RIFT VALLEY

UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND
ECONOMICS
MBA PROGRAM
BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
Instructor: Robson
Mekonnin/Asst.Professor
 Course Contents
Chapter One: Introduction to Business Research
Chapter Two: Business Research Proposal
Chapter Three : Business Research Design
Chapter Four : The Sources and Collection of
Data
Chapter Five: Processing and Analysis of Data
Chapter Six : Interpretation of Data
Chapter Seven: Research Report Writing
 Chapter One

Introduction to Business
Research
Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• Research is one of those words that we are likely to
come across on an almost daily basis.
• Although research is important in both business and
academia, there is no consensus in the literature on
how it should be defined.
– The main reason for this is that different people can
interpret research differently.
Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• Meaning or Definition of Research
– The word research is composed of two syllables,
re and search. The dictionary defines the former as
a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the
latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and
carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
– Research refers to a search for and verification of
knowledge
Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• “A systematic investigation to establish facts
or collect information on a subject.”(Collins
English Dictionary, 2004:1379)
• “The process of thoroughly studying and
analyzing the situational factors surrounding a
problem in order to seek out solutions to it.”
(Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran, 2001:4)
Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• “ … a systematic, careful inquiry or
examination to discover new information or
relationships and to expand/verify existing
knowledge for some specified purpose.”
(Bennett, 1991:68)
• “A process that people undertake in order to
find out things in a systematic way, thereby
increasing their knowledge.” (Saunders et al.,
2013)
Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• Definitions Summarized
– Process of inquiry and investigation
– Systematic and methodological
– Increases knowledge
Importance of Research in Business
Why Business Research?
• Existence of an opportunity or problem may not
be obvious.
• Precise nature of the problem or opportunity is
not known.
• Alternatives for resolving a problem, or taking
advantage of the opportunity are not fully clear.
• Set of symptoms to a problem are unclear or not
all known.
Importance of Research in Business
• Characteristics of Research
– Research originates with a question or a problem.
– The research goal requires a clear articulation
because research is time consuming and usually
costly to conduct.
– Research follows a specific format.
– Research usually divides the principal problem
into more manageable sub-problems.
Importance of Research in Business
• Characteristics of Research
– Research is guided by the specific research
problem, question or hypothesis.
– Research accepts certain critical assumptions and
limitations
– Research requires the collection and interpretation
of data
– Research is, by its nature, cyclical.
Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• Purpose of Research
– Description: The object of descriptive research is
‘to portray an accurate profile of persons, events
or situations’
– Explanation: Studies that establish causal
relationships between variables may be termed
explanatory research. i.e. studying a situation or a
problem in order to explain the relationships
between variables.
 Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• Purpose of Research
– Prediction
– Exploration : An exploratory study is a valuable
means of finding out ‘what is happening; to seek
new insights; to ask questions and to assess
phenomena in a new light’
 Meaning , Purpose and Characteristics
of Research
• Research Types
individual assignment / come up with next
week/
– Applied or Action Research
– Fundamental or Basic Research
– Explanatory Research
– Descriptive Research
– Qualitative Research
– Quantitative Research
– Conceptual Research
– Empirical Research
Importance of Research in Business
• Testing of new products. Business research
tests the possible success of fresh products.
Businesses need to know what kinds of
services and products consumers want before
they produce them.
• Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses can
also use research to guarantee sufficient distribution
of their products.
Importance of Research in Business
• In-house research is required for
professional and self development of the
workers through training and mentoring.
Research would be needed to conduct
performance evaluation, implementing
changes and assessing HR well-being.
• Undertaking research can help a company
avoid future failure. Helps in determining
future expansions and business decisions.
Importance of Research in Business
• Studying the competition. Businesses
frequently make use of research to study key
rivals in their markets and to remain
competitive in the market.
• It can also help in the recruitment of
employees. It’s through proper research that
human resource managers are able to
determine and recruit qualified manpower.
 When Research Should be
Avoided?
• When information cannot be applied to a
critical managerial decision
• When managerial decision involves little
risk
• When management has insufficient
resources to conduct a study
• When the cost of the study outweighs the
level of risk of the decision
Manager and Researcher Relations
Why Managers should Know Research?
 Facilitates good decision making
 Become discriminating about research
findings
 Prevent vested interests
 Educates to share pertinent and relevant
information with researcher
Manager and Researcher Relations
• Manager’s Obligations
– Specifying problems
– Provide adequate background information
– Access to company information gatekeepers
• Researcher’s Obligations
– Develop a creative research design
– Provide answers to important business questions
Manager and Researcher Relations
Manager-Researcher Conflicts
– Management’s limited exposure to research
– Manager sees researcher as threat to
personal status
– Researcher has to consider corporate culture
and political situations
– Researcher’s isolation from managers
 The Business Research Process
1. Identifying, Evaluating and Formulating the
Research Problems
After creating interest in a research work, a
researcher has to think about formulating the
problem related to his research work. Choosing a
correct problem for study is the most important
step in the entire research process. After
selecting the problem, the researcher has to
formulate the problem.
 The Business Research Process
2. Extensive Literature Survey
Before formulating the research it is desirable
that researcher examines all available literature,
both conceptual and empirical.
–The conceptual literature is one which deals with
concepts and theories.
–Empirical literature is that which contains studies
made earlier and so it consists of many facts and
figures observed in the earlier studies.
 The Business Research Process
• Systematic Literature Review
– Helps in answering questions about what works
and what does not
– Assist as a method in mapping out areas of
uncertainty
– Identifying where little or no relevant research has
been done, but where new studies are needed.
– Systematic reviews also flag up areas where
spurious (not genuine or uninformed) certainty
abounds.
– Helps in understanding the difference between real
and assumed knowledge.
 The Business Research Process
3. Writing a Primary Synopsis
After formulating the problems a brief
summary of it should be written down. A
research worker has to write a synopsis of the
topic selected for research work mentioning
the summary of what is going to be done
under his research.
 How does literature relate to
research?
• Any research study, inductive or deductive
undertaken for academic purpose always
require a review of relevant literature
• The review must be critical not just a
description of what others said
• Anyone can ask a few people to fill in a
questionnaire, but not everyone can make
sense of the answers!
 What kind of literature should we search
for?
• Primary literature sources
• Are least accessible, Company literature, Unpublished research,
Private correspondence, Conference proceedings
• Secondary literature sources
• Are much more easily accessible
• Include published books and articles in journals, news media,
published business, government and international body publications
• For academic research peer-reviewed journals are considered more
reliable sources of literature as the materials are monitored by
experts in the field
• Tertiary literature sources
• Gateways to secondary sources
• They include encyclopedias, dictionaries, citations, indexes, catalogues
and web based portals, journal’s contents, data bases
 Effective literature searching

