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Osprey MAA 269 The Ottoman Army 1914 18
Osprey MAA 269 The Ottoman Army 1914 18
Osprey MAA 269 The Ottoman Army 1914 18
ISBN, 8SSJ1411 I
INTRODUCTION sian Central Asia and c\'en the East Indies - no small
feal for an Empire which had been called the 'Sick
Man of Europe' for almost a hundred years!
The Ottoman Turkish Empire was one of the leading The Olloman Army of the Great War, is, like the
protagonists in the First World War of 19Q-18, and Olloman Empire itself, oflen wrongly seen as being
the stolid courage of !.he individual Ouom:lR soldier- entirely dominated by Imperial Germany. Most
'Johnny Turk', as he was to his enemies, was works on the Ottoman Army of the period were
recognized by 211. Yct the army in which Johnny written by German officers and advisors; few Turkish
Turk served is, like the Ottoman Empire itself, accounts have b«n translated into Western lan-
generally little understood. The Empire had already guages and as a rcsult the Ottoman Army has too
been in existence for six centuries and was still a often been seen as little more than an extension of the
formidable force. Although it was app:uently totter- Imperial Germa!:l Army. This was far from true: the
ing towards its fin.al collapse, it W:lS not, 2S is so often foundations of the Ottoman Army remained Turkish
thought, :already finished. and Islamic, as did the attitudes and aspirations of
O\'cr the four years of the 'Great War', the most of its officers and men. Of course German
Ottoman Army, Navy and two tiny air services influence was strong, especially after Germany won a
fought on 6\-c major fronlS (GaUipoli, Sinai- concession to build the famous 'Berlin to Baghdad'
Palestine, Arabia, Iraq and the Caucasus). Ottoman railway, but this aspect must not be allowed to
troops also sen'cd in many other war zones (Romania, obscure the important independent role that the
Galicia, on the Eastern front, the Salonika front, Ottoman Empire played in the Greal War. The
Libya, Arabia, Yemen and Iran). In addition, Ott~ Ottoman government maintained its own war
man agents stirred up trouble for the Allies, much policies which conflicted in many ways wilh those of
further afield, in the French Saharan territories, Germany.
Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Oman, Afghanistan, Rus- The Ottoman Turks had recently been virtually
,I
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SOI'fALItANO
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ABrSSlNIA
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driven out of Europe in the First Balkan War
(1912-13) fought against Serbia, Bulgaria and
Greece. But the Empire still held huge territories in
Asia including almost all of the Arab Middle EaSt,
and these the Ottomans were determined to keep.
They also had their eyes on the \'ast, ethnically
Turkish lands in the Caucasus and Centrod Asia.
Lying behind the apparently reckless Ottoman deci-
sion to enter the Great War was a dream of imperial
re\'ival - of a new pan-Turkish empire in the east to
be can'ed out at Russia's expense.
PRELUDE TO THE
GREAT WAR
In 1908--() a revolution led by army officers overthrew
Sultan Abdiilhamit II, the last autocratic absolute
ruler of the Ouoman dynasty, and although Ottoman
sultans remained on the throne for another 14 years,
real power fell to the Committee of Union and
Progress, the so-called 'Young Turks'. Rule was
shared betwcx:n Talat Pa~ as Minister of the Inter-
ior, Enver Pafl as Minister of War and Chief of the
General Staff, and Ahmet Cemal Pafl as Minister of
Marine - a triumvirate which soon became:l sh2fed
dictatorship.
The 'Young Turk' revolution ignited a period of
violent upheaval. At the same time reforms were
made in most aspects of the Ouom:ln state; these were
barely underway before the Ottoman Empire faced
blatant aggression from Italy in Libya, followed by Offlccrcoder, FeyV offlccrcorpstiS R whole
twO Balkan Wars. The year t914 saw the Empire ,Henguf. AfWN (rom the before the chtlngcs
newknlpak lamb's 111'001 introduced by the Young
shorn of almost all its European territory, and hlH, the uniform worn by l'uri..s Revolution. (Askeri
effectively reduced to Anatolia and the Arab pro- rndets seems ro be closer Aljj~,'Si, Isranbul)
to thlH of,he Ortomlln
\'inces. Not only were large numbers of Balkan
l\oluslims massacred in these wars but the now
shrunken Ottoman Empire had to absorb a massive Russia; but this was denied, and the Young Turks
influx of refugees fleeing \'arious spates of 'ethnic had to fall back on Germany. Russia's ambitions in
cleansing' by Greeks, Serbians, MOnlencgrans and eastern Anatolia were, howe\'er, opposed by the other
Bulgarians. During these bitter years the new 'nat- powers. Naturally they were seen by the Ottoman
ionalist' ideology of Pan-Turkism gained suppon gO\'ernment as the first steps towards the annexation
among the Turkish majority population of the of the eastern provinces. Ne\'ertheless, the Ottoman
Empire. Army gained \'aluable experience in these troubled
Immediately after the cat<istrophic Balkan Wars years, particularly in defence of the Libyan coast
the Ouoman government turned for suppon to against It<ilian naval att<ick - experience which was to
Britain and the other entente powers, France and be put to good effect at Gallipoli four years later.
s
Army Reforms
During its decadent period in the 19th century, the
Ottoman Empire had often tried to reform its armed
forces by hiring European officers. At the time of the
Crimean War there had been strong French in-
fluence, but by the late 19th century the Army was
modelling itself almost entirely upon German lines.
This was largely the resull of a number of Gennan
military missions, chiefly those of Von der Goltz
(1886-1&)5) and Liman von Sanders (1913-1918).
Abdiilhamit II fnoured Gennan advisors and Ger-
man armaments for the simple reason that Germany
seemed to have fewer vested interests in the Middle
EaSt. The imporr:ance of these missions can hardly be
overestimated, especially in the education of a new
class of junior and middle ranking officers. both
Turkish and Arab, who would make their mark
during the First World War.
Sultan Abdulhamit II (1876-1909) had taken a
keen interest in his Annyand, in particular, had made
great efforts to make conscription fairer: all Muslim
males became eligible except those from the tra-
ditionally exempted areas of Istanbul, Albania, ajd
and I-lijaz in Arabia, Tripoli and Benghazi in Libya,
together with a number of nomad groups. Students in
higher education were also exempt for the term of
their studies. Muslim refugees from European perse-
cution now became an important source of educated
and highly motivated recruits. Under the new con-
Above: $cI"O:; Be)', CO of
'.'fth Arm)' Corps in
Ga/icia photognlphcd on
I ' September 1916.
Ottoman troops scm co
support the Germans lind
Austro-Hungurisln$ Oil the
fllstern from >l"erc
sOlllc/hing of an elire.
Thcirki/ >l"as, lit first, the
bcst II vIIi/lIb/e. (Askeri
Miizcsi, Istanbul)
Austrian archduke in Bosnia and the world was when the Great War started. The British Admiralty's
driven towards the worst war it had yet known. On 1 seizure of these ships for the Royal Navy had a
August, even as the war clouds gathered, German devastating impact in Istanbul, even among pro-
and Ottoman representatives proposed rn:H the British groups. Within a few days two large German
Ottoman Empire muster an army of 120,000 men in warships, the cruisers Coden and Br~slau, arrived off
Thrace. rC2dy for a joint Ottoman-Bulgarian attack the Dardanelles seeking sanctuary from a pursuing
on southern Russia, with another force of 90,000 British fleet. They were permitlcd 10 enter Otloman
troops available a month laler. The following day waters where they were soon tr:tnsferred, by a
Germany and the Ottoman Empire signed a secret fictitious sale, to thc Ottoman Navy, becoming the
alliance, though this did not commit the OUomans to baulecruiscr SlIllan Seti", Yavuz (normally short-
declaring immediate war on Germany's enemies. ened to Yavuz) and the light cruiser Midilli. Their
Acutely aware of its military weakness, the OUoman erews put on Ottoman uniform and their comman-
government remained neutral for se,'eral months der, Admiral Souchon, became head of the Ottoman
after the outbrC2k of war, the only member of the avy.
ruling 'Young Turk' triumvir:ue to favour action British \'essels patrolling offthe Dardanelles then
being Enver Pa~. A Turkish colonel was also sent to g:a\'e notiee that henceforth any warships venturing
Sofia to discuss:l possible pact with Bulg:aria ag:ainst a into the Aegean Se:a would be regarded as hostile.
feared Serbian-Greek alliance. The Ottoman Navy promptly closed the straits to
The narrow straits that linked the Aegean Sea to foreign shipping and laid further mines. Even so the
the Black Sea - the Dardanelles in the south and the Ottoman Empire remained neutral, until 29 October
Bosphorus in the north - were among the most 1914, when the Yavuz. Midi/li and other Ottoman
strategically important waterways in the world. They warships suddenly opened fire on Russian naval bases
also led directly to the Ottoman capital of Istanbul. in the Black Sea.
lot surprisingly, the Ottoman I avy laid a minefield Though it is unlikely that the Ottoman Empirc's
to prOtect the Dardanelles as earlY:ls 3 August. strategically important position would have allowed
For sever:tl years the Ottoman go\'ernmenl had it to remain neutral for long, the re:asons for the att:lCk
been m:lking efforts to strengthen the ill-equipped on Russia are still a matter of debate. The main
and outgunned Ouom:ln 'avy. Two modern battle- responsibility lay with Enver Pa~a, supported by a
ships, the Sultan Osman I and the R~sadjye partly pro-German faction within the ruling Committee of
paid for by public subscriptions, had been ordered Union and Progress. But it is not e"en certain that the
from British shipyards and were nearing completion Germans wanted such precipitate action by a mili-
8
tarily weak ally at such an early point in the war. In
the end the bombardmems were made on the
authority of Enver Pa$a as Minister of War, without
the knowledge or consent of the Sultan's Grand
Vizier and most other government ministers. Yet
doubts remained almost to the last moment.
