Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

A case study on analyzing the performance of microplate heat

exchanger using nanofluids at different flow rates
and temperatures
Nesakumar Dharmakkan a, **, Periasamy Manikandan Srinivasan a,
Suresh Muthusamy b, Amit Jomde c, Sonal Shamkuwar d, Chandrakant Sonawane e, *,
Kamal Sharma f, Ali Jawad Alrubaie g, A.S. El Shafay h, Hitesh Panchal i
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous), Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kongu Engineering College (Autonomous), Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
c
Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT WPU, Kothrud, Pune, 411038, Maharashtra, India
d
Mechanical Engineering Department, Vishwkarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune, 411048, Maharashtra, India
e
Mechanical Engineering Department, Symbiosis International University, Pune, India
f
Mechanical Engineering Department, GLA University, Mathura, India
g
Department of Medical Instrumentation Techniques Engineering, Al- Mustaqbal University College, 51001, Hilla, Iraq
h
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
i
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Patan, Patan Gujarat, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Huihe Qiu A microplate heat exchanger is one of the most compact types of heat exchanger used for cooling
Keywords:
systems, and not much research was carried out to study the performance of this type of heat
Microplate heat exchanger exchanger with hybrid nanofluids. In this regard, the performance analysis of the microplate heat
Hybrid nanofluids exchanger is carried out by estimating the convective heat transfer coefficient in terms of Nusselt
Thermal conductivity number using a hybrid nanofluid. In current research work, Microplate heat exchangers tested
Heat transfer using TiO2/ethylene glycol, ZnO/ethylene glycol nanofluids, and a hybrid nanofluid with varied
Overall heat transfer coefficient nanoparticle volume fractions. Based on the results, it was found that the thermal conductivity of
hybrid nanofluids and the overall heat transfer coefficient by applying hybrid nanofluids show
better enhancement than nanofluids. The maximum thermal conductivity ratio between the
hybrid nanofluid and the base fluid is 2.10. The maximum Nusselt number of 35.8 was observed
for hybrid (TiO2–ZnO/ethylene glycol) at 50 ◦ C and a volume fraction of 4%.

1. Introduction
Thermal pollution occurs when heat energy from industrial processes, electronic gadgets, and automobiles is dissipated into the
surrounding air, which harms aquatic life. The recovery of dissipating heat energy from the above-said processes can be achieved with
the help of heat exchangers and a proper cooling medium [1]. The selection of the best-configured heat exchanger and the cooling

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nesakumar2006@gmail.com (N. Dharmakkan), sriperiasamy@gmail.com (P.M. Srinivasan), infostosuresh@gmail.com (S. Muthusamy), ammit.
jomde@gmail.com (A. Jomde), shamkuwar.s@gmail.com (S. Shamkuwar), chandrakant.sonawane@sitpune.edu.in (C. Sonawane), kamal.sharma@gla.ac.in
(K. Sharma), ali.jawad@mustaqbal-college.edu.iq (A.J. Alrubaie), a.abdou@psau.edu.sa (A.S. El Shafay), engineerhitesh2000@gmail.com (H. Panchal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2023.102805
Received 9 August 2022; Received in revised form 18 January 2023; Accepted 6 February 2023
Available online 14 February 2023
2214-157X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