• Involves 3 stages
Stage 1. make sure that you are using
appropriate search term
Stage 2. go to the right database or
portal
Stage 3. look for the full text of the
article you need
 Critical analysis of literature
• Critical means looking at an expression from “why”
perspective instead of “what, who, where, when, and how”
• Examples
– While descriptive writing states what happened,
critical writing identifies its significance.
– While descriptive gives information, critical gives
conclusion
– While descriptive explains what a theory says,
critical shows why something is relevant or
suitable.
 Critiquing a published article
If you have difficulty thinking critically about what
you are reading, try the following set of questions;
1. What explicit assumptions are being made? can
they be challenged?
2. What implicit assumptions are being made? can
they be challenged?
3. How logical is the reasoning?
4. How sound is the evidence for the assertion(s)?
5. Whose interest and what interests are served by
the assertions?
 Critiquing a published article
If you have difficulty thinking critically about what you are
reading, try the following set of questions;
6) What values underpin the reasoning?
7) What are implications of the conclusions?
8) What meaning is conveyed by the terminology employed?
9) What alternative conclusions can be drawn from the
evidence?
10) What is being privileged and what is off the agenda in this
discourse?
11) What is the context of the discourse? From what different
perspectives can the discourse be viewed?
12) How generalizable are the conclusions?
 Some frequently asked questions &
their answers
• How up to date the literature should be?
– Ans. 3 or 2 years ago, depending on the area of
study
• Should I deal with each reference separately?
– Ans. No you don’t have to
• Should I include my opinion?
– Ans. You can but based on evidence
• What referencing style should I use?
– Ans. Harvard style
 The Business Research Process
4. Indentifying and Labeling Variables
In research the problem under study deals with
relation between variables.
–Independent variables whose change has affected the
other variable (Dependent), i.e. there is a cause and
effect relation between the variables.
–The research problem must be formulated in such a
manner that it highlights the nature, extent and
implications of relation existing between the variables.
 The Business Research Process
5. Setting Up Of Hypothesis
Specification of working hypothesis is a basic
step in the research process. A hypothesis is a
tentative conclusion logically drawn. The
research work is conducted to test the truth of
this hypothesis.
 The Business Research Process
6. Preparing the Research Design
A research design is a plan that specifies the sources
and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
–Strategy used for gathering and analyzing the data.
–Time and cost budgets since most studies are done
under these two constraints.
–Research design provides a rational on what to do,
how to do, in investigating the subjects.
 The Business Research Process
7. Determining the Sample Design
A Sample design refers to the technique or the
procedure which the researcher would adopt in
selecting some sampling units from the universe
for drawing inferences about the universe. If the
proper procedure is followed to select the
sample, definitely the sample will give all
dependable information.
 The Business Research Process
8. Collecting of Data
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate
data. Some of the methods of collecting primary
data are:
–Observation method.
–Direct personal interview method.
–Telephone interview method.
–Questionnaire method.
–Schedule method.
 The Business Research Process
Data Collection Process
– Identify variables or phenomena
– Select Sample
– Select type of data required
– Choose appropriate collection method(s)
– Conduct pilot study or exploratory research
– Modify collection method(s)
– Collect Data
 The Business Research Process
9. Data Processing, Analysis and Interpretation
using Statistical Methods
–Processing consists of data editing, classification,
tabulation and coding.
–Analysis and Interpretation of data results in
observation, analysis, conclusion, induction and
deduction. For this various statistical measures are
computed.
 The Business Research Process
10. Testing of Hypothesis
–Testing of hypothesis will results in either accepting
or rejecting the hypothesis.
–Testing of hypothesis may prove or disprove a
theory and a theory facilitates formulating of a
further hypothesis.
–Testing of hypothesis will result in contribution to
existing theory or the generation of a new theory.
 The Business Research Process
10. Preparation of the Report or Thesis
A report is a detailed description of what and how it
has been done with respect to a area of study.
–Preliminary Section (titles, data, acknowledgement
foreword and table of contents.),
–Main Body (introduction, methodology, statements
of findings, conclusions and recommendations)
–End Matter (appendix, literature selected and
bibliography)
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
• The very first question that any researcher is
faced with is: “What should I investigate
(research)?”
• It is impossible for a researcher to commence
with a research project if s/he does not
pinpoint and clearly formulate a research
problem.
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Problem Should Exhibit
– The research problem should represent
conceptual thinking, inquiry and insight-not
merely activity.
– There should be a meaningful relationship
between the variables related to the problem.
– Once the research problem has been finalized,
it is possible to determine sub-problems, also
known as research objectives.
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Problem Should Exhibit
– The research problem should represent a
reasonably new area of research, i.e. need not
actually to be entirely new, original or unique.
– The problem should represent research that will
contribute to, and impact on the knowledge of the
subject field.
– The research problem should be researchable
(manageable).
 Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Methods for Finding Problem
– Exploratory research.
– Literature review
– Pilot study (practice run)
– From individuals (subjects of the full study)
– Focus Group (discussion small group
research subjects)
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Sources of Research Problem
– Observations and Experience. Identifying research
problems from personal experiences and observation .
– Review of Literature. reviewing literature on provides
a clue on researchable issues and problems .
– Previous Research Projects. Completed research
mostly possible future research topics.
– Theories. These are propositions explaining certain
