LYMPHATIC SYSTEM the venous system through one of the two

large ducts in the thoracic region

 Lymphatic System: (drainage system that
 The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from
removes fluid to the body tissues and return it
the right arm and right side of the head and
to the blood streams.)
thorax.
o Kasama ni Circulatory and Immune
System Lymph Nodes
o Purpose: bring oxygen and nutrients
 Lymph nodes help protect the body by
to the body tissue and remove waste
removing foreign materials such as bacteria
– exchange happen in the smallest
and tumor cells.
blood vessel: CAPILLARIES.
 Within the lymph nodes are macrophages
o Blood Plasma containing nutrients
which engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses and
moves out of capillaries while tissue
other foreign substances in the lymph before
fluid containing waste reabsorbs in
it is returned to the blood.
the vessel.
 Collections of lymphocytes are also
o Hindi lahat ng fluids naibabalik sa
strategically located in the lymph nodes.
blood vessel or blood streams, about
 The lymph nodes vary in shape and size, but
15% are left in the tissues that would
most are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch
cause SWELLING.
long, and buried in the connective tissue that
The lymphatic system consists of two parts: surrounds them.
 Each node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule
 Lymphatic vessels
which strands called trabeculae.
 Lymphoid tissues and organs: houses the
 The outer part of the node (cortex) contains
phagocytic cells and lymphocytes which plays
collections of lymphocytes called follicles.
an essential role in the body defense and
o Many follicles have dark staining
immune resistance to disease.
centers called: GERMINAL CENTERS.
Lymphatic Vessels  Phagocytic macrophages are located in the
central medulla of the lymph node.
 The lymphatic vessels transport fluids (called  Lymph enters the convex side of a lymph node
lymph) that escaped from blood vascular through afferent lymphatic vessels.
system back to the blood.  • It then flows through a number of sinuses
o Lymph yung mga nag-leak sa that cut through the lymph node and finally
capillaries exits from the node at its indented region, the
 The leaked fluids as well as any plasma hilus via the efferent lymphatic duct.
proteins that escape from the blood stream o Flow of lymph: very slow
must be carried back to the blood if the
vascular system is to have sufficient blood Other Lymphoid Organs
volume to operate.
 It includes the spleen, thymus gland, tonsils
 The lymphatic vessels, also called lymphatics,
and Payer’s patches of the intestine.
form a one-way system, and lymph flows only
 SPLEEN: a blood rich organ that filters blood.
toward the heart.
o It cleanses the blood of bacteria,
 The lymph capillaries spiderweb between the
viruses and other debris.
tissue cells and capillaries and absorb the
o It also destroys worn-out red blood
leaked fluids.
cells and return some of their
 These lymph capillaries form flaplike
breakdown products to the liver (ex.
minivalves that act as one-way swinging
Iron is used again for making
doors.
hemoglobin).
 Lymph is transported from the lymph
o Stores platelets and acts as a blood
capillaries through successively larger
reservoir.
lymphatic vessels, referred to as lymphatic
collecting vessels until it is finally returned to
  Thymus
o The thymus produces the hormone
thymosin.
o Thymosin: T CELL PRODUCTION
 Tonsils
o The tonsils are small masses of
lymphatic tissue that ring the pharynx
(throat), where they are found in the
mucosa.
 Peyer’s Patches
o These resemble the tonsils and are
found in the wall of the small
intestine.
o The macrophages of the Peyer’s
patches are in an ideal position to
capture and destroy bacteria thereby
preventing them from penetrating the
intestinal wall.
o The Peyer’s patches and tonsils are
part of the collection of small
lymphoid tissues referred to as
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue.
BODY DEFENSES
 Innate vs Adaptive Defense Mechanism
 INNATE DEFENSE MECHANISM:
can lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-
infected body cells, and some other
nonspecific targets.
 Releases chemical called
PERFORIN and GRANZYME
that degrades target cells
contents
o Inflammatory response- is a
nonspecific response that is triggered
whenever body tissues are injured.
 Cardinal signs of Acute
Inflammation:
 Rubor (redness)
 Calor (increased heat)
 Tumor (swelling)
 Dolor (pain)
 Functio laesa (loss of
function)
o responds immediately to protect the
body from all foreign substances,
whatever they are.
o These innate mechanisms reduce the
workload of the adaptive defense
mechanisms by generally preventing
the entry and spread of
microorganisms throughout the
body.
o Innate Defense Mechanism involves
the skin and mucus membranes,
inflammatory response, and number
of proteins produced by body cells.
 ADAPTIVE DEFENSE MECHANISM
o fights invaders that get past the innate
defenses by mounting an attack
against one or more particular foreign
substances.
o By releasing mobilizing chemicals and
protective antibody molecules.
o Release of anti-bodies
 Internal Defenses: CELLS AND CHEMICALS
o Natural killer (NK) cells- roam the
body in blood and lymph. They are a
unique group of aggressive
lymphocytes that
HOMEOSTASIS BALANCE
 Phagocyte- macrophage or neutrophil, engulfs
a foreign particle by the process of
phagocytosis.
 Anti-microbial protein- enhance the innate
defenses either by attacking microorganisms
directly or by hindering their ability to
reproduce.
 COMPLEMENT – refers of a group of at least
20 plasma proteins that circulate to the blood
inactive state
 INTERFERONS – molecules stimulate the
synthesis of proteins that interferes with the
ability of the viruses to multiply.
 FEVER- a systemic response to invading
microorganisms.
ADAPTIVE BODY DEFENSE BASIC ANTIBODY STRUCTURE

 THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE:  Consisting of four polypeptide chains linked

o Antigen and Antibody
 3 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF ADAPTIVE
DEFENSE
o It is antigen specific—it recognizes
and acts against particular pathogens
or foreign substances.
There are five major immunoglobulin classes:
o It is systemic—immunity is not
restricted to the initial infection site.
o It has “memory”—it recognizes and
mounts even stronger attacks on
previously encountered pathogens.
*T-CELSS : tumor cells
ARMS OF THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
together by disulfide bonds. Two of the four
chains are identical; these are the heavy
chains. The other two chains, the light chains,
are also identical to each other but are only
about half as long as the heavy chains.
 IgM – primary response (pentamer)
 IgA – can be monomer or dimer (secretion)
 IgD – B-cell activation
 IgG – most abundant, only antibody that can
cross to the placenta
 IgE – allergies
o IgD, IgG, IgE - MONOMER

 Humoral immunity (ANTIBODY-MEDIATED ANTIBODY FUNCTION

IMMUNITY)- is provided by antibodies
 Neutralization- occurs when antibodies bind
(immune proteins) present in the body’s
to specific sites on bacterial exotoxins or on
“humors,” or fluids.
viruses that can cause cell injury.
 2 BRANCHES:
 Agglutination- the process causes clumping of
 ACTIVE IMMUNITY
the foreign cells.
o Naturally Acquired -which we may
 Precipitation- cross-linking process involves
develop the signs and symptoms of
soluble antigenic molecules, the resulting
the disease and suffer a little.
antigen-antibody complexes are so large that
o Artificially Acquired - antigen invades
they become insoluble and settle out of
the body under its own power or is
solution.
introduced.
 Cellular immunity- lymphocytes themselves
 PASSIVE IMMUNITY
defend the body.
o NATURALLY ACQUIRED- on a fetus
 Antigen Presenting Cells (activates the
when the mother’s antibodies cross
selection of T-cells) - must be “spoon-fed” the
the placenta and enter the fetal
antigens by APCs, and something like a
circulation, and after birth during
“double handshake” must occur.
breastfeeding.
 Cytotoxic T cells- specialize in killing virus
o ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED- is artificially
infected, cancer, or foreign graft cells directly.
conferred when a person receives
 Helper T cells- are the T cells that act as the
immune serum or gamma globulin
“directors” or “managers” of the adaptive
(donated antibodies) – TO TREAT
immune response.
POISONOUS SNAKE BITES
 Regulator T cells- release chemicals that
ANTIBODIES suppress the activity of both T and B cells.
 Memory Cells- provide the immunological
 Antibodies (IMMUNOGLOBULINS) - memory for each antigen encountered and
constitute the gamma globulin part of blood enable the body to respond quickly to
proteins. Antibodies are soluble proteins subsequent invasions.
secreted by activated B cells or by their
plasma cell offspring in response to an
antigen, and they are capable of binding
specifically with that antigen.
ORGAN TRANSPLANT REJECTION women and particularly affects the kidneys,
heart, lungs, and skin.
 Autografts are tissue grafts transplanted from
 Glomerulonephritis - severe impairment of
one site to another in the same person.
kidney function due to acute inflammation.
 Isografts are tissue grafts donated by a
genetically identical person, the only example IMMUNODEFICIENCIES
being an identical twin.
 Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease
 Allografts are tissue grafts taken from a
(SCID)- in which there is a marked deficit of
person other than an identical twin.
both B and T cells. Because T cells are
 Xenografts are tissue grafts harvested from a
absolutely required for normal operation of
different animal species, such as a porcine
both arms of the adaptive response
(pig) heart valve transplanted into a human.
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)- AIDS cripples the immune system by
interfering with the activity of helper T cells.
DISORDERS OF IMMUNITY

 Allergies (hypersensitivity) - are abnormally

vigorous immune responses in which the
immune system causes tissue damage as it
fights off a perceived “threat” that would
otherwise be harmless to the body.
o DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALLERGIES:
o Immediate Hypersensitivity (ACUTE
HYPERSENSITIVITY) - this type of
response is triggered when that
allergen is encountered again.
o Anaphylactic Shock- occurs when the
allergen directly enters the blood and
circulates rapidly through the body.
o Delayed Hypersensitivities- mediated
mainly by a special subgroup of helper
T cells, cytotoxic T cells, and
macrophages, take much longer to
appear (1 to 3 days).

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE

 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)- which

systematically destroys joints.
 Myasthenia Gravis- which impairs
communication between nerves and skeletal
muscles.
 Multiple sclerosis (MS)- which destroys the
white matter (myelin sheaths) of the brain and
spinal cord.
 Graves’ Disease- in which the thyroid gland
produces excessive amounts of thyroxine in
response to autoantibodies that mimic TSH.
 Type 1 Diabetes mellitus- which destroys
pancreatic beta cells, resulting in deficient
production of the insulin.
 Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)- a
systemic disease that occurs mainly in young