The German crews of the Yavuz (Coden) and
A1idjl/i (8m/au) would naturally do what they were
ordered, but would Turkish laval officers, many of
whom had been trained by the British, take such
controversial orders from a German admiral? On 29
October 1914the die was cast and the Ottoman I avy
shelled se\'eral Russian Black Sea ports, following an
almost certainly false claim that a Russian ship had
been caught trying to mine the entrance to the
Bosphorus. On 2 'ovember, Russia declared war on
the Ottoman Empire, followed three days later by
Brirain and France. Even before this, British ships
had sunk an Ouoman minelayer in the Gulf of Izmir
and bombarded Aqaba in the Red Sea. The shelling
of the Dardanelles fortresses by an Angl~Freneh
fleet on 3 November merely confirmed that the
Ottomans were now at war with the world's three
largest empires.
A conference on I August between Ottoman and
German representativcs had proposed that the On~
mans adopt a strictly defensive posture toward the
Russians on the Caucasus from while seizing naval
domination of the Black Sea. But all such plans were
It Turkish$(}ldicronguurd AnRlQJian peasants sin« at
academic while the positions of Bulgaria and in the snow ofthe Easrern leasr the 6th century. lIS
Romania remained undecided. Meanwhile Front, Galicia 19,6. He ...el/ lIS large fur ove....
Germany's Austr~Hungarian allies got into diffic- wears the huge shuUY fur boots. (Askeri lUiizcsi,
coat used by ellstern Istanbul)
ulty on the Galician from and requested an urgem
Ottoman seaborne invasion of the Ukraine to divert the hands of Envcr, Talat and Cerna!. Enver Pa$a ran
the Russians. The German High Command, how- the Ottoman war effort almost single-handedly as a
ever, preferred an Ottoman strike against the Suez military dictator; Cernal Pa$a took comrol of Syria
Canal to disrupt Britain's communications with its and became its effective ruler; and Talat Pa$a
Indian Empire. The Germans also promised the concentrated on civil maners in the capital. Pro-
Ottomans huge territories in the Russian-ruled vincial governors ran their regions with differing
Caucasus and Cemral Asia, not (0 mention neutral degrees of autonomy and apparently differing en-
Iran. In the event the plan to attack the Suez Canal thusiasm for the war. In Izmir, for example, Rahmi
won the day and the invasion of the Ukraine was Bey behaved almost as if his pro\!ince was a neutral
called off. zone between the warring states.
The outbreali: of war was greeted in Istanbul with Finally, of course, the entire Ottoman state was
deep gloom. Cavit Pa$a, one of four ministers to defeated in 1918. This effectively signalled the end of
resign in disgust at their country's entry into the war, the ancient Ottoman Empire though its last \'estiges
declared: 'I t will be our ruin -even ifwe win.' For the were not buried until the declaration of the Turkish
remainder of the war, real power was rosray locked in Republic in 1923.
19 15
CHRONOLOGY January Ouomans enter Tahriz in north-west Iran
after Russian withdrawal & attempt to
The Ottoman Army fought on scveral fronts during take oil-fields in south-west Iran.
the First World War. Events in one region naturally 2-3 Feb. Ouoman auempt to cross Suez Canal
affected those elsewhere, but poor communications fails.
within the Empire meant that the Turks were often 19 Feb. Allied (British & French) Navies bom-
fighting three or four separate wars. bard Dardanelles.
19 14 " Mar. Allied marine landing on GaJlipoli Penin-
2 Aug. Ottoman-German treaty of alliance. sula driven off.
I I Aug. German warships Gotbm & Brtslou reach 18 Mar. Allied (British & French) lavies auempt
Turkey. to break through Dardanelles, driven off
September Russia seizes control of nonh-west with heavy loss.
Inn. 28 Mar. Russian Navy bombards Turkish pons in
26 Sept. Britain declares Ottoman warships out- Black Sea, further bombardments later in
side the D:udanclles hostile. year. Ottoman forces in Yemen inVlide
28-9 Oct. Ouom:m 2\'Y bombards Russian b2SCS British-ruled Aden Protectorate.
in Black Sea. April Armenian rebels seize Van in eastern
November British Navy bombards Yemen coast. Anatolia, British occupy oil-fields in
I Nov. Russian troops invade eastern Turkey. south-west Iran.
2-5 Noy. Russia, Britain & France dcdare war on Allied landings on Gallipoli Peninsula &
Ottoman Empire. Asiatic shore of Dardanelles.
q. 'ov. Sultan declares Jihad against Russia, May Russian ad\tancc in eastern Anatolia
Britain & France. reaches Lake Van, reoccupy north-west
22. av. British occupy 8251"2 in southern Iraq. Iran. British begin advance up Tigris in
30 Nov. Ottomans invade British-occupied Egypt. Iraq.
Deeember Ouoman offensive against Russians on July Ottomans defeat British force outside
Caucasus front results in disaster. Aden.
Winter 1914-15 Britain occupies Aegean islands August Ottoman forces retake Van from Russians
outside Dardanelles. . & Armenians.
6 Aug. Additional Allied landings on Gallipoli 18 Sept. & 3 Nov. Ottoman naval raids agamst
Peninsula. Greek. 'pirate' islands off Aegean &
29 Sept. British occupy Kut in Iraq. Mediterranean coasts.
22-25 Nov. Ottomans defeat British at battle of 1917
Ctesiphon in Iraq, British retreat towards Winter Outbreak of typhus on Caucasus front.
Kut. 25 Feb. British retake Kut in Iraq.
7 Dec. Ottomans besiege British in Kul. March Russian Revolution, Russian Army ceases
19 16 offensive operations.
8 Jan. Final Allied withdra.....al from GallipoLi 10-11 Mar. British occupy Baghdad.
Peninsula. 26---'27 Mar. Ottomans defeat British at First Battle
14 Jan. Sun of large Russian offensive on Cauca- ofGaza.
sus front. April Russian Army starts retreat from eastern
15 Feb. Fall of Erzerum to Russians. Anatolia.
18 Apr. Russians seize Trabzon on Black Sea 19 Apr. Ottomans defeaf British at Second Battle
coast. ofGaza.
29 Apr. British surrender at Kut. 25 Jun. Last Ottoman-Russian naval clash in the
6May Ottoman combined operation retakes Black Sea.
Uzun island in Aegean from British. Summer Creation of new Y.ldmm Army intended
May-June Ottoman counter-Qffensive in eastern to reconquer Iraq from British.
Anatolia. 6 Sep. Huge explosion in Istanbul destroys
27 Jun. Arab Revolt against Ottoman Empire much ofYlldlTlm Army's equipment.
proclaimed in western Arabia. 31 Oct. British defeat Ottomans at Third Battle of
July Renewed Russian offensive in eastern Gaza.
Anatolia. December Ottoman & German naval blockade
August Small Ottoman counter-Qffensive in east- imposed on Russian Black Sea coast.
ern Anatolia. 8 Dec. British occupy Jerusalem.
4 Aug. Ottoman thrust aeross Sinai Pensinula 18 Dec. Ceasefire agreed between Ottomans &
defeated at Romani. newly independent TranscauC2sian Re-
Summer Ottoman Expeditionary Force is sent to public (Armenia, Azarbayjan & Georgia).
help Germans, Austr()-Hungarians & 28 Dec. Armistice signed at Brcst-Litovsk ends
Bulgarians in the Balkans & on the East- fighting between Ottoman & Russian
ern Front. forces.
11
Ottom/In ArnbCHvalryon
thcir WRy to R military
rel'icw in Damascus, April
191].OthcrphQtogruphs
tnkcn on rhc samc (J(Xasion
show rhrlf rhc)' wcre"
ru:c:omprlnicd by a
'dcrvish' band. (Imperial
War Museum Qlo]p6)
19 18 19 19
20 Jan. urge Ottoman navOII r.lid mto Aegean January Ottoman garrison in Medin.a fin..aJly sur-
from Dardanelles. renders to forces of Ar.lb Revolt.
:11 feb. British occupy Jericho. April Beginning of Turkish 'War of Liber.ltion'
26-31 Mar. Ottomans defeat British in first Battle against Allied armies of occupation in
of Amman. Anatolia.
26 Apr. Ottomans retakc Kars on Caucasus front.
30 Apr-3 May. Ottomans defeat British in Second
Battle of Amman.