phenomena, such as the theory of demand and supply.
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Components Of A Research Problem
– An individual or a group which has some difficulty
or problem.
– Some objective(s) to be attained at.
– Must be alternative means (or the courses of action)
to achieve desired objective(s).
– There must be some doubt in the mind of a
researcher with regard to selecting alternatives.
– There must be some environment(s) to which the
difficulty pertains.
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Technique In Defining A Research Problem
1. Statement of the problem in a general way: the
problem should be stated in a broad general way,
keeping in view either some practical concern or
some scientific or intellectual interest.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem:
Understand its origin and nature clearly through
discussion with others and making
environmental observation.
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Technique In Defining A Research Problem
3. Surveying the available literature: related and
relevant available literature should be surveyed and
examined
4. Developing the ideas through discussions: Discuss
problem with colleagues and others who have
enough experience in the same area or in working on
similar problems; known as an Experience Survey.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: making the
research problem as much as possible operationally
and conceptually feasible; helps in the development
of working hypotheses
Formulating A Business Research
Problem
Points in Need of Attention
– Technical terms and words or phrases, with special
meanings, should be clearly defined
– Basic assumptions should be clearly stated
– Clearly stating value of the investigation
– The suitability of the time-period and the sources
of data available
– The scope and delimitation of of the investigation
 Ethics in Business Research
• Obtaining Voluntary and Informed Consent:
A research project must be explained to
potential participants in some way prior to
their involvement. Involvement in any research
project must be undertaken on a completely
voluntary basis. ‘Voluntary’ means that the
participant freely, without threat or
inducement, agrees to be involved in the
research project.
 Ethics in Business Research
• Handling Deception: If deception is necessary
for the purpose of research, it should be used
minimally. In these circumstances, the
researcher must debrief participants at the
close of data collection about the true nature of
the research.
 Ethics in Business Research
• Not to Cause Harm to Subjects: Any research
activity that harms or poses unreasonable risks
to subjects is incompatible with a fundamental
ethical obligation to safeguard the physical,
psychological and emotional well-being of
participants
 Ethics in Business Research
• Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: At first glance,
an explicit dictum about conflict of interest
may seem unnecessary in a research code of
ethics. After all, researchers are dedicated to an
objective and seemingly impartial collection of
information. In truth, of course, researchers,
like all social actors, are influenced by their
social contexts.
 Ethics in Business Research
• Ethical Reporting-The Whole Truth and
Nothing but the Truth?: Researchers working
as consultants or "hired guns" for corporations
or special interest groups bring "front and
center" one other area of ethical concern: fair
and accurate reporting of research findings.
 Problems of Conducting
Research in Developing countries
• Scarcity of Data
• The Lack of Research and Development (R & D) Culture
• Inadequate Funding of Research Projects
• Lack of Necessary Equipment, Facility and Research
Material
• Poor Communication Network
• Unattractive Working Conditions for Research Workers
• The ‘Publish or Perish’ Syndrome
• Lack of Record-Keeping Culture
• Governmental and Societal Attitudes
 Reading for Understanding
• Construct
• Concept
• Variable
• Theory
• Model
• Propositions
• Reasoning
• Paradigm
• Scientific Method
• Factors Affecting Problem Definition
–Situation Frequency
–Dramatic Changes
–How Widespread Are The
Symptoms?
–Symptom Ambiguity
 Chapter Two
Business Research Proposal
 It is a document that is typically written by a scientist,
academic or practitioners which describes the ideas for
an investigation on a certain topic. The research
proposal outlines the process from beginning to end
and may be used to request financing for the project,
certification for performing certain parts of research of
the experiment, or as a required task before beginning a
college dissertation. (www.businessdictionary.com)
Purpose of Proposal
◦ To present the management or research question to be
answered through research and explain its importance
◦ To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on
related management questions
◦ To suggest the data necessary for solving the management
question and suggest ways in which the data can be obtained,
treated, and interpreted.
Benefits of writing a research proposal
◦ Helps researcher clarify purpose and design of
research
◦ Reveals strengths and weaknesses of planned
approach
◦ Used to secure funding or approval to conduct
research
◦ Serves as a logical plan and guide when
carrying out research
General Proposal Guidelines
◦ Should be well-written
◦ Clearly communicate essential material
◦ Present convincing, well-supported argument for proposed
research
◦ Logical, well-formatted organization
◦ Headings and subheadings
◦ Appropriate and consistent margins, fonts, pagination, spacing
1. A clear statement of the overall aims and objectives
of the research.
2. A statement outlining the originality and importance
of the research.
3. A brief description of existing work in the area.
4. How the research is to be conducted, the research
design to be adopted, anticipated methods and
indication of the sample group, sample size and
recruitment methods.
5. How the data collected are to be analysed.
6. The anticipated time scale for the
research.
7. The anticipated outcomes of the research.
8. Any specific requirements in terms of
access, financial requirements, etc.
9. Any ethical issues that may be relevant to
the study.
Formulation of Objectives and
Hypothesis
 Research objectives indicate in more detail the
specific research topics or issues the project
plans to investigate building on the problem
statement.
 Normally at least two or three research
objectives will be stated.
 Research objectives refer to the areas of
knowledge the research is aiming to build on or
advance.
 General and specific research objectives should be
clearly distinguished.
 Statement of research objectives should minimize
potential for misunderstanding or misinterpretation
by readers.
 A better approach is to list only a series of research
objectives i.e. logical sequences