medium is essential for effectively recovering waste heat energy. Compared with conventional type heat transfer equipment like waste
heat boilers, economizers, hot wheels, and heat pumps, the usage of compact-type heat exchangers is more effective in terms of
performance. The advantages of small heat exchangers include their lightweight, high heat transfer area per unit volume (m2/m3),
even flow, and high heat flux (W/m2) [2]. One of the compact types of heat exchanger is a Microplate Heat Exchanger (MPHE). It is a
plate heat exchanger used in evaporation, condensation, chilling, and heat exchange processes such as heat pumps. This novel plate
design enhances heat transfer rate with high accuracy to increase efficiency with a lowered coolant charge.
The MPHE has many advantages like compact design, 30% low weight, and high heat transfer rate. In engine cooling, nanofluids
were used to remove the excessive heat energy generated by the higher horsepower engines in trucks and automobiles. Similarly, in
industrial cooling applications, using nanofluids helps to save energy about a trillion BTU per year in the United States [3]. Nanofluids
show good performance than the conventional type base fluids in the field of heat transfer applications, and this is mainly due to
enhancement in the thermal properties of nanofluids [4,5]. The nanoparticles help the enhancement of the thermal conductivity of any
fluids. For heat transfer studies, various nanoparticles like Al2O3, CuO, and ZnO and base fluids like vacuum pump fluid, engine oil,
ethylene glycol, and water can be considered. Comparing CuO and Al2O3, the skin friction coefficient and Nusselt number for CuO is
better than Al2O3, and also increases in nanofluid volume fraction increases Nusselt number and decreases skin friction coefficient
under magnetic field condition [7]. It is also proved that an increase in solid volume fraction in a base fluid enhances the skin friction
coefficient and heat flux. Increasing the porosity parameter increases skin friction coefficient and heat flux [8]. A high level of solid
concentration in base fluid results from a high heat transfer coefficient. Also, at the same time, slight enhancement in heat transfer
coefficient with base fluid concentration [9]. The suspension of nanoparticles in the base fluids enhances the thermal conductivity
several times more than in the base fluid. While considering the nanoparticle preparation method, a sol-gel method is more suitable for
the metal oxide nanoparticles. The following literature reviews confirm this. Zinc oxide nanoparticle was prepared using the sol-gel
method and characterized to confirm the nanostructures. The results show that the size of the particles produced is 81.28
nm–84.98 nm (within 100 nm). When analyzed, these ZnO nanoparticles have a high degree of uniformity, crystallinity, and purity
[10]. It leads to adopting the sol-gel process to create the particles.
We decided to select metal oxide nanoparticles from the literature reviews for the heat transfer study because of their better ho­
mogeneity [33]. Another significant advantage of metal nanoparticles for heat transfer studies in a microplate heat exchanger is that
there is no blockage in a heat exchanger due to tiny size particles [11]. While considering various metal nanoparticles, the stability of
TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles in the base fluid is very high, and it is the most desirable property for heat transfer applications [12].
However, suspending tiny size particles in a base fluid enhances the viscosity and the pressure drop, and these values are in decreasing
trend when increasing the fluid temperature and it was also proved that a decrease in obstacle size enhances the heat transfer rate
effectively [13,14]. The pumping power needed to compensate for the heat exchanger’s high-pressure drop and increased expense due
to the nanoparticles’ poor stability in the base fluid [15]. The stability of nanoparticles in base fluids can be achieved by a constant
magnetic field which helps to lower the fouling resistance. Hence, there is a significant enhancement in the heat transfer coefficient
[16]. A high-pressure homogenizer can also achieve the stability of nanoparticles in any base fluid [17]. The performance of ther­
mosyphon heat pipe using nanofluid proved that the presence of nanofluid decreases the total thermal resistance of the heat pipe,
which increases the heat transfer coefficient in the evaporation section [6].

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Preparation of ZnO nanoparticle by sol-gel method
In synthesis of ZnO nanoparticle, zinc acetate dihydrate and NaOH were considered as precursors. Two grams of zinc acetate
dihydrate was dissolved in 15 ml distilled water.Another solution of 8 g of NaOH in 10 ml of distilled water was also prepared. These
two solutions were created by vigorously swirling them for about 5 minutes. After the solutions get well mixed, the solution containing
NaOH is slowly mixed with the solution containing zinc acetate dihydrate with the help of magnetic stirrer for a period of 5 minutes.
100 ml of ethanol was taken in the burette, and this ethanol was slowly poured into the solution containing zinc acetate dihydrate and
sodium hydroxide in a dropwise manner. The reaction between these precursors forms the white precipitate, which is nothing but the
ZnO nanoparticle. The material formed in the reactor was filtered and dried in a hot air oven of 90 ◦ C. The final product was recovered,
which is nothing but the ZnO nanoparticle [10].

2.2. Preparation of TiO2 nanoparticle by sol-gel method

In this method of preparation of TiO2 nanoparticles by sol-gel, Titanium tetra isopropoxide was selected and used as a precursor.
Titanium tetra isopropoxide was mixed with hydrochloric acid, ethyl alcohol, and deionized water. The ingredients listed above were
carefully combined for 30–60 min at a pH of 1.5 using a stirrer. After the stirring process, the above mixture is again mixed with 10 ml
of deionized water and stirred for 2 h at an ambient temperature. After 2 h and in a well-mixed condition, the solution was dried. The
final powder was heated for 60 min at a temperature of 120 ◦ C. The final powder obtained was a TiO2 nanoparticle [28].

2.3. Preparation of hybrid (ZnO–TiO2/EG) nanofluids

Preparing hybrid nanofluids with a suitable method is a significant factor in measuring the thermo-physical properties of hybrid
nanofluids [36]. The estimated amount of ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles were suspended into a particular volume of pure EG and water
to get the desired volume fraction of hybrid nanofluids. A sonicator and magnetic stirrer were utilized to improve the suspension of
1–4% nanocomposite powder in EG and water [34]. This method ensures the non-agglomerations of nanopowder in the base fluid. The
prepared nanofluid is good in stability because of the sonication method. The hybrid nanofluid was characterized using FTIR, UV, and

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 1. Experimental setup of Microplate heat exchanger.