May-June Transcaucasian Republic fragmcnts
THE ARMY
into three states (Armenia, Georgia, The OUoman Army was mobilized in August 1914,
Azarbayjan) immcdiately after war broke out in Europe, and three
28Jun. Death of Sultan Mehmct V, succeeded by Armics were cstablished. The First and Second were
MehmCI VI. based west and east of the capital Istanbul, while the
August British occupy Baku oil-fields on Caspian Third faced the Russian frontier in the Caucasus. In
coast. November '914, after the Ottomans entered the war,
14 Sep. Onomans & Azarbayjan forces drive Brit- a Fourth Army was crcated in Syria. A Fifth Army
ish from Baku oil-fields. was cstablishcd in the spring of '9'5 to defend the
17 Scpo Troops of Arab Revoh scvcr Ottoman southern approaches to Istanbul; and the Sixth,
communications on Palestine front. Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Armics were set up
19 Sep. British break through Ottoman front in during the course of the conflict.
Palestine. The scalc of mobilization was very large in
1 Ocl. Troops ofArab Revoh occupy Damascus. proportion to the size of the Ottoman Empire's
25 Oct. British occupy Aleppo. population. Losses, too, were high compared to other
30 Oct. Ottoman government signs Armistice statcs-some 4,500,000 Turks alone dying during the
with Allies at Mudros. Followed by conflict from war-action, disease, st2r\'ation and
occupation of most of Anatolia & Thr.lce massacre. E"en before entering the war there was a
by British, French, Italian & Greek massive call-up of reserves which put a great strain on
forces. resources. The harvest was severely disrupted and
12
this caused a ncar famine. Ne\'ertheless several new
Armies were established following massive troop
movements across huge distances; the 6th Army
Corps ncar Aleppo in Syria, for example, joining the
First Army outside Istanbul.
Foreign observers were impressed by the quality
of the First Army outside the capital although more
distant Armies had lower efficiency with some infan-
try companies consisting of no more than 20 ill-
equipped men. The First Army was based in the
remnants of the Empire's European provinces (East-
ern Thrace), the Second on the Asiatic side of the
Bosphorus, nOt far from Isunbul, and the Third at
Erzerum in eastern Turkey, By the end of the war
nine numbered armies were in existence throughout
the Empire. plus the special Yddlnm Army and
several separate corps serving in Europe. The large
number of these armies W:l:S criticized by German
ad\'isors who believed they required too many staff
Ottoman Turldsh field The reMr-I'ielf' orthe
and support facilities which could have been better arrillery on rhe Gallipoli kabalak orthe man on the
used:lt the front. rront in '9t5. ThelQIJdcrs ri,hr sholf"5 how the clod!
collar has the Arabic co,'cringorthis headgear
During the months of Ottoman neutrality Tur- number; (a small V) was normally lfv~lnd.
kish W:l:f :lims changed significa.ntly, the westwud indicating his regiment, (Askcri Muzcs;, lsranbul)
:lmbitions being abandoned in fnour oflibcrating of
the Muslim-Turkish peoples of the Cauca.sus and ing. Onl}' in the summer of 1917, with the proposed
Centr.11 Asi:l: from Armenian and Russi:ln domin- Yldlflm camp2ign, were these southern fronts uken
ation. More immediately, Enver Pa~'s first plan was seriously, but by then it was too latc.
a compromise between Ottom:l:n 2nd Germ2n prior-
itics, with the pre-emptive strike 2gainst the Russian Morale
Black Sea fleet followed by defensivc operations in Amazingly, the morale of what cven the most
the Cauca.sus and 2n offensive against the British- sympathetic modern military historian has called the
held Suez Canal while the bulk of the Army stood 'rugged hut gimcrack Ottoman Army' remaincd high
ready for possible aclion in the Ukr2ine. almost to the end. Thc dedica.tion of Turkish units
Soon, the drcam of liberating eastern Turkish like the 57th Infantry Regiment, whieh was almost
peoples developed into an obsession. Enver drew up wiped out while stopping an Australian advance from
an extraordinary plan for a winter offensive against ANZAC Cove during the Gallipoli campaign, is
Russian forces in the Caucasus, a plan that Liman known, but not widely. Whal is Icss remembered is
von Sanders considered impossible and which ended
in disaster in January 1915" The defeat deprived the
Ottomans of reserves of trained troops badly needed
on other fronts. Such Pan-Turkish dreams diverted
attention away from the Ottoman Empire's Arab
provinces and evcntually ca.used the Empire's undo-
Turkish officers captured officcrs ha l'e disti"ctiw'
by the 5th Auslralia" Light hats !hat lool.· like deep-sea
Horse during the rail or fishermen s 'soU'lf·cstcr:s'.
Damascus, JO St'prembcr (Imperial War Museum
1916. Mosr If"nlr the lambs QUJ5J)
rur kalpak but nnj ClH"alry
Il
()(ll'111.111 \nll~ (h~.llll ....lIl"ll IlJr~ IIJIS
19 17 Istanbul
19 18 Istanbul
Finn Anny
19 14 10= FOl'1I'ltd 5 Aug. 19'4
19' S Wtilern iho~ OfSlrailS
11),6 Thratc:
'9 1 7 Th",tc: znd Na ...1Sq. &: Gern\lln ",""plane uni! 1\"0 Corps liCnllO norlhern S)'ria;
(as Slraits IXfeocc: Comnu.nd) therafter link morcc lhan 'name-pl.le'
Thraee ~noJ Na.-al Sq. &: German Kaplan\" unil LillIe more than 'name-pia Ie'
(as Slr.lilS IXfcna: Command) Disban<kd 17 Feb. 1918
Reformed 1.4 Scpc. 1918
Disban<kd II Oct. 19,8
that a regiment of Arab reinforcements then drove the firsl time in li\'ingmemory thai an Otloman Army
the Australians back to the coast. Only later in the war had defeated a major European power.
did the morale of such non-Turkish units decline As Mustafa Kemal Ataturk laler wrote, the
with the spread of the Arab Re\'olt. Victory in the greatest monument (0 such successes was the
GaUipoli campaign also boosted morale, this being Mdmel(ik himself - the affectionate nickname given
0.« I-O.:"t;01I AirSupporr Commcnt...
Fif,h Arm)'
19 15 Slrll'lS (lJoiphoru' & I)nd.Ml1l$) 'Si Sq. (from Jul),)
19 16 Slro,lS (lklsphoru, & I)...bndle'§), .nd lSI Sq., 6th Sq_, 5th Sq. & tSI N.,·.I
"-e'§lem An.,ol" Sq.
We'§tCTn & SOUlh.,,<'SICTII Ana,oIi., & lSI Sq., 6th Sq., 5th Sq., 11th Sq. &
Cilicia 1M NlI."&I Sq. Only rilht "'cok di.-wons
SlrailS (Bmphorus & Dnd.ncUe'§). .nd 1st Sq., W. Sq., 3th Sq., 12th Sq., 1st Disbanded 11 No... 1918
"-o;tCTII Anatalia 1'1.'"'11 Sq., & lSI:, 2nd, Jrd Bolloon
S«<....
Sixlh Ann)'
'9'5 Iraq Formed 5 Sep'. 1915 from unilS
Ilrcad)' in lnoq
"16 lroq 2nd Sq. & I1lh (bier rnlIlOCd '3Ih) Mowl Group formed Jul)' to COUnter
Sq. RuSiion mrelilo Mosul
I'll Ccn'ral&nonhcmlnq Ibghcbd Aircrafl Pork (IOO\"N 10 Sc:paratc Euphr:IlCI & TiFis Groups
Samarn & bier MowIl, Ind Sq.. luh formed bc:ause of dillku.11
Sq.. IJlh Sq. & 1St Balloon Sq. (non- oommUNo:alionJ
opmIrionIl)
"18 Nonhern Iraq M05U1 AilUlfi Port., 2nd & IJlh Sq. Still """ttl )In, 19"
Sc:"enth Arm)·
1"1 G1icio Formed 11 AlIJ. 1911. Inlcnckd fOif
Inq fronl, di,-cnnllo Pak:$tinc
"18 P.lcIline & S}'rio (see ur>dCT Ytld1rltt'l Anny Group) Unda- Ylldlnm Ann)'Group
t'OOUIUnd, Disbanded IJ N~. 1918
Eilhth Ann)'
1'16 Pak:$tine Formed 2 Oa. "16{doIC 1lftC'I:fUin)
I'll Pak:$tine
1'18 Palc:Rinc&S)rio (I« under Ylldlnm Anny Group) Indudinl GnTnan Mia Corps
UIMJa Ylld.nm Anny Group
oonunand. Disbondnl 1-4 N~. "18)
Ninth Anny
1818 &Ibns Formed 'June 1'18 (flall>l>pbl~only)
incorponoli.. Rumeli Field
Dmchmmt (I« European Franu)
51ill nisIN Jan. 1'19
Ylld,r,m Arm)' Group
1'17 Northern S)rio & nonhcTn Iraq Slalffonnnl Ql"ly 1'17 (Ihromically
inwtjHK.1inl Fourlh, Sc:"mlh &
Eilhlh Annica. Ind German Asia
to the bra \'e but unpretentious Turkish infantryman, still remembefed as Abu Shuja'a, the 'Father of
The courage of A1~ltm~/(ik was recognized by allies Courage', while his British opponent is remembered
and foes alike. In the Middle East, where the Arab as Abu AifAfiJfah, the 'Father ofa Thousand Guns',
peoples have little reason to be nostalgic about On the other hand most observers recognized that the
Onoman rule, the Turkish soldieroflhe Great War is uneducated Onoman ordinary soldier was lost with-
IS
out good leadership and that any breakdown of some senior commanders. Fahri Pa~a, the Ottoman
command weakened his morale. At Gallipoli leaders Commander in the Muslim Holy Cily of Medina for
like Mustafa Kemal understood the capabilities of example, had becn CUI off from support for years and
such troops when well commanded by officers who only surrendered in 1919 after receiving specific
led by personal example. There were many examples orders from the Ouoman sultan. He then left his
of silent pre-dawn attacks in which officers with sword on the Prophet Muhammad's grave and
drawn swords wen! ahead of men who were ordered retired as a hero to Turk.ish Muslims. Throughout
[0 charge only when they saw their officers raise their the Ottoman Army Muslim imams served much as
whips and only to shout their banle-cry of Allahu Christian chaplains did in European armies. They are
Akbar when they had actually reached the enemy's recorded reading the Qur'an 10 soldiers as they served
trenches. The close relationship between officers and their guns under na,·al bombardment al Gallipoli and
men was, however, gradually undermined. By the later reportedly took. over the leadership of some
end of 1917 a frequent reshuffling of Armies, the
bre2.L:ing up and re-forming of units, meant that
officers hardly knew their men, let alone had time to
earn their respect.