 Think carefully about the relationship between your
research objectives or questions and your choice of
research methods
Objectives can be stated as:
◦ General objective/s/: These are understood as
the overall objectives of the research project;
◦ Specific objectives: These are understood as
the elements of the research which are directly
addressable by the methodology and which are
followed in order to achieve the general
objectives; and
 Paraphrasing Research Questions As Research Objectives
Research Question Research Objective
Why have organizations To identify organization’s
introduced early objectives for introducing
retirement? retirement schemes.
What are the consequences To describe the consequences of
of early retirement early retirement for employees.
schemes?
To explore the effects of early
retirement for the organization.
 Research hypotheses are predictions of a relationship
between two or more variables.
 A hypothesis is a tentative statement or an educated
guess suggesting possible relationship, difference, or
case between two or more variables that can be
investigated and tested.
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis
◦ Clarity of concept
◦ Specific and clear
◦ Ability to test (statistically feasible)
◦ Limited in scope
◦ Understandable
◦ Consistent
◦ Logical
◦ Objectivity
Types of Hypotheses
◦ Declarative (directional and non
directional)
◦ Null hypotheses
◦ Inductive or deductive based
 Preliminary Parts
 Main Parts
 Supplementary Parts
A. Preliminary Parts
1. Cover Page: it contains
 Title and Rationale
 Researcher /Author or Investigator/ and Supervisor Name
 The Name of the Department/ Institution;
 Presentation Date or submission
2. Acknowledgment
3. Table of Content, List of Tables and List of Figures
4. Abbreviations and Acronyms
5. Abstract or Executive Summary
B. Main Part
1. Background of the Study
 Provides some general theoretical basis or
justifications
 The overall justification as to why the study is
needed.
2. Statement of the Problem
 Transposing the main research question in to a
statement enables the researcher to state the
purpose of the study.
 Problem Statement : usually in a few
paragraphs. It should indicate:
◦ The focus area of the research (the issue raised)
◦ Indicates researches done by other researchers
in the area including their findings
◦ Indicate issues that are not yet assessed by other
researcher in the area (the knowledge gap or
unsolved questions which appears to justify
another research.
 Problem Statement
◦ Show difference in the findings of various
researchers in the area (if any)
◦ Indicate the study area and the issues or
subjects of research
◦ Indicate the purpose of the study
◦ Indicate what is meant to be shown or done
by the research
Problem Statement
 Start with a general statement of the problem or
issues
 Make sure the problem is restricted in scope
 Make sure the context of the problem is clear
 Cite the references from which the problem was
stated previously.
 Provide justification for the research to be conducted
 Motivates to conduct the proposed research
 Highlight the problems/demerits of the available
techniques
3. Objectives of the Study: research objectives
refer to the areas of knowledge the research is
aiming to build on or advance.
4. Research Hypotheses/Research questions
5. Significance of the Study: shows the explicit
benefits and the beneficiaries of the results of the
research being conducted.
6. Scope of the Study: should be stated in relation
to the area coverage as well as to the treatment of
the variables in the study
7. Limitation of the Study: This is a part that
you will include some constraints or
difficulties you think that they have
influence on the results of your study.
8. Literature Review: A section in our
research that explains, interprets and
discusses what has been researched and
documented previously .
9. Research Methodology: brief statement
describing the general research methods to be
followed in relation to the research problems and
hypothesis
 Research Design and Strategies
 Methods of Data Collection
 Sampling Procedures
 Methods of Data Processing, Presentation,
Analysis and Interpretation
C. Supplementary Parts
1. Budget
 Finance
 Time
2. Appendix
3. Professional certificate/CVs
 Down-to-Earth Advice:
◦ Please start writing the proposal as soon as
you can.
◦ It is in the process of writing that the actual
‘structure’ will appear – not when you are
just thinking about it.
Writing A Business Research
Proposal
(Assignment)
 Chapter Three
Business Research Design
 Once the objectives of a research project have been
established, the issue of how these objectives can be
met leads to a consideration of which research design
will be appropriate.
 Research design provides a framework for the
collection and analysis of data and subsequently
indicates which research methods are appropriate.
 Types Of Research Designs : the
following research designs are the most
commonly used in conducting business
research.
◦ Experimental
◦ Survey
◦ Case studies
 Experimental Research
◦ Experimental research differs from the other research
approaches noted above through its greater control over the
objects of its study.
◦ The researcher strives to isolate and control every relevant
condition which determines the events investigated, so as to
observe the effects when the conditions are manipulated.
 Experimental Research
◦ When the researcher has established that the study is
amenable to experimental methods, a prediction (technically
called a hypothesis) of the likely cause-and-effect patterns
of the phenomenon has to be made.
◦ This allows decisions to be made as to what variables are to be
tested and how they are to be controlled and measured.
 Types of Experimental Research
◦ ‘Pre-Experimental’:
 No control or comparison group to compare
 A group is given a pre-test (E.g., Supervisory
behavior), is exposed to a treatment (E.g., Training),
and is then administered a post-test (supervisory
behavior) to measure the effects of the treatment.
 The effects of the treatment are measured by the
difference between the pre-test and the post-test.
 Types of Experimental Research
◦ True Experimental Design
 This classical experimental design has an
experimental/treatment group and a control group
both measured at pre-test and post-test on the
dependent variable.
 There is random allocation of cases to experimental
and control groups.
 The only difference between the two groups is that
one received the treatment and the other did not.
 Survey Design
◦ This is a research design in which a group of
people or items is studied by collecting and
analyzing sample data or data from the entire
population. If the survey involves study of a
sample from the population, it is referred to as a
Sample Survey. If it involves the study of the
entire population, it is referred to as a Census
Survey.

