Unit-2

In artificial intelligence, a process known as state space search is used to explore all potential configurations or states
of an instance until one with the necessary feature is found.

State space search is a fundamental concept in artificial intelligence (AI) used in problem-solving tasks where the
solution can be represented as a sequence of steps from an initial state to a goal state through intermediate states.
Here's a real-life example to illustrate state space search:

Example: Route Planning

Consider the problem of finding the shortest route from your current location to a destination in a city. This problem
can be formulated as a state space search:

1. Initial State: Your current location.

2. Goal State: The destination you want to reach.

3. Actions: Possible movements or transitions between states, such as turning left, turning right, going straight,
or taking public transportation.

4. State Space: The set of all possible locations you can reach from your current location.

5. Transition Model: Describes the result of each action, i.e., which state you end up in after taking a particular
action.

6. Cost Function: Assigns a cost to each action or transition, such as distance traveled or time taken.

Real-life Scenario:

Let's say you are in New York City and want to find the shortest route to the Empire State Building from your current
location. You start at a specific intersection, and your actions include walking straight, turning left, turning right, or
taking a subway/train. Each intersection represents a state, and each action (e.g., turning left) leads to a new state (e.g.,
the next intersection).

The state space search algorithm will systematically explore different paths (states) until it finds one that leads to the
Empire State Building. The cost function associated with each action can be based on factors such as distance
traveled, time taken, or mode of transportation used.

By applying state space search algorithms such as breadth-first search, depth-first search, or A* search with
appropriate heuristics, you can efficiently find the shortest route from your current location to the Empire State
Building, navigating through the complex street network of New York City.

Features

 A state space is a set of all possible states that it can reach from the current state.

 The nodes of a state space represent states, and the arcs connecting them represent actions.

 A path is a set of states and the actions that link them in the state space.

 A problem's solution is a node in the graph representing all possible states of the problem.

 Most AI techniques are based on state space representation.

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State space search is a method used widely in artificial intelligence and computer science to find a solution to a
problem by searching through the set of possible states of the problem. The state space size can greatly affect a search
algorithm’s efficiency. Hence, it’s important to choose an appropriate representation and search strategy to efficiently
search the state space.

The most famous state space search algorithm is the A* algorithm. Other popular state space search algorithms
are breadth-first search (BFS), depth-first search (DFS), hill climbing, simulated annealing, and genetic algorithms.

Now let’s discuss the steps of a typical state space search algorithm:

Production systems

Production systems are computer programmes that give AI. It consists of a set of rules about behaviour and includes
the mechanism required to follow those rules as the system reacts to external conditions. Production systems consist of
a set of rules, known as productions, which guide the system's behavior.

In AI, a production system consists of a global database, production rules, and a control system.

Components of a Production System:

1. Production Rules: These are if-then rules that specify conditions (antecedents) and actions (consequents).
Each rule represents a piece of knowledge or a potential action to take. The condition part describes the
situation in which the rule is applicable, and the action part specifies what to do if the conditions are met.

Example Production Rule:

 If it is raining outside (condition),

Then take an umbrella (action).

2. Working Memory: This is the system's current state or the collection of facts and data about the problem
being solved. Working memory holds information relevant to the problem-solving process and is used to
match against the conditions specified in production rules.

Example Working Memory Fact:

 It is raining outside.

3. Inference Engine: The inference engine is responsible for controlling the application of production rules. It
matches the conditions of the rules against the contents of working memory and selects applicable rules to
fire. It may employ various strategies for rule selection, such as depth-first, breadth-first, or best-first search.
Example of a Production System:

Consider an expert system designed to diagnose medical conditions based on symptoms reported by patients. Here's
how a production system might be used in this scenario:

1. Production Rules:

 If the patient has a fever and cough, then diagnose the flu.

 If the patient has a rash, then diagnose allergic reaction.

 If the patient has a fever and sore throat, then diagnose strep throat.

 If the patient has difficulty breathing, then diagnose asthma.

2. Working Memory:

 The patient has a fever.

 The patient has a cough.

3. Inference Engine:

 The inference engine scans through the production rules and identifies the rules whose conditions
match the contents of the working memory.

 In this case, the first production rule ("fever and cough -> flu") matches the symptoms reported by the
patient.

 The inference engine fires the matching rule, leading to the diagnosis of the flu.

Based on the symptoms reported by the patient and the knowledge represented in the production rules, the system can
make a diagnosis by applying the rules that match the current state of the patient. As more symptoms are reported or
new information is gathered, the working memory is updated, and the inference engine reevaluates which rules are
applicable. This iterative process continues until a diagnosis is reached or until no further rules are applicable.

Search space control

Search space control in AI refers to the management and manipulation of the search space during problem-solving to
improve efficiency and effectiveness. It involves techniques such as pruning, heuristics, and domain-specific
knowledge to guide the search process towards more promising areas of the problem space. Let's illustrate search
space control with an example:

Example: N-Queens Problem

The N-Queens problem is a classic problem in AI where the task is to place N queens on an N×N chessboard in such a
way that no two queens threaten each other. A queen can threaten another if they share the same row, column, or
diagonal.

Search Space Control Techniques:

1. Heuristics: One common heuristic for the N-Queens problem is the minimum conflicts heuristic. It works by
assigning each queen to the column where it conflicts with the fewest other queens. This heuristic guides the
search process towards configurations with fewer conflicts, potentially leading to a solution faster.

2. Constraint Propagation: Instead of blindly exploring all possible configurations, constraint propagation
techniques can be used to eliminate large portions of the search space that are guaranteed not to contain a
solution. For example, if two queens are placed in the same row, there's no need to consider placing another
queen in that row.
 3. Symmetry Breaking: Exploiting symmetries in the problem space can help reduce the search space. For
instance, in the N-Queens problem, many solutions are symmetrically equivalent. By considering only one
representative from each symmetric class, the search space can be significantly reduced.

4. Pruning: Pruning techniques such as alpha-beta pruning in game playing can be applied to eliminate branches
of the search tree that are known to be irrelevant or unproductive. In the context of the N-Queens problem,
pruning can be used to discard partial configurations that are guaranteed to lead to conflicts.

Application of Search Space Control:

Let's say we're solving the N-Queens problem for N=8 using a backtracking algorithm. At each step, we need to
decide where to place the next queen. Search space control techniques can help us efficiently explore the solution
space:

 Heuristics: We can use the minimum conflicts heuristic to prioritize placing queens in columns where they
conflict with the fewest other queens. This heuristic guides our search towards configurations that are more
likely to lead to a solution.

 Constraint Propagation: As we place queens on the board, we can use constraint propagation techniques to
identify and eliminate rows, columns, and diagonals where it's impossible to place another queen without
violating the constraints of the problem.

 Pruning: During the search, we can use pruning techniques to discard branches of the search tree that are
known to be invalid. For example, if we've already placed a queen in a column, we don't need to consider
placing another queen in the same column.

By applying these search space control techniques, we can efficiently explore the solution space of the N-Queens
problem and find a valid configuration of queens on the chessboard without exhaustive enumeration of all
possibilities.