Table 1
Specification of microplate heat exchanger.

Gross weight in kg 3.42

Net weight in kg 2.80

Brazing material Copper brazing
Height in mm 289
Width in mm 118
Flow plates Stainless steel
Design temperature range 200 ◦ C
Max working pressure 435 psi
Number of plates 20
Connection type External thread
Plate variants 3

Fig. 2. Microplate heat exchanger with connections.

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XRD methods.

2.4. Experimental setup of microplate heat exchanger

Fig. 1 shows the experimental arrangement used for this study. The experimental setup consists of measuring, testing, and a control
unit for controlling the flow. The inflow control unit, 0–6 L is the volumetric fluid flow rate achieved by a circulation pump. An inverter
connected to the pump is employed to maintain the working fluid volumetric flow rate. Similarly, a temperature bath maintains the
fluid’s desired inlet temperature. The mass flow meter is connected with a flexible pipe to avoid the vibrational effect. The plates are
made up of steel because it has high thermal conductivity. Measurement of temperature is done using thermocouples. Variations in
fluid flow rate, hybrid nanofluid inlet temperature, and heat flux were used to observe the reactions. Next, a new set of measurements
was made to determine the new mass flow rate. In order to prevent the release of heat, the heat exchanger was covered with asbestos
fabric.
The specification of the heat exchanger is given in below Table 1.
Fig. 2 shows the brazed type micro plate heat exchanger used in this study, and it is a type of heat exchanger that is the next
evolution of the plate heat exchanger. Like any PHE, brazed-type microplate heat exchangers transfer heat energy from the hot fluid to
the cold but not to the surroundings and the air. Usually, people may need to remember to provide insulation to save waste from heat
energy. Especially in the case of the cooling process, if insulation is not provided over the surface of the heat exchanger, then the cost of
money to generate the chilled water increases because the water may absorb the waste heat liberated from the exchanger. For this
reason, proper insulation was provided over the brazed plate micro exchanger to avoid wasting heat energy, which can increase heat
transfer efficiency.

2.5. Data analysis

Dispersing hybrid Nanopowder in base fluids significantly enhances the required properties of hybrid nanofluid for effective heat
transfer [31]. The expressions for estimating the effective physical properties of hybrid nanofluids are given below: Eq (1) to Eq (11)
[18].
ρhnf = (1 − φ)ρf + φρhp (1)
( ) ( ) ( )
ρC p hnf
= (1 − φ) ρCp f + φ ρCp hp (2)

(ρβ)hnf = (1 − φ)(ρβ)f + φ(ρβ)hp (3)

ρhnf, Cphnf, and βhnf represent hybrid nanofluids’ density, specific heat, and thermal expansion coefficient. By the use of Brinkman,
Hamilton, and Crosser models [36] the effective dynamic viscosity, μhnf, and thermal conductivity, khnf of the hybrid nanofluid are
given by:
μf
μhnf = (4)
(1 − φ)2.5
( )
khp + (n − 1)kf − kf − khp (n − 1)φ
khnf = ( ) kf (5)
khp + (n − 1)kf + kf − khp φ

The following expression is used to calculate the thermal diffusivity of composite nanofluid:
khnf
αhnf = (6)
(ρCp)hnf

With
φ = φTio2 + φZnO (7)

φTio2 ρTio2 + φZnO ρZnO

ρhp = (8)
φ

φTio2 CpTio2 + φZnO CpZnO

(Cp)hp = (9)
φ

φTio2 βTio2 + φZnO βZnO

βhp = (10)
φ

φTio2 kTio2 + φZnO kZnO

khp = (11)
φ
By assuming the amount of heat energy absorbed by the fluid is equal to that of input electrical power, the heat transfer rate is given
in equation (12) [19].

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 3. Temperature vs. Thermal conductivity for ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluids by varying volume fraction.