 Types Of Survey
◦ A cross-sectional survey collects data at one time. The
researcher can generalize findings from such one-shot
studies to the sampled population only at the time of the
survey.
◦ A longitudinal survey takes place over time with two or
more data collections and has the benefit of measuring
change over time.
 Trend survey
 Cohort survey
 Panel survey
 Case Study Research Design:
◦ This involves intensive study geared towards a thorough
understanding of a given social unit or business activities. It is
worth noting that case studies are of limited generalisability.
◦ Only very few units are involved in case studies and as such,
the findings cannot be generalized to the population.
◦ much emphasis is on obtaining a complete description and
understanding of factors in each case, regardless of the number
involved.
 Strength
◦ One of the greatest strengths of the case study design is its
adaptability to different types of research question and to
different research settings.
◦ The use of multiple sources of evidence allows triangulation of
findings
◦ Offer the benefit of studying phenomena in detail and in
context, particularly in situations where there are many more
variables of interest than there are observations.
 Weakness
◦ Selection bias whereby the choice of cases biases the findings
of the research
◦ Concern raised is general is ability, particularly of single case
studies
◦ The requirement it places on the researcher in terms of dealing
with the complexity of field research if multiple data collection
methods are used
 Quantitative Research
◦ is predominantly used as a synonym for any
data collection technique (such as a
questionnaire) or data analysis procedure
(such as graphs or statistics) that generates or
uses numerical data.
 Qualitative Research
◦ is used predominantly as a synonym for
any data collection technique (such as an
interview) or data analysis procedure
(such as categorizing data) that generates
or use non-numerical data.
 Mixed Methods Approach: is the general term for
when both quantitative and qualitative data collection
techniques and analysis procedures are used in a
research design; either at the same time (parallel) or
one after the other (sequential) but does not combine
them
 Why Mixed Methods Approach?
◦ Triangulation (to corroborate research finding)
◦ Facilitation (as an aid)
◦ Complementarity (to fill gaps)
◦ Generality ( to contextualize main study)
◦ Aid Interpretation(to help explain relationships and aspects)
◦ Study different aspects
◦ Solving a puzzle (method reveals unexplainable)
 Mono or Multiple Method
◦ Mono Method: using a single data
collection technique and corresponding
analysis procedures; or
◦ Multiple Methods: using more than one
data collection techniques and analysis
procedures to answer your research question.
 Conceptualization
 Operationalization
◦ Dimensions
◦ Indicators
 Level of Measurements
◦ Nominal
◦ Ordinal
◦ Interval
◦ Ratio
 Criteria of Measurement Quality
◦ Precision,
◦ Accuracy,
◦ Reliability, and
◦ Validity.
 Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which
researchers measure what they planned to measure.
◦ Criterion-Related Validity: is the degree to which
a measure correlates with some other measure
accepted as an accurate indicator of the concept.
Example: voting preference (measured prior to the
election) is correlated with actual voting behavior.
◦ Face Validity: Some simply involve researchers asking
themselves if their measures seem like logical and
common sense ways to measure concepts. Example:
measuring income of a family, valid in case the income
of the husband and the wife is considered, if both are
earning.
◦ Content Validity: is similar to face validity but uses
stricter standards. For a measure to have content
validity, it must capture all dimensions or features of
the concept as it is defined. For example, a general job
satisfaction measure should include pay satisfaction,
job security satisfaction, satisfaction with promotion
opportunities, and so on.
◦ Construct Validity: of a measure refers to one of two
validity assessment strategies. First, it can refer to whether
the variable, when assessed with this measure, behaves as it
should. For example, if the theory (and/or past research)
says it should be related positively to another variable Y,
then that relationship should be found when the measure is
used. The second use of construct validity refers to the
degree to which multiple indicators of the concept are
related to the underlying construct and not to some other
construct. For example, if a researcher has five indicators of
cultural capital and four indicators of social capital, a factor
analysis should produce two lowly correlated factors, one
for each set of indicators.
 Reliability
◦ Test-retest Method–make the same measurement more than
once – should expect same response both times
◦ Inter-Rater Reliability– compare measurements from different
raters; verify initial measurements
◦ Split-Half Method– make more than one measure of any
concept; see if each measures the concept differently
COMPARATIVE SCALING
TECHNIQUES
 Paired Comparison Scaling
◦ Paired comparison scaling as its name indicates
involves presentation of two objects and asking the
respondents to select one according to some criteria.
The data are obtained using ordinal scale. For
example, a respondent may be asked to indicate
his/her preference for TVs in a paired manner.
◦ The most common method of taste testing is done by
paired comparison where the consumer may be, for
example, asked to taste two different brands of soft
drinks and select the one with the most appealing
taste.
 Rank Order Scaling
◦ This is another popular comparative scaling
technique. In rank order scaling is done by
presenting the respondents with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them
based on a particular criterion. For example, the
customers may rank their preference for TVs
among several brands. In this scaling technique,
ordinal scale is used. The consumers may be asked
to rank several brands of television in an order,
Sampling and Sample
Design
 The world is large and full of people
 We wanted to find out things about people
 Sampling is a practical way of studying
people and their activities, thoughts,
attitudes, abilities, relationships in relation to
business
 Note that sample must be representative of
the population from which it is taken
 Population: is the total set of units in which a researcher is
interested; Can be finite or infinite population
◦ Examples: All employees of an organisation to study the reasons of
employee turnover
 Element/case: a single member of the population.
 Census: includes all the elements in the population
◦ Two conditions are appropriate for census study:
 when the population is small ( for populations under 50 it is usually more sensible to
collect data from the entire population)
 When the variability is high (when the elements are quite different from each other)
and when the size is manageable
 Sampling: is the process of selecting units into a sample from
a larger set of the same units (Population) 1
1
4
 Sampling frame: a listing of all the elements in the
population from which the sample is drawn
◦ For example the list of employees found in personnel
department to get information on employee turnover
 Unit of analysis: the type of object whose
characteristics the researcher wants to measure
and study.
 For example: If data are collected on Employees, the unit
of analysis is employee.
◦ Is the object that the hypothesis describes.
◦ All variables in a hypothesis must be
operationalized for the same unit of analysis.
1
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5
 Sampling unit: a unit or set of units considered for selection
at a stage of sampling.
◦ Sampling unit may or may not be the same as a unit of
analysis. It is possible to include several units of analysis.
 For example, if the researcher wants to interview senior managers
in the public sector, the senior managers become the unit of
analysis and the public organisations across the country become
sampling unit.
 Parameter: is a characteristics of the population about which
researchers are interested to find out.
◦ Example: The average income of all families in a city or the
age distribution of the city’s population.
1
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 Statistics: characteristics of a sample and is
developed from information about the member of
the sample,
◦ are used to make estimates of population parameters
◦ Example: The mean income computed from a sample or the
age distribution of that sample are statistics.
 Sampling errors: the difference between population
parameter and the statistical estimate.
◦ sampling error can be expressed through the use of
confidence levels and confidence intervals. Example: being
95% confident that the population mean is between + or – of
the sample mean
 Standard error: the standard deviation of the means
of the sampling distribution.
1
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
s
Sx 
n
 sx is standard error, s sample standard deviation and n is the sample
size
 Standard error for finite (small) population (N) is calculated by adjusting
for population correction factor
s N n
sx  *
n N 1