Not surprisingly Arab units were the first to show
signs of decay. Turkish (essentially anti-Arab) na-
tionalism grew quickly within the Ottoman Army
and had undermined the morale of many Arab
officers e,·en before the war began. According to
Liman ,'on Sanders the Arab was JUSt as good a
soldier as the Turk - when treated fairly - but by
t917 this was no longer the casco By 1918 most Arab
troops were held back as an unreliable reserve.
Islam
Competing nationalisms may have influenced the
Ottoman Army's officer corps but it was the Muslim
faith which underpinned the morafe of the ordinary
Ottoman soldier. It also had a powerful influence on
harshly treated labour batulions. Troops of Arab women and, unlike some ideas subsequently forced
origin were me next to start deserting in some on the people by Atatiirk, this earlier relaxation
numbers, but by late 1917 when rations on the geneI1illy remained within Islamic codes of
Caucasus, Syrian and -Iraqi fronts had deteriorated to behaviour. During the war, for example, many
almost below subsistence level, even Turks were Turkish women in Istanbul discarded the veil in
doing so. Frequem amnesties were announced from public - to the horror of ultI1i-traditionalists. Yet
the Sultan's palace in attempts to bring troops back to mey almost invariably retained the headscarf, this
the I1inks, much to the disgust of German advisors being all that the Prophet Muhammad had originally
who argued in favour of salutary executions to insisted upon. More importantly, Ottoman women
discouI1ige further desertion. played a prominent role in offices, factories, relief and
Even in 1914some Ottoman Armies had not been medical work just as women did in other countries
up to full strength and as the WOlr dragged on several caught up in the Great War.
of those in quiet areas were reduced to little more
than 'number-plates'. The Fifth Army in western
Anatolia had, after the end of the GOllLipoli campaign, UNIFORMS
only about one-mird of its proper artillery, virtually
no transport, and almost no machine-guns; some of AND EQUIPMENT
its troops e\'en lacked rifles. By 1917 most military
foonations were only at one-fifth paper strength, and One of the most visible results of the Young Turk
even me best units were losing half their new recruits Revolution of I~ was in Ottoman Army uni-
mrough desertion or sickness before they reached forms, although these reforms took seveI1i1 years to
their regiments. Most of the remaining troops wetC complete. During the previous hundred years the
raw recruits conscripted as young as 16 years of age. Ottoman Empire had often tried to modernize the
In isolated locations such as the scattered garrisons appearance as wen as the organization of its armed
defending the Hijaz I1iilways, however, numbers forces. At the time of the Crimean War there had
were actually above the official strengths as 'unlisted', been a strong French influence but by the late 19th
unpaid stI1igglers were attI1icted by the chance of century the Army was modelling itsclfalmost entirely
food. upon German fashions.
The morale of the civilian population, parti- A basic khaki uniform was introduced in 11)09 to
cularly in Istanbul, endured remarkably well. Every replace the old dark blue, although mese remained
student of modern Turkish history knows how for an officer's full-dress uniform. The red larhush or
Mustafa Kemal Atatiirk forced 'modernization' and 'fez' with its dark blue taSsel, the tI1idemark of the
'Westernization' on his people after the First World Turkish soldier for almost Ol century, "i'as replaced by
WOlf. Yet the war irselfhad already seen considerable the /tuba/alt. This unique form of military headgear
libeI1iJization. These were most obvious in the role of consisted of a long c10m wound around a wickerwork
18
base and resembling a solar topee or sun-helmer. The On campaign equipmenl could often not be
kabo/d had apparently been devised by Enver Pa~a replaced so that soldiers were secn with their feet
himself and was often known as an Enveri)'e. Officers bound in cloth and their worn leather equipment held
wore the sheepskin ka/pok but this was normally together with string. During the appalling weather of
replaced by a kob%k on active service. Later in !.he Nm'embcr '9'5 Ottoman troops at GaUipoli were
war a simplified form of kabo/ok was introduced for also supplied with a strange assortment of warm
officers, with a plain khaki covering and a single strip clothing donated by the people of Istanbul, including
of cloth wound once around the helmet. Troops of unsuitably fashionable underwear and gentlemen's
Arab origin generally wore their traditional kufi),o lightweight shoes. Footwear was to become a real
headcloths. problem for the Olloman Army and by the summer
The quality of uniforms worn by officers and of t9'7 eycn some officcrs had not got proper boots.
other ranks seems to have differed el'en more in the On the other hand certain details of insignia had a
Ottoman Anny than elscwhere. M:my officers, parti-
cularly those of senior rank, had their dress as well as
!.heir personal weapons made in Germany. Some
ordinary soldiers' kit was also manufactured by the
Ottoman Empire's central Europe:m allies but the
bulk of uniforms sccm to hne been made in Turkey
itself. Towards the end of the war the quality ofthcse
ranged from moderately good to simply appalling.
Colours as well as quality of cloth varied consider-
ably. The same applied to boots and other leather
Items.
" unit ofmcvlavi dervish IIlongdouble-billded axe,
,·oluntet.,rs in ISfanbul, a weapon associared with
t9t5. They IJrc led by thc Ouoman Empire's
drummers IJnd are fllnlQusjaniSSSlry infll.ntry
distinguished by II special and sriJl uM:d as a mart of
form offJat-roppcd cap nmt by dervish 'Volunteer
with a smlllJ turblln 'ot-ound units during World lV.lIIr
llroundit.Oneofthemen One, (AsKeri Miizesi,
standing guard also carries Isranbul)
cated by the number of pips and the degree of
bf3iding on shoulder-boards; NCO ranks by simple
stripes around the sleeve.
At about the same time as the simpler form of
officer's kabalok was being introduced for the Army,
the Ouoman Navy brought in new headgear reflect-
ing German influence. This was essentially a normal
European naval ap, but it lacked a peak in deference
to Islamic tradition, so that a man might touch his
forehead to the ground while making his salOL or
ritual prayer without removing his hat. This was an
extremely importam consideration: only a few years
later Turkey's fanarial1y secular new lcader, Kemal
Atariirk, insisted that men wcar European peaked
'flat caps' as a direct challenge to Islamic tradition - a
large number of people were killed in the ensuing
nots.
Logistics
The CallCll$ll$ front in hIlS his slain f.ther's rifk
'9'7. A sr.l1'otIicrr is .nd his medal. (Askeri The Ottoman Empire was ill-prepared for a pr~
pholopllphed with a 1m- Milzesi, Istanbul) longed war effort, with almost no munitions indus-
)-cu-oJd boy soldier who
tries ofits own. Huge armies and their material would
have to be mo\'ed along tarth roads, tracks and
long pedigree and an still be seen in the Turkish incomplete single-line railways O\'er vast distances
Army of today. Br:mches ofservice were indicated by through exceptionally difficult terrain and extreme
coloured collars for officers, collar patches for other climatic conditions. The Ottoman Armies remained
ranks, repeated in the edging of officers' kalabak hcavily dependem on supplies from their German
covering; infantry - olive green, machine--gun com- and Austr~Hungarian allies throughout the war.
panies - grass green, avalry - ligh.t grey, artillery- Stockpiles of munitions had largely been used up
dark blue, engineers - mid-blue, railway troops- sky during the Balkan Wars; in 1914 the most pressing
blue, gendarmerie - scarlet. In 1915 the Ottoman Air shortages were of artillery shells and naval mines.