Q = V2 R = VI = mCp (Tout − Tin ) = Qcon (12)

After estimating the heat transfer rate by Eq. (12), the convective heat transfer coefficient can be estimated by Eq. (13) [19].
Q
h= ( con ) (13)
AX Ts –Tavg

The following Eq(14) is used to estimate the Nusselt number [20].

hDe QconDe
Nu = = ( ) (14)
kf A TS − Tavg kf

Reynolds number can be estimated by using Eq. (15) [21],

De vρhnf
Re = (15)
μhnf
The average heat transfer coefficient is given by Eq. (16) [22],
(Tw − Tm,in )
ln
(Tw − Tm,out )
(16)
′ ∗
h =q ( ) ( )
Tw − Tm,in − Tw − Tm,out

Where q* is given by Eq.(17) [22],

( )
mCp Tm,in − Tm,out
q∗ = (17)
A

where.
Tm, in, and Tm, out represents the working fluids mean inlet and outlet temperatures. A is the heat exchanger’s surface area, which
can be estimated by multiplying Lp and Lw, where Lp is the effective length. Lw is the effective width of the plates. From the estimated
Reynolds number from Eq(15), the inlet velocity of the fluid can be estimated below
Re μ
uin = (18)
ρDe
The equivalent diameter of the brazed type micro plate heat exchanger can be estimated based on the gap between each plate and
the number of plates as
De = Gap between each plate x No. of plates (19)

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Enrichment in thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids
The thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO2 in ethylene glycol hybrid nanofluids was measured for temperatures ranging from 30 to

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 4. Volume fraction vs. Thermal conductivity for ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluids by varying temperature.

Fig. 5. Percentage enhancements in Thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluids based on temperature.

50 ◦ C, and the volume fraction ranges from 1% to 4% with the help of a thermal conductivity meter. Nanocomposite powder volume
fraction and temperature were used to determine the effect on hybrid nanofluids thermal conductivity from the measured conductivity
values. The investigation confirms that an increase in the volume fraction of solid particles and an increase in fluid temperature
significantly enhance the thermal conductivity of composite nanofluids [29].
Figs. 3 and 4 shows the effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluids for different volume
fraction and the effect of volume fraction on thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluids for different temperature,
respectively. Compared with pure ethylene glycol’s thermal conductivity, the thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluid
enhanced very much at higher volume fractions and higher temperatures. The maximum thermal conductivity ratio between the
hybrid nanofluid and pure ethylene glycol was 2.10 at the volume fraction of 4% and temperature of 50 ◦ C. The percentage
enhancement in thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids was obtained as 35%. An increase in temperature increases the motion of
particles and the interaction [32], which is the crucial reason for the increase in thermal conductivity.
In the same way, an increase in particle volume fraction enhances the suspended particles in the base fluid, which increases the
collision between the particles. It is observed that the increase in the motion of particles and collision between the particles in the base
fluid increases the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. Larger temperatures and higher volume fractions of nanocomposite powder
result in a greater thermal conductivity enhancement than lower temperatures and lower particle volume fractions [37]. Fig. 5 shows
that 35% is the maximum thermal conductivity enhancement of ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluid attained at 50 ◦ C and 4% volume
fraction. The density and viscosity of hybrid nanofluid increase with increase in particle volume fraction.
In contrast, the specific heat capacity of hybrid nanofluid decreases with the increased volume fraction of hybrid nanoparticles.
These results are similar to that of mono nanofluid. Since thermal conductivity is the crucial element in heat transfer, the change in

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 6a. Nu enrichment for 1% volume fraction of TiO2–ZnO/EG hybrid nanofluids.

Fig. 6b. Nu enrichment for 2% volume fraction of TiO2–ZnO/EG hybrid nanofluids.

thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluid in temperature and volume fraction is highlighted in this research work. Further, the per­
formance of the Microplate heat exchanger in terms of enhancement in the Nusselt number by applying different volume fractions of
ZnO–TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluid as a cooling medium is analyzed.

3.2. Enhancement in Nusselt number

The effect of plate height and various volume fractions of hybrid nanofluids (composites of TiO2–ZnO in ethylene glycol) on Nusselt
number under laminar flow conditions were estimated. While analyzing the Microplate heat exchanger’s performance, the results
obtained were plotted in the graph below. Dispersion of composite nanoparticles in the base fluid enhances the thermal conductivity of
the base fluid. This increase in the base fluid’s thermophysical characteristic boosts convective heat transfer, raising the Nusselt
number in the process [23].
Fig. 6a–d, the plot shows the relation between the Reynolds number under the laminar region and the Nusselt number for different
plate heights (200 μm, 300 μm, and 400 μm) and different volume fractions of TiO2–ZnO/EG (1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) hybrid nanofluids.
The convective heat transfer coefficient and the accompanying Nusselt number were determined and plotted here for the constant
volume percentage of the hybrid nanofluid by altering the plate height. Finally, from the plots, it was clearly understood that the
maximum enhancement in the Nusselt number was achieved at a 4% volume fraction of composite nanoparticles and the plate height
of 400 μm. An increase in channel height enhances the microplate aspect ratio, which enhances the surface area for the heat transfer,
and accordingly the convective heat transfer and Nusselt number too [24].
Fig. 7a–c shows the plot between the Reynolds number and the Nusselt number for different volume fractions and plate heights by
the flow of ZnO–TiO2 in ethylene glycol hybrid nanofluid. In this analysis, for every individual channel height from 200 to 400 μm, by

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 6c. Nu enrichment for 3% volume fraction of TiO2–ZnO/EG hybrid nanofluids.