 Standard error of proportions (Sp) p (1  p )

Sp 
n

 Example: A random sample of 400 city bus passenger is taken and

55% are in favour of the new time table. With 95% confidence level
what proportion of all city bus passengers favour the new timetable.
0.55 * 0.45
sp   0.025
400

thePopulationPr oportion  0.55  1.96 * 0.025 1

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8
 Sample bias: misrepresentation of the population by the
sample. Caused by the flaw in the design or in the
implementation of sampling procedures.
 Sampling fraction: % of population selected for the
sample
 Sample size: the number of elements selected for the
sample to represent the population.
Sample size determination is influenced by:
 the purpose of the study,
 population size,
 the risk of selecting a "bad“ sample,

1
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The three criteria to determine the appropriate sample size:
 1. the level of precision, sampling error that is mostly
expressed in percentage point, example : ±5%
 2. the level of confidence or risk: based on the Central limit
theory that states when a population is repeatedly sampled, the
average value of the attribute obtained by those samples is
equal to the true population value.
 3. the degree of variability in the attributes being
measured (Miaoulis and Michener, 1976). The more
heterogeneous a population, the larger the sample size required
to obtain a given level of precision. The less variable (more
homogeneous) a population, the smaller the sample size.
1
2
0
STRATEGIES FOR DETERMINING SAMPLE
SIZE
◦ using a census for small populations (e.g., 50 or less).
◦ imitating a sample size of similar studies,
◦ using published tables, and
◦ applying formulas to calculate a sample size
 For continuous values
2
 Zs 
n   

 d 

◦ Where n is sample size, Z is the abscissa at specific

confidence level, s standard deviation of the sample and d
is the precision level.
1
2
1
For example: find the sample size for a confidence
level of 95%, the standard deviation of the sample
12 and the accuracy level is ±2 from the mean
 Sample size for Proportions:
Z 2 pq
n0 
e2

where n0 is the sample size, Z is the abscissa equals for desired

confidence level, e.g., 95%), e is the desired level of precision,
p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in
the population, and q is 1-p.

1
2
2
 If there is a large population and we do not know the
variability in the proportion that will adopt the practice;
assume p=.5 (maximum variability).
◦ Example: to assess the proportion of taxi users in Addis that
favour the new transportation arrangement, if we desire a 95%
confidence level and ±5% precision.
 If population size is known and the precision
level is estimated N
n
1  N (e 2 )
 Where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and e is
the level of precision. (Source: Glenn D. Israel, University of
Florida)
◦ Example: There are 2000 households in a certain Woreda
to assess the satisfaction level on the Woreda
Administration service with the precision level ±5%. 1
2
3
 Sample design: the set of procedures for
selecting the units from the population that
are to be in the sample.
Two major types of sample design
 probability sampling:
 non probability sampling

1
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Four types of probability sampling
◦ simple random sampling:
◦ Systematic random sampling
◦ Stratified random sampling
◦ Cluster sampling
Simple Random Sampling
 Each unit in the population has equal chance of
being selected.
 Can be lottery method or a random number table

 It requires a complete list of the study population.

The researcher assigns each member of sampling
frame a number before selecting sample units 1
2
5
 Helps to eliminate the inadvertent introduction of
sample bias.
Example: assume there are 150 employees (with BA degree and
above) in the organization with the problem of high
employee turnover. If the sample size is 35 employees. Use
lottery and random number table. to select the sample
elements.
Procedures:
For both lottery and random table case
1. Identify the population: All employees with BA
degree and above in the organisation
2. THE sampling frame: The list of employees with
BA degree and above, names are sequentially
numbered from 001 to 150 1
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For lottery case
3, Prepare numbered balls equal to the number of the
population
4. thoroughly mix up the balls and then
5. Draw 35 balls from the 150 balls.
For random number table case
3. Open Excel file and put =Round(rand()*150, 0) in the first cell
and copy this value to the other 34 cells that follow the first
cell.
4. Block again all the 35 cells, select copy, select paste special
and select values.
5. Sort the values and the whole numbers are the sample units
selected for your analysis.
6. In case if there are duplicated whole numbers, replace them
with new whole numbers drawn randomly until the sample
size is equal to 35.
1
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Requires the complete list of population, Reduces the amount of effort
required to draw a sample and provides adequate results
Applicable when the researcher wants to pick households in the sample
from the population of consecutive households found along a
street/road.
Procedures:
 Population has N units. Plan to sample n units and then
 The sampling interval/skip= N/n------K
 Line-up all N units and Randomly select a number between 1 and K
 Select the randomly selected unit and every kth unit after that
Example: the list contains 10,000 element and you want a sample of 1,000:
◦ Sampling interval = Population size/Sample size=10
◦ Randomly select a number between 1 and 10. Assume the first element in the sample
is number 7, then the selection of elements continue as 7, 17, 27 …, 9987, 9997
disadvantage
 Does not result in a truly random sample or suffers from the problem of
periodicity.