Service was sepaf3ted from the Engineers and Within a few days of signing the secret treaty with
changed from blue collar patches to red. Officer and Germany, Enver Pa~ told his new allies that he
warf3nt-offieer ranks were, as in most armies, indi- needed 500,000 shells and 2.00,000 rifles, Late August
and carly September saw further requests for 200
mines, then howitzers, trucks, electrical equipment,
tools, uniforms, boots, blankets and canned food,
Only a fraction of this materiel arrived before the
Ottoman Empire entered the war, whereupon ship-
ments through neutral Bulgaria and Romania became
almost impossible. Once Bulgaria joined the German
alliance, followed by the conquest of Serbia and
Romania however, the shipment of supplies became
Small arms
The personal equipment of the Ottoman soldier was
essen(ially German in design, though reduced to the
barest essentials, while weapons were almost all of
German manufacture. Officers were armed with
u
stretched underwater ncar vulnerable beaches. Otto- In the autumn of 1917, however, the relationship
man forces were similarly shoTt of sandbags, many of changed. The German military mission was replaced
these being used by the soldiers to patch their tattered by a German-Quoman military convention. Under
uniforms. So short were the soldiers of entrenching this new arrangement many Turkish officers were
tools that they captured these from the enemy sent to Germany for ad\'anced training while there
whenever possible. Their officers, meanwhile, found was less direct German supervision of basic Ouoman
that maps they captured from the British were Army training. Ottoman divisions were reconstruc-
superior to the Ba~d~k" 'tourist guides' on which ted along German lines, though it remains unclear
they had often had to rely. how far these changes were carried through in
practice. The Germans complained about what they
saw as an unnecessary volume of Ottoman paper-
GERMAN work, though the records show that Turkish and
Arab officers were also often less than impressed by
INFLUENCE their German colleagues. The Germans, with few
exceptions, failed to understand the Turkish men-
Since most European and American historians base tality or to show sensitivity to the Ottoman Empire's
their work on German rather than untranslated proud Islamic heritage, often making it all too
Turkish sources, there has been widespread exagger- obvious that they saw themselves as superior to both
ation of the role of the Germans in the Ouoman war Turks and Arabs. On the Ottoman side young
effort, There were, in fact, around 500 German officers, particularly those who favoured the new
officers in the Ottoman Empire when war broke out Turkish nationalism, resented being treated as
and some were immediately put in command of second-class soldiers.
Ministry of War departments including Operations, In terms of broad war aims the Ottoman and
Intelligena:, Railways, Supply, Munitions, Coal and German High Commands had been at odds since the
Fortresses. Once direct overland communications war began. After the Russian Remlution the Turks
with German)' were opened a great many more found themseh'cs facing e\'en greater opposition
German offia:rs and NCOs were sent to scn'e in the from Germany than from Russia in attempts to
Ottom:m Army, Navy and Air Forces. Towards the regain eastern territory. In the meantime Germans,
end of the war relati\'ely large German combat units British and Turks all had their eyes on the Baku oil
also arrived, most importantly in Palestine. fields of Azarbayjan.
Road
Military historians have gi\'cn less attention to the
Ottoman road system which was e\'en weaker than
the rail network. The Empire was actually in the
process of a large road-building scheme in 1914,
though the projects so far completed were all in
western provinces and so only influenced the Galli-
poli campaign. The first eight months of the war saw
a huge repair and road-building effort by military
labour battalions, continuing until February 1916 in
Syria, Jordan and Palestine where sections of the
resulting well-paved roads are still visible. The role of
animal power can hardly be exaggerated and the
Ottoman Army's efforts in the Great War have been
described as a losing battle between the Turkish
A
Infantry
I: Turkish line infantryman, marching order, c.1914
2: Infantryman, off duty, Galicia c.l917
3: Arab bicycle infantry, Arabia 1915
B
2
•
ea"*'ry
1: Cavalry officer
2: NCO of. Turkish cavalry regiment., <:.1911
I 3: Kurdish irTeplaT officer
r.
•
3
2
SpeciAlist Troops
1 I: Auault part}., 1918
2: Ski-hOOPS NCO. CauCS$UI c.I917
3: Officer, machine-gun detachment
o
Artillery
1: Artillery officer, GaUipoli t91S
2: Artillery officer, Galicia
3: Artillery Sergeant, Galicia
Air Forces
I: Naval Pilot Engineer MUlazim (Lieutenant) Ahmet of the Naval Flying School, Yesilkoy, dress uniform
2: Army Air Force Obsenrer MUlazim (Lieutenant) Sitlci, No.... Squadron, southern Anatolia 1917
3: Gennan volunteer Pilot K1einehayk of No. 10 Squadron, southem Anatolia., summer 1917
F
N."
I: Sailor or naval landing party, Palestine
2: Able seaman
1 Commander, winter uniform 1915
Miscellaneous b'OOps
1: Infantryman, Istanbul Fire Brigade
2: Allied Mghan Prince, c.l917
3: Boy soldier, volunteer bomb thrower at Ga1lipoli, 1915
H
kagni or ox-eart and the enemy's railways, steamships the effectiveness of the submarine war to have been
and motor lorries. On the Caucasus front even the exaggerated by British naval historians.
rugged kagm could not be used and here Onoman The Ottoman Empire also had a remarkably
troops were often supplied by caravans of pack effective Ielegraph servia: operating over huge dis-
animals. Add to this a lack of maps for many areas, tances but the country had no wireless before the war,
the destruction of bridges by winter wcather, snow in nor were there any telephones outside Istanbul. The
the mountains from September to May, a nearCSt Ottoman Sultan could lelephone the Kaiser in Berlin
railhead over six hundred miles away, and it seems but, frustratingly, nOI his o"'n commanders at the
hardly surprising that munitions took six wed:.s to front.
reach the Caucasus. Evenlually German engineers
built a motor road as far as Si"as but the Onoman
Army had no mawr transport, other than a few staff THE NAVY
cars, and so could provide no tet:hniCilI support for
trucks when these arrived. E"en in the relatively kind The Ottoman Navy played only a minor role in the
conditions of GaUipoli teams of buffaloes hauled the First World War for the simple reason that it was not
heavy artillery and if hills got in the way hundreds of designed to face the British and French neelS.
soldiers pulled these guns with ropes. Considerable effort had been put into strengthening
the Navy betwee~ 1()09 and 1914 bUI the foes
Sea envisaged at thai time were Greeks and possibly
Before the war, maritime communications had been Russians. A British Rear Admiral also supervised a
vital for theOuoman Empire. Dna: war broke our the m.ajor naval reorganiz.ation. In fact British Royal
Red Sea, castern Mediterranean and Aegean were Na.vy innucncc was so strong thai, from 1910, not
closed by the overwhelming power of enemy navies. only were Ouoman ships painted the same colours as
The Turks and their Yemeni sympathizers could use those of Britain but officer insignia also mirrored
small dhows along the Red Sea coast and such vessels those of the Royal Na,'y. Turkish technical officers
even maint;l;ined contact with Onoman allies in had the same colours between their slee,"e ranking
Somalia and Eritrea. Smugglers continued to ply the
Mediterranean and Aegean coasts of Anatolia despite
British, French and Italian patrols. From the sum-
mer of 1915 until the Revolution of '917 the Russian
neet prevented large Ottoman ships from sailing the
Black Sea, and strangled vital shipments of coal from
Zonguldak to Istanbul. Small amounts were still
moved in sailing ships, the Russians claiming to have
sunk about a thousand of these during the war. The
Black Sea was opened once more after the Russian
Revolution but before then the Ouoman state ran
short ofcoal, much of which had to be brought by rail
from central Europe. Even the almost enclosed Sea of
Marmara was made haz.ardous by enemy submarines,
supported as they were by Greek sympathizers living
on the coast, although Liman von Sanders considered
l3
stripcs as did the British. Orders were placed in laying and approximatcly elevcn lightly armed motor
Britain and Frnnce for new vessels rnnging from launches. Support vcsscls includcd a torpedo depot
battleships to gunboats; and the Ottoman yards at ship, a hospital ship, four troop transports and a naval
Samsun, Izmir, Beirut and Basra competed to see transport, a naval rcpair vessel, threc smaller dc-
who could makc thc beSt small ships in the shortest spatch \'csscls, and an Imperial yacht. During or
time. The Navy was a popular arm of service, thc immediately prior to the war a minelayer was added
exploits of the ex-American cruiser Hamidiy~ under to this fleet. Construction of six small German-
Hiiseyin Rauf in the Aegean and Adriatic having designed destroyers was belie\'cd to have been started
been a great boost to public mornle during thc in Istanbul during the war and although none arc said
otherwise catastrophic First Balkan War. to have becn completed, the Ottoman Navy did end
During the months of Ottoman neutrality the the war with :In extT2 dcstroyer in :lddition to
Fleet steered well clear ofaction. In the meantime the survi\'ing pre-war vcssels. It also ended up with an
influence of the British naval advisory mission extT2 torpedo-boat. Therc arc also rcports that
collapsed, and its personnel were replaced by Ger- attempts were made during the war to refit two
mans. The main arsenal was in Istanbul and, with derelict German submarines, though without much
around 6,000 personnel, the Navy's primary role was success.
