in the solid deformable body theory:

_
det
ij
+ 2
ij
=
0
. (1.33)
In this form of the continuity equation, the independent space variables are x
1
0
, x
2
0
and x
3
0
.
In the case of small displacements, and thus deformations, |
ij
| 1, we get:
=
0
(1 + O()) . (1.34)
1.3.3 Momentum equation
Let re-formulate the momentum equation (1.7) in the case of small displacements,
| w| << 1, and small velocities |v| << 1. Since below we study deformations in the
absence of the body forces, the momentum equation is written in the form

v
i
t
=

ij
x
j
.
Accounting (1.34) and v
i
=
w
i
t
we get

2
w
i
t
2
=

ij
x
j
. (1.35)
In the linear elasticity theory the stress tensor is governed by Hookes law

ij
= div w
ij
+ 2
ij
(1.36)
where and are constant Lames coecients characterising the solid body mate-
rial.
1.3. LINEAR ELASTICITY 15
Substitution of (1.36) into the momentum equation leads to the Navier-Cauchy
equation (or Lames equation):

2
w
t
2
= ( + ) grad div w + w. (1.37)
As follows from (1.37) the displacement w can be independently found from the
Navier-Cauchy equation. Then the deformation tensor
ij
is calculated from
(1.31), and the density is given by (1.33).
In parallel with the Lames coecients and , the Poissons coecient, , and the
Youngs modulus, E, are used. There are the following relations:
=

2( + )
, E =
3 + 2
+
. (1.38)
The following table gives some idea about the orders of magnitude.
Material E 10
11
(N m
2
)
Steel 2.02.2 0.240.28
Copper 1.1 0.310.34
Rubber 0.00008 0.47
If an elastic body has a boundary, one has to formulate the appropriate boundary
conditions to incorporates the physics associated with this boundary, that is, more
specically, the eect of the outside world on the the elastic medium through its
boundaries. The simplest boundary conditions in linear elasticity are formulated
either in terms of displacements w or in terms of stresses
ij
, i.e., according to
(1.36), the derivatives of w. For example, a xed boundary means that w = 0 there.
For a stress-free boundary one has
n
= 0, where
n
is the stress vector.