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 Involves a process of stratification or segregation,
followed by random/purposive/sample from each
stratum.
 1st: divide or classify the population into strata, or
groups, on the basis of some common characteristics
such as sex, race, or institutional affiliation, level of
management, or income, etc.
 Mutually exclusive groups: the classification should
be done so that every member of the population is
found in one and only one stratum.
 Separate samples are drawn from each stratum.
(proportionately or disproportionately).
 It ensures homogeneity within each stratum, but
heterogeneity between strata

1
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 Problem: The researcher Educ level No. Sampli No. in
wants to study about the of ng sample
satisfaction level of empl fraction
employees.
 Population: 800 PhDs 85 10% 9
employees
MAs 150 10% 15
 sampling frame: all
employees and the list of BA Degree 200 10% 20
employees in personnel Diploma 130 10% 13
department. Holders
 Sample size : 80
Highschool 235 10% 23
 sampling fraction : 10%
or below
 Procedure: stratify the
population based on Total 800 10% 80
education level

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 Problem: Assessing the
transportation needs of Educatio No of Proporti Samplin Number
Bole Sub-city. n level House on of g in
 Population: 75000 (Stratum holds total fraction sample
people in 15,000 house )
holds
 sampling frame: the list Zone 1 6000 40.00% 6% 360
of households in the four
Zones of Bole Sub-city Zone 2 4500 30.00% 6% 270
office.
 Sample size : 1000 Zone 3 3500 23.33% 6% 210
heads/member/
households Zone 4 1000 6.67% 10% 100
 Procedure: stratify the Total 15000 100.00% 940
population in zones
1
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 It involves division of elements of a population into
groups-the groups are termed clusters
 Recommended when:
◦ it is necessary to study a large geographical area and
◦ It is difficult to identify the sampling frame
◦ The geographical distribution of the members is scattered
Stages in cluster sampling
1. The sampling frame is the complete list of clusters
rather than individuals
2. Select a few clusters, normally using simple random
sampling technique.
3. then collect data from the cases within the selected
clusters either using census or by taking sample.
Note: Cluster sampling can also be done at several stages,
and then called multistage cluster sampling.

1
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 Example:
 The Problem: The AA city administration wants to assess the
problem of transportation in AA
 Population: all households in Addis Ababa
 Sampling Frame: List of sub cities, list of Woredas, and list of
Kebeles (Villages), List of households
 Procedure: construct a four-stage cluster sampling
1. Randomly select a sub city from the lists of sub cities
2. Obtain lists of Woredas from the selected subcity and randomly
select a Woreda
3. Obtain lists of kebeles/subworedas from the selected woreda
and randomly select a kebele/subworeda
4. Obtain lists of households from the selected
kebeles/subworedas and obtain information from all
households or by randomly selecting the sample elements.

1
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 Different from stratified sampling because Every
cluster is not sampled where as every stratum is
sampled in the case of stratified sampling.
 Saves time and money
Disadvantage:
 it may require larger sample than other methods
for the same level of accuracy
 Susceptible for the loss of key information as a
result of random selection and re-selection
process of groups.
◦ (better to use weight, based on the number of people
living in the cluster, in the random selection process.

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 Four types
◦ Convenient sampling
◦ Purposive sampling (Expert sampling)
◦ Quota sampling
◦ Snow ball (referral Sampling)
Non-probability sampling designs
 Can work well for exploratory studies
 Useful if it is not important to obtain accurate estimates of
population characteristics
 The units are selected at the discretion of the researcher
 Cheaper and easier to carry out than probability designs
Some of the disadvantages of non-probability sampling:
 one cannot estimate parameters from sample statistics
 Such samples would not be a representative of the
population : does not rely on random sampling

1
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 also called haphazard or Accidental sampling
 Involves collecting information from members of
the population who are conveniently available to
provide it.
◦ For example: collecting information from Volunteers
 Criteria: The availability/ the ease of obtaining/
and willingness to respond
 convenient and economical to sample employees in
a nearby area
◦ During election times TV channels often present man-on-
the-street interviews to reflect public opinion.
1
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 selecting a quota of individual units with defined
characteristics in the same proportion as they exist in
the population.
 address the issue of representativeness (gender: two
categories: male, female; Class level: graduate and
undergraduate, social-economic class: upper, middle,
lower)
 A type of stratified sample in which selection of cases
within strata is entirely non-random.
 Is called Dimensional sampling If all dimensions of the
population are considered in quota sample
◦ Example: A researcher is interested to assess the attitudes of
employees towards working condition. male are 60 percent and
female are 40% in the organizations: If Sample size is 30
employees, then 18 conveniently available male and 12 female
workers will be sampled 1
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 Is judgmental/ deliberate sampling
 It invites the researcher to identify and target individuals who are
believed to be typical of the population being studied.
 The researcher uses his own judgment about which respondents
to choose, and picks only those best meet the purposes of the
study.
Expert sampling: involves selecting persons with known experience
or expertise in an area.
 With purposive sampling the sample is ‘hand picked’ for the
research
 Example: A Local government uses purposive sampling when it
seeks information from cities with a reputation for excellent
administration (about their experiences, with outsourcing
services, what performance measures they use, how they monitor
citizen satisfaction).