to survive as a threat to any cncmy attacking the In the face of o\'crwhelmingly morc numerous
capital. It also had to protect supply convoys in the enemics, the Ottoman Na\')' attempted few offensive
Sea of Marmara and, as f:lr as possible, the Black Sea. opeT2tions, although HMS Galiath was sunk by the
By the outbreak of war the Ottoman Navy Ottoman torpedo boat Muavmd Milli under Com-
consisted of three :lrchaic pre-dreadnought banle- mander Ahmet Efendi on 13 May 19'5. The navy's
ships, HaJ'ruddin Barbar()ssa (1893), TurKut R~ij
(1894) and MtJuJiy~ (1874), to which were added the
Germ:ln b:lttlecruiscr G()~bm renamed as the Sullan
Stlim Yavu.:::: (1912) :lnd the light cruiser Bmlau now
called A1idilli (1912). In support was the e\'en older
coastal defence pre-dreadnought battleship Afuin-i-
ZQf~r (1869) :lnd the slightly more modern light
cruisers Hamidi)'~ (1903) and M(('idi)'~ (1903). The
Ottoman Navy also had eight 'destroyers, seven
torpedo-boats, threc torpedo-gunboats, perhaps nine
other gunboats, an old gunboat converted for mine-
Alxn'c: Pcuy·officus ofLhe
O,tom:1lI N,nml Air
$erl'icc. These men were
IImlerg-oing tcchniclll
tmining'H che Yesilkoy
flying scht)()1 1I(.'"r ISlIInbul
in '9' 7, (H,IVllell,k AWzcsi,
fst:mblll)
36
created. In 1917 Ouoman squadrons varied from a
single aircrafl with two pilots and two observers to 22
aircraft with 13 pilots and 13 obsef\'ers. By the end of
the war there were 18 squadrons in existence, varying
in strength from a single pilot and no observer, to 12
pilots and 18 observers. The Ottoman Air Force
operated from 66 airfields during the war, seven of
them in occupied neutral or enemy territory (four in
Iran, onc in Egyptian Sinai and two in what had been
the Russian Empire). Although German personnel
played a \'ital role in de\'e1opment, technical support
and oper.uions, this should not be exaggerated. Most,
though not all, fighter pilots werc German; but men
of Turkish, Arab and e\'en Iranian origin dominated
the observation squadrons. By the end of the war,
follo\\'ing determined efforts to train Ottoman per-
sonnel, all three Naval squadrons as well as fh·c Army
squadrons were commanded by Ouoman officers;
four squadrons were under joint command, and only
six remained under German officers.
38
being commissioned as majors in the Asirtl HaftJ
Kurds Suvar; AlayJtm. Arms and uniforms would be
To a great extent intermingled with the Christian supplied by the government but men had to find their
Armcni:ms were the Muslim Kurds who had a own horses and harness. II remains unclcar how far
tradition of resistance to central go\'ernment control. this new organiZlluon actually developed during the
At this time they had linle sense of Kurdish war, but between 20,000 and 30,000 tribal cavalry
'nation3Iism' but had dcveloped a deep antagonism to were already in the field against the Russian Army by
their more advanced Armcnian neighbours. In I&)I the end of 1914. The importance of Kurdish irregular
Sultan Abdlilhamit raised a force of mostly Kurdish auxiliaries may actually have increased as regular
but also Turcoman and Ar.lb tribalauxiliarics which Ouoman units were scattered across so many distant
came to be known 3S the Hamidiyr ClV:llry. This was fronts.
intended 10 counter Russia's famous Cossacks, and
control the eastern parts of Anatolia. After 11)08," Thc Caucasus
however, the Hamidiyt dispersed until, around 1914, The Ottoman Army could rely on the support of
:I. military commission started planning a new force Turkish-speaking Muslims in the Russian-ruled
from the same sources to be known as the Asirtl HaftJ
Siivari Alayftm or 'Tribal Light Cavalry'. It was Kurtlish IrreglllllN>' ill the COSCUIIII: though firmed by
Dllrsi"rrllnt,:c1i Ilre!l or the stntt'. The ofliccr
supposed to consist of 24 regiments in four brigades. easterll Amltoli;1 ill 19'7. SClllCd 011 the right M"ellrs
Service was to be between the ages of 18 and 45: three Dilly offlccrs in thl:' the broild-brimIllt'd
Kurdi!ih irrt'glll:lr I\sirct 'sou'l4"('Ster'sccn 011 other
years as a recruit, twelve years as a trooper, twelve Ib.fifSuvari Alayari Turkish cs\·alrYfflell. He
years in the reserve. All units were be commanded by auxiliary all'alry appcOlr ro also has II JQng-bJlldcd
hal'e ..·om IIniromls, their s ..·ord rrom the CRucasus
regular cavalry officers while tribal chiefs would be men being dressed in IIIQUnlllins 011 his hip.
given proper tr.lining in regular regiments before traditional Kurdish (AdcriMOzcsi, Istanbul)
MilicRr)' band pinyinI' on
the parsldc ground ac
Damascus during a
mi!iclIry re"iew in April
'9'7. Thebandapin M'c#r
Anrb kufi)'a hc#dc1orhs
lind then: 1IT'C rnusicsd or
rncdiCIII symbols on their
collar patches. (Imperial
WlIrMuseUrrJ Q9!J.4u)
Caucasus. Traditional antagonism between Sunni Army structures were raised during the war, often
and Shia Muslims was disappearing in the wake of being known as miiretub units. Another group of
massacres by Russians and their Armenian aux- irregulars were thefedais who, mostly being of Balkan
iliaries. Local volunteers played a particularly im- Muslim refugee origin, had been raised during and
portant role on the extreme left flank of the Ouoman since the disastrous Balkan War. Often motivated by
front, in the mountainous Artvin area near the Black religious zeal or a desire for vengeance on the Balkan
Sea. Later in the war the Ouom2on Army also tried to Christians, they were consequently reprded as fana-
fill its depleted ranks by enlisting Turks from the tics by their foes. Thousands more were recruited in
Russi20n Gucasus but the m20in milit20ry contribution 1914, many being sent to the Caucasus front and
of these people was in the 'lsl2om Army' raised in north-western Iran in an effort to stimulate anti-
Azarbayjan after the Russian Re\·olution. This drew Russian revolts there. Several hundred were also
in non-Qttom2on Muslims from throughout the reported in Syria in b.te 1914. Later in the war the
Gucasus and operated largely in(lependently, just Ottomans apin tried to recruit from the remaining
like similar forces raised by Georgi2o and Armenia. Turkish population in Macedonia following the
Though never officially recognized by the Ottoman Austr~German-Bulgarian occupation of this area,
government, the 'Islam Army' was given consider- though with little success.
able help. Many Turkish Ottoman officers \'olun-
tcered to serve in its ranks, the most famous being Persia
Enver's brother Nuri Pa~a. As early as 1916 a Iran, or Persia as it was then known, was one of the
Georgian Volunteer Legion had been raised, largely most anarchic areas of the Middle East in 1914.
from the Muslim Georgian area of Lazistan, to fight Though independent in theory, it had been divided
alongside the Ottoman Army. Originally intended to into British and Russian spheres of influence.
promote a revolt in Russian-held Georgia, this Whereas the army of the Ottoman Empire could fight
Volunteer Legion remained under Germ20n control on half a dozen fronts and keep various numerically
while the Ottomans wanted to use it as a normal superior foes at bay, and Afghanist20n could rely on its
battllion. In the end it took very liule part in the rugged terrain and warlike people to dissuade in-
fighting, being stationed on the Black Sea coast at vaders, the Iranians had few such advantages. Efforts
Giresun until disbanded in January t917. had been made to create a properly equipped regular
army but all failed to produce b.sting results. By 1914
Balkan Muslims some 13,000 infantry were scattered about the CQun-
.
Other assorted forces lacking permanent or official tty, unpaid, untrained, badly clothed and led by an
officer corps of staggering incompetence and corrup- that the Swedish Gendarmerie turned on the Persian
tion. The 38,000 or so cavalry were rather more Cossacks, forcing those in Hamadan to surrender.
effective, being recruited on a tribal basis under their Interestingly enough the Gendarmerie were helped
own leaders, but e,'en they formed lillIe more than by a band of German and Austro-Hungarian POWs
local militias defending only their own areas. Irre- who had escaped from Russian camps in the Cauca-
gular cavalry were drawn from the Kurds, Lurs, sus and Central Asia. Ottoman and German involve-
Turcom:ms :md Arabs though rarely from the ment in Iran was ne\'ertheless often in competition.
majority Farsi (Persian) community, and such forces The Ottomans, for example, tried 10 organize a new
owed loyalty to their tribal leaders rather than to a Iranian arm)' under a Persian General, Nizam al
central government. The artillery arm had 5-6,000 Saltaneh, who hoped to drive both the Russians and
men with about 50 breech-loading guns, plus twice as the British from his country. BUI Ihis rudiment2ry
many muzzle-loading field and mountain guns, only force collapsed when the Russian Army in north-
half of which wcre fit for service. western Inn suddenly advanced south, itS few
Two othcr military forces played a role grcater infantry battalions simply deserting before the Rus-
than their numbers would suggest. One was the sians arrived.