Fig. 6d. Nu enrichment for 4% volume fraction of TiO2–ZnO/EG hybrid nanofluids.

varying the volume fraction (1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) of composite nanoparticles in the ethylene glycol, the estimated Nusselt number
was plotted with the Reynolds number with the same laminar region. These results confirm that the increased channel height and
hybrid nanoparticle volume fraction effectively increase the Nusselt number [30]. This result is well coordinated with the results
referred to in the literature review. It also confirms that the change in dimensions of micro-type heat exchangers has some impact on
system heat transfer properties [25]. Since the Nusselt number is increased with all these three variables, the heat transfer rate also
increases [26].

3.3. Enhancement in heat transfer coefficient

Enhancement in heat transfer coefficient by sending pure ethylene glycol and hybrid nanofluid (ZnO–TiO2/EG) was analyzed at
maximum (50 ◦ C) and minimum (30 ◦ C) temperatures. Figs. 8 and 9 explain the enhancement of the overall heat transfer coefficient in
MPHE at the temperature of 50 ◦ C and 30 ◦ C for a different flow rate of cold liquid. The overall heat transfer coefficient in an MPHE is
significantly greater for a hybrid nanofluid (ZnO–TiO2/EG) than pure ethylene glycol. It also shows that the increase in the volume
fraction of nanoparticles in ethylene glycol enhances the overall heat transfer coefficient [27] due to the enhancement in thermal
conductivity of hybrid ZnO–TiO2/EG nanofluid. Similarly, an increase in temperature also enhances the heat transfer coefficient.

4. Conclusion
The above experimental work concluded that the thermal conductivity of pure ethylene glycol is comparatively lower than that of

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 7a. Nu enrichment for 400 μm height of plate for different volume fractions of TiO2–ZnO/EG.

Fig. 7b. Nu enrichment for 300 μm height of plate for different volume fractions of TiO2–ZnO/EG.

hybrid nanofluid (ZnO–TiO2/EG) at higher temperatures and higher volume fractions. The thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO2/EG is
2.10 times the thermal conductivity of ethylene glycol. Similarly, the significant enhancement in thermal conductivity of (ZnO–TiO2/
EG) hybrid nanofluid is about 35% at 50 ◦ C and a volume fraction of 4%. Enhancement in thermal conductivity of nanofluids
effectively enhances the Nusselt number and the convective heat transfer coefficient. This analysis was carried out in a microplate heat
exchanger at a different flow rate of nanofluids, two different temperatures (30 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C), and two different volume fractions (1%
and 4%) of nanoparticles. The analysis observed that the enhancement in the Nusselt number is about 35.8, and the convective heat
transfer coefficient enhancement is about 4860 W/m2K. Maximum enhancement in Nusselt number is achieved at higher temperatures
(50 ◦ C), higher volume fraction (4%), and higher plate height (400 μm). In the same way, the maximum convective heat transfer
coefficient is achieved at higher temperatures (50 ◦ C) and higher volume fraction (4%).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Nesakumar Dharmakkan: Writing – original draft. Periasamy Manikandan Srinivasan: Writing – original draft. Suresh
Muthusamy: Writing – original draft. Amit Jomde: Formal analysis. Chandrakant Sonawane: Funding acquisition. Kamal Sharma:
Writing – original draft. Ali Jawad Alrubaie: Writing – original draft. A.S. El Shafay: Data Curation Hitesh Panchal: Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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N. Dharmakkan et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 44 (2023) 102805

Fig. 7c. Nu enrichment for 200 μm height of plate for different volume fractions of TiO2–ZnO/EG.

Fig. 8. Enhancement in heat transfer coefficient by varying the volume fraction at 50 ◦ C.

Fig. 9. Enhancement in heat transfer coefficient by varying the volume fraction at 30 ◦ C.

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Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the funding and support (SIU/SCRI/MRP/2020/1497) by Symbiosis Institute of Tech­
nology, Symbiosis International Deemed University, Pune India.

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