Russian-offieered Persian Cossack Brigade which The Germans also set up their own puppet
consisted of a little over 3,500 mcn in four cavalry Persian government and army at Kermanshah, which
regiments, four infantry companies, one horse and in turn led to increased British intervention in
two mountain artillery batteries plus a machine-gun southern Iran, In· January 1916 a new pro-Russian
dctachment. With modern equipment, discipline and government in Inn tried to reduce the numbers of
training it was by far the best miliury force in pre- Swedish Gcndarmeric and increase those of the
war Iran. Unforrunately it also suffercd from con- Persian Cossacks, the latter being placed under
fused loyalties, serving as an instrument of Russian Russian control whilc the Russian Army moved to
influcnce and ncver being allowed to endanger occupy a large part of western Iran. This did not,
Russian military domination. The second 'modem' howc\'cr, end pro-Ottoman sentiments in the area
force was the so-called Swedish Gendarmerie which and as late as 1917 the jangali tribe under Kuchik
had been reorganized by Swedish mercenary officers Khan anempted to slOp an Anglo-Russian army
in 1911. It now consisted of six regimentS, about m.arching through their forested mountain homeland
6,000 horsemen and infantry armed with Mauser south of the Caspian Sea. One of the few positive
rifles, mostly recruited from the Persian-speaking results of this confusion was the training of a handful
population. Unforrunalely its Persian officers dis- of Persian officers by thc Ottoman Air Force at
liked their over-enthusiastic S.....edish colleagues Ycsilkoy near Ist2nbul. Since their own country had
while the entire force suffered from the hostility of no aircraft, two of these men subsequently served as
Russia and of the Persian Cossacks. As a result the obscrvers in the Ortoman 14th Squadron in 1918.
Swedish Gendarmerie had developed pro-German
sympathies.
Prey to internal dissension and foreign manip-
ulation, Iran was clearly not in a position to defend
itself when invaded by Russian, Ottoman and British
forces during the Great War. In fact widespread anti-
Russian feeling lay behind strong pro-Ottoman
sympathies during the early part of the war. In
November 1915 anti-Russian feelings ran so high
Ouoman AmlYCllmcl Arabillll CIImel, This was
rnmsport on the Iraqi from ..,.·cJl-biown to rhe Twks,
in 1916. No bcastofburdcn though their British f~
could opt:rale as effecti ~'cJy rook some rime to rekarn
in the dcsvot liS II sillGle- the lesson. (Asl'm !I1(izcsi,
humpuJ dromcdllry or lsrsmbul)
Into this real-life version of John Buchan's
'Great Game' rode a number of Turkish, German
and Austrian agents, thc most effective being Dr.
Wassmuss the one-time German Consul at Bushire.
With his colleagues he organized tribal forces in
many regions, damaging not only British and Russian
influence butthrcatcning a full-scale rising. The king
ofAfghanistan managed to control the excesses of the
most fanatical anti-British clements but Britain still
feared that Or. Wassmuss aimed at India itsclf. The
most successful period for these agents was 1915 and
as a result mutually hostile bands of tribesmen and
their mentors were soon chasing each other around
much of Iran, Afghanistan and o,'er the border into
what is now Pakistan.
C: Cavalry
CI: CnvaJryofflccr
The most notable feature of this man's uniform is the
very large form of kobo/ok with upturned brim and a
long rear part to shade his neck. Otherwise his dress is
...
The fimcrnl orSulran
Rcsnt in Isrnnbul in 19,8.
Thc oorr4c is cscorred by
troops from !he pnlaec
guard ""caring ",-hite lamb-
sl.:in kalpaJ..-s with plumes
at !he front. Othcr
photographs show I.hat the
route orrhe funeral WlIS
guarded by men from !he
Istanbul F;re Brigade,
itselfIf regular Anny un;I.
(Asleri Muzes;, Isranbul)
GJ: Naval Comnl.'lndcr, winter uniform 1915 HJ: Boy soldier, voluntccr bomb thrower tJt
The fact thaI this senior naval officer still wears an Gal/ipo}i,1915
old-fashioned stiffform of red fez, supposedly phased Under the Ottoman conscription syStem a son
out when the Onoman Navy was modernized, might sometimes served in place of his father. Such
suggest that he was a member of the naval reserve. youngsters oflen fought hard and could become
The Commodore's three rings and loop on his slee\'cs NCOs. This boy is a sergeant, as shown by his
are virtually identical to those of the Royal Navy. shoulder-boards. The slippers on his feet might
Meanwhile his leather boots and gaiters suggest that indiate that the Army had no bootS small enough or
he has a shore posting. that his military role necessitated stealth.
NOles sur Ics plnnchcs en coulcorli forblnfcln
A 0l'I>citfs <Ie ~uc lTa<k .. Cbimoni.l. AI ;\IlI$Ur. Ktmal daM 101I u"ironn~<Ie A 0l'IU:je,.., hOheo'm Ran.. und 7.cf('ftMlilitl1. Al ~I f. 1' 1 in ";n"
Ia campa,... <Ie Gallipol;' II porI~ un unir_ CIM"" d·officic:, ..., I< '<lni.. <Ionc G.mpoli-f.ldu ..'f....... f.. I..... d;' Iypd(h<: u .. ironn ti Sc.booIIU; mi' de'"
I< ch:aP<"'u bboaLok dis'i....ir. Son piOlole! eM ..... dou,~ un ~bu<cr ;\IocICl< "h:ara~I.,;.tiocht:n K.baolal.Hu'. Kri ooi l'locolo: h:andc:h .. 1icta hncilei..lich
19lo-H. A2 1':"," ,,_. ;\I"••,,.., de .. G...,.,..,. pon~ I'u"ir_ <Ie .......ia d'un wn tine: .\b-., Mode" 1910 I., AIO Knopm'....... £ft,..,. "III c.... die
ome....J u ....... douw.. ... ,,,tt> .....
Itloundafd ...' k pontalon. I.·on!", p.....-.. Dinuo..Difoi'm rincs GcMnIa
... den liottn. Oct p"",1Iiocht: Orde
<lie ndo,d....1lism doppo:lc... rot... Slmfcn
llOica Mien "'il Scharp<:. dot; pi'Cu8iochc
<Ie l'AicIe R~ ._"" tanlllK all_.1a Cnli. de r.. pnuaimM. I"()rd,.., pnuaim
Pou, k ;\Im,~. 1'On!", bulprio.. <I.. M"',~ .... Ooi~ ",i~ta;"" aulridtienM d.. r........ K~ ..... .P'!':"1lia<h<: Orden """, It Mmle...... tau nach<: \'..dit.... oo,_
;\Iml~. AJ PunoCtnKbnl r.'".nl u" bbaoLaL lieht: d IQ m.- _ttl oli~ d'un deft wad du iSPtfI'ridIisclw ~1il fftI'dic-rwk<C1lL AJ SUflCb, nlt:l..... m" riJac-m
lirnt' d·.Ii<~. Le dnP<"'u 'I" il porI~ Ollmpon~ Ia Dkb.ral;o. de Foi "'.....Ittunr.. ..... ~bunclencn K.bobk wad oli>ynuan Aufnahcr SdwfJehumn. A.. f
81"w...n.. 01 F... lAYUI.ws19l •• _tilde .... rd>o ..... pIon. Sont utOfi.....u:M
.... ~1aJIo. dit .. In.....e11l du tSlanaiocht: G1aul>oaabtk lnia IUl'hriobeoa.
II.''' ..... It """~ do_ kil eM "'.yk:ollrnwad. IA r..a1 eM ... ~bll5tt Ml89J B llOfaJacm.. Bl Fddinfanl..... Ulil 1'1. in ta uwiocu"'. $riM
.....". C'IIn\'II ~ pou. I· twq"" OIIto1lUM. 81 I.e fa _ _ lillifonn is< liidiadatt'.krkunf't. doda ...... ReM A_ is< Scil ....,.,
mo;t;q"" 'I"" ~ oold.al...._ 19l7. '·eM pal ttl ....... KIt. .i-ftIi par IQ dna....... Beim. Gc--da. ha aidI Ulil 'I.. rl*tac· 10 MIlI9J. die
•.au id.ie,. D1110s allan:mda. il. u.. rullil MOIIia-S.,...e. Sa I.. niq"" at ......sn, riF- lW die iirUclat A....- tiIl.. orrn. .."n:Ic. H1 Am ....,......
phaa ..... pIe. ;"Irodun pc11da..,1a I""lTC. OJ Soldat be d·;..ra i bicydtclCc. . - . ~... "" 1- . da. d...- SoIdao 1917•• ultt 0....0 ... f _on
Anba<. 1915. II ptlfV l'oaaIudd .... louda.... poiI ~ IieIa ... .... Ost..m.: 0<Iet ..... Drcll.dwn d '""" "'" cin ..-. ba
bh&bll .... rc: .. po.u fIIttl aIImauad M 1888, :,Oloasift..:-.: -Go:.. dar. SaM U jad:~entspidM ......~ "." M...........
C c.,-.I<ne. CI (IIliaer ......,..Imc pona.,
u.. u....r_ IYJIO'IIIO of'olficicr "'""mad des KnqeI ~..M OJ Anboothcr I ...... FaIarnd-
I.r......... Arabim. 1.1S.Aaocdlt rbacIltn K.h&bll lnI' .. dw ... t.dw
" " - bon qvc _ bt-bl aoit ~ puG. II pone boc de
Cl .cp
......... -ad<lo 1909 n«'" aoiaoa........ n...r""l0 _ _
M""" I"CO._.1917pone . . bbaobk
p ....
nIori<.11
KopIbcdcd.UiII mil K
C Kant..... CI 1'
Ihaandota""'" u.... Iaol ti
iii "'piIda
Grcodar M1
~
• IQ'~ II: ... col
...,.......b.-. """I'" d'. _brt • to
MI'IOi. Cl~uftIIlitr K
d . . bona. r................ Ie ""IC~.'"
.~_6ou<c.
_it_.. _pon~ conbmc •
llparW ... _ _
hnil M.naai .....
..olwi _ Kah&bll "",",oltaID
M..... _ ...............oUdor H.albnoooad
.. Cll.:_oI6na . . lUrl. . . . K
Icncbbolal. Er
'luruIdMOa' M
sn- Ktaf<SM\IOCk
Er"1 - . . Ka
Srcn. ... f
, q ••_
_Ka..tkricw..1IOwt ...1l90S bri
K
1917
u
bd des 19090rr
SrichNan rioap'a';'"
Kant-
"I riaa
Cl Ku,tIia<kr
I) T"",,,,," ~ ~
-.q
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1IUIn·'
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e...e-._.
d · - . 191 . DI en
' deM ....... d'.f.aiI ... b
DJOlIicocr • •",d..
1tIoac _--. II pon~ ulatbk • •)k~ .. _coI
pon~ ...
a11eoaaaJad plaril
1.17. St:su._
"N'"
~-~,lt~ __ M ..id ""'" SC.. fd .... I"'~ A~ .....
.... _KIead""" ...... _~~ ........ ~_odbat.
I) So
"M
I a.ppca.SmotnlniPPi'.I'I' Dll>ictcf \\aoIiIo
T__ Gruao......... .ad is< _ . - r u
StaIaI..........
_, _
"COt . . . . . . . . lin...........KIt. 11_ ..... d· ,.."he, "nar\iodoo:a' ,\10 M1198 bn-a..... l>lli Sl.oc P!""- 1'11 ...
I'M" I SaatSbttbabal .... nnr.... B· t abaluw. 1 m
E AtU1Iene. EIOII'iatt d·anlIleno. GaIlipoli 1.IS Pone tOr...- bbao: Sl.......... D3Ql1iaxr "1M' iI2:..~ Et lnI' riaea w.,aa
.-.... los uou",," 01"" . _ ........., r.. tndn d I'm. SOB
....ba.. ~ GIl Iaonk. bIeaI. ~ If'" __ .. tan-dac de 0:. II ~ ....... M.OIIO! r... ' Kalatbl.... iI
TnlPP"'P''-'" Er ...................-.. bn-alliwo,
" p.....- K..... filM .....
.................""" d·arUllrnt ..... _ ..... UOl!"a<Kr d·arUIIerir. GaIicie. qui
pone r - r - d'c6xr owadanl Sa laraoadw • ....-itt eM' 1 . 1..... pat_col EAndrrio. EI A~.G.Pipoli 1'15, Er,.... tIic-'lcU.u.-. .....
...... iI. k ...boo.1o taialIk • .....,.., Iurqu<. E.J SnJC* d·arUIIcrit. GaIi<:ie. lit . . _ ...iodIM>l T"'Pl"'"' tndM·.md _ Stammott ~ Sctn K.latbl bat
... .....foronc, IUIMbrol _ ..... itadicj,ut 1'iJ'U"I i r .... <:Mt b1a... bncIeuar...... tIic 'rnol'P<"'PlI"*I 1ac2IeidIoIa. r.............
r I jl ........... lei .....daa. Sa " _ w. _ If"" .... Parabchm-l'iatolr . . And Y ~..~.-...,. U ArteIIocoico-
~rc: CfIb I'ut ",ii_ rot-lAfd .........11a JUttft. Ofiricr.C.I; ~" r SaatT"'pptiIpi'.....
wird b1a K.... ~btn........... I RancI ..... "'rliadatn
f F _ . I ·... fll.caopllaUl<'A1aMto _oriJ-aftUint.lUII'...
. . pfanim pib.. ' de I...... oi"'. r iaT;o.. 11 pone l'.,.;r- ocandan:l
" iIIe. FJ Andler-Fdd.dld. G.1Wn. Sunoiudouuf<lnft o.nD<S
R~ duodI die Sd"'.lo~ rilde Stftiral .'\...-1 ~'-' .
d·..... ,.;,a.,. ...,..t 011 1..- r F' I 'k oacha li1Ilio:!.--1 ",,'i1 e<t SmwU.. di:ornIjade ..... d.. II rc-Iali_ acIoleclu... So.... <kr no .....
"'anw.
oftIci,., ledanaqui'
F! IA Lt. Sid pon~ I'.Dit'<armo ......
.-eICe ......e.... 1 _
'*'
, inriaoe enl'ft Ia ,...poilo nwIiq"" qu'il ....
d'"" .,-utew OItoma11l. Sa
_c r.briq.... en A1Iema..... F'J 0lIici0r
o.palttnl Kriopjahmo .utUlIChtc.
F' L..r.~ FI llou"' Ahmei boda... rriu....,hcr Abourn",...., .....
•
oIIemuad .rbcn~diudWi r IIM 1""1"" 1I ... nl.abatol.," .... aika .... rifttt Cf$Ittl l'iloi ,n Gad"",hl~ ..... L..r.r.hn. Er c""ll
i I·..........11C",,,,", aOricn"'" a1lttnalKlt U-llknt. ..... owadon:l 1lism D;mu ci _nilrdan ~ I ~ . 0;., Slmr...
an ooirwn Amad. ~cnO>;ei<b""", ill.. ala lCChraixM. Off...... u.... <Iiio: .,har1adarole
G .\bn"",. GI Sou>.-olIlcacr d'..... _ , . . _ de d<bao.-q n' qu, pon~ un
..,.;r....... bl..", d''' •• Ull ....balal b1aM"
..ide i .....die: de CIIi. Glc.. ..... ~Iot de Ia
del...., de wile: flO'
ri... Oil
bon"" ok ,.. Ie
c.. ....,d<k
Farbc ...·iadatn den IIii'll" d<u<...... daB~, I..,.......' .01. F! I Sill, , .... dit
lOtJlplonu linir.................... oM:httI ~' orin f'lcice el. dit Flin¥r-
brillc .. nd dtt I kim lind okUllCho:r l.uftnllC: u c1h ..,.. rdc, I ti..... K.bala~
pt1",itaio que rim "" puOtM f;'IItpklatr Ie frono "' !nun ok 10tIChn" Ie: 101 dutUl' mic dc:nt l'iloi....bl>tkhcn an <kr V",dc:neiC' u..d .... dc:uu;chcs II 18 "'"
... priCrct. GJ c.. com.... ndo"l ,..1en u..ir d,.i,·., pon~ UM r......... ide:
l..nbild' L
1lCm~ de rel ...... ~. 1_ btlal 100 ,.mblkn en "'"' """,,",,I qu';1 • u.. """~ i
,= G Mori GI ;\1.., ci.... 1..ndu"pr...1'l'O' ," ... 11<, .som........... ironn. eint1tl
.. ti8tn Ka,,"lok und Sq.Il~ma.. hcn lab...uir." Sud.l.. mi. l.Nerwlllen.
II l)j,-CfI. III S<>Idal d·,nr,"IU;' dco PIlttIJ"or" d·I ...",bIll. I:unir........... G! Dicot. \'011.....« * 1""11 do< ch.rall.... ';,.,h< '"'~ildloo< Mu'-"", ..... """.ni_
idenl'9"" i fflui d·uI'" ,q;...... c. d·i.. f... I.... lOur""", Ie bad,. .pfcial.u col, ........ ~hri.... Du"'h dM:sc Form ..., .. de" M... i<nta moslith. ",i, dc:' Slim bei'"
III Pnllff .f,h:an .11ie ouI"". <Ie 1917. IA I'rillff porle u.. unif.......... ",).", Gebtt un~chindUi dtn Oodtn .U bttuh,.",. GJ l>ieoc-r Mo,i""k"",,,,andeu. i......
OiComan ind;quanc qu'.1 • pcuc-n", 'Q,.. ~ ill<qi:.. ilO depllil r Ar,,,",,i.c.n. UJ 1....- Wi"lcru",ronn In,l cint .hmodilch<:••Idr. ~.""" des I'OIcn rta, I)~ l..(tk."itkl
ipaukll" plac.. de I·.."ir....... de« "1'(01'I
i.. diqu~"c qu'il e<t .." 1. 11 pori. u"d G.nullChc.. l~" ".h<:, daB .. an l....d poalitn ilc.
dco ..... c""""" <Oil paru 'I"" r Arm<e" ·.,..il par. de bool.....
lui. soil pal'« qu'il de,.. i. 1'....;11<' i 1.lItrobtt.
Ifu;o"'' ' '
i'.. ""'"
II l)i\'~""" IIlI"f,,,c.rill dc:. I..."bulu ~·.u....,.h,. 0 .. u";r",,,, IIei.h,
.bcQ<hal .."" beoondc"'" " .. ~b'~ith... d... dc:' a"dere"
I.. fa"c.no,,,,,i,,, c III AlI~n" .f.,,""'lI<lau rn........ 1917. Iln Prinx lrill
.i... U..if...... """, iIdI.n Slih...... "urllCbei"lkh bcd.U'~I. daB.r inl"llnllo all'
ArC"""iI..,, 0"1."'''' iOl. IU o.c SChuJI ....""le." d.. U..if...", diaa Ju.., ...
u"lWOChMn ihn .Ia Scrica"c~", .:, Ir••c l"ralofl'~I .. u"d " ... ' en'..·.de' ·<il dit
A....... ltine Slitfcl h.ne. dit llei" ....u....."'... ode' .-cil., bei oc; AurlraC
IChIcich<:n ",u60~ .