1
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 Snowball: Individuals are discovered initially, and
then each individual is used to locate others (the
names & addresses) who possess similar
characteristics and who, in turn, identify others.
 Used when members of a population cannot be
located easily by other methods and where the
members of a population know each other.
 Example: we may want to sample very small
populations who are not easily distinguishable
from the general population or who do not want to
be identified, example drug users, homeless
people 1
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 Chapter Four
The Sources and Collection of
Data
 Primary and Secondary Data
 Quantitative and Qualitative Data
 Discrete and Continuous Data
 Primary data are collected by the investigator directly
from study participants to address a specific question or
hypothesis.
 Primary Sources are first-hand accounts of an event, a
life, a moment in time. They are in their original form
(diaries, letters, photos, etc.) usually without
explanation or interpretation.
Some of the Sources of Primary Data
◦ Auto-biographies and Memoirs
◦ Diaries
◦ Letters and correspondences
◦ Original works of literatures
◦ Records of organizations and government agencies
◦ Legal cases and treaties
 Merits Of Primary Data
◦ Better data interpretation
◦ Target issues are addressed
◦ Efficient spending for information
◦ Decency of data
◦ Addresses specific research issues
◦ Greater control
◦ Proprietary issues
 Primary Data Collection Methods
◦ Questionnaire
◦ Observation
◦ Interview
◦ Focus group discussion
 Questionnaire
◦ A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or
typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms.
◦ Schedules: data collection through schedules is very much like
the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled
in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the
purpose.
 Types of Questionnaire
◦ Self- Administered Questionnaire
◦ Mail Questionnaire
◦ Electronic Questionnaire
◦ Schedules
 Close Ended Questions
◦ List – select any answer
◦ Category –select one answer
◦ Ranking- put answers in order
◦ Rating – score or give a value to answers
◦ Quantity – respond with amount
◦ Grid – complete matrix to provide more than one answer
 Open Ended Questions
◦ Open list- number of answers required, type of answer free
◦ Open essay – often used as a final option to let respondent
comment
◦ Personal questions about opinion – free answer
◦ Personal questions about behavior- free answer
 Interview
◦ The interview method of collecting data involves presentation
of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses
◦ Interview formats
 Personal interview
 Electronic interview (Telephone, Tele-conferencing, On-line etc)
◦ Forms – Structured vs. Non-Structured
 Observation
◦ It is the use of eyes rather than of ears and voice
◦ It is accurate watching noting of phenomena as they occur with
regard to the cause and effect or mutual relations
◦ It is direct , in natural setting, less structured and qualitative
study
• Forms of Observation:
 Structured and Non-structured
 Direct and Indirect
 Simple and Systematic
 Participant and Non-participant
• Role of Observers
‾ Complete Observer
‾ Complete Participant
‾ Participant as Observer
‾ Observer as Participant
 Conducting Observation: Unstructured
◦ Take a note book and pen
◦ Note down when you see something interesting
◦ Do not jump to conclusion
◦ Look for more evidence
◦ Ask people conforming things
 Focus Group Discussion
◦ The main purpose of the focus group interview/discussion shall
be to provide information concerning community-level data
through group interviews.
◦ FGD typically has 6 to 12 members, plus a mediator. Eight is a
popular size.
◦ FGD can be extremely useful particularly when it is used
together with evidences obtained through other methods of
research.
 Sections of a Questionnaire
◦ Identification data occupation is the first section of a
questionnaire where the researcher intends to collect data
pertaining to the respondent’s name, address and phone
number.
◦ Request for cooperation refers to gaining respondent’s
cooperation regarding the data collection process.
◦ Instruction refers to the comments to the respondent regarding
how to use the questionnaire.
 Sections of a Questionnaire
◦ The information sought form the major
portion of the questionnaire. This refers to
the items relating to the actual area of the
study.
◦ Classification data are concerned with the
characteristics of the respondent.
 Characteristics Of Good Questionnaire
◦ Relevance
◦ Consistency
◦ Usability
◦ Clarity
◦ Quantifiability
◦ Legibility.
 Guidelines
◦ Explain the purpose of the interview or questionnaire to all
participants
◦ Keep your questions as simple as possible
◦ Avoid the use of jargon or specialist language
◦ Phrase each question so that only one meaning is possible
◦ Avoid vague, descriptive words such as ‘large’ and ‘small’
◦ Avoid asking negative questions as these can easily be
misinterpreted
◦ Only ask one question at a time
◦ Include relevant questions only
 Guidelines
◦ Include questions which serve as cross-checks on answers to
the other questions
◦ Avoid questions which require the respondents to perform
calculations
◦ Avoid leading or value-laden questions which imply what the
required answer might be
◦ Avoid offensive questions or insensitive questions which could
cause embarrassment
 Guidelines
◦ Avoid questions that look like memory test
◦ Keep your interview schedule or questionnaire as short as
possible, but include all the questions required to cover your
research purpose and/or answer your research questions and
test your stated research hypotheses.
◦ Minimize the number of open-ended questions to ensure good
return and response rate.
Cautions
◦ Avoid questions which do not relate to the research
objectives, research questions and research hypotheses.
◦ Avoid such leading questions as those questions,
beginning with such terms as “In view of the fact that”
◦ Avoid unnecessary presumptions about the respondents.
◦ The format to be adopted will depend on the dept of the
information required.
 Questioning
 General To Particular Questions
 Factual To Abstract Questions
 Closed To Open-ended Questions
 Secondary data are the data that are in actual
existence in accessible records, having been
already collected and treated statistically by the
persons maintaining the records.
 Collecting secondary data doesn't mean doing
some original enumeration but it merely means
obtaining data that have already been collected
by some agencies, reliable persons, government
departments, research workers, dependable
organizations etc.
 Nature of Secondary Data
◦ Secondary data offer cost and time economies to the
researcher as they already exist in various forms in the
company or in the market.
◦ It is feasible for a firm to collect.
◦ Since they are collected for some other purposes, it may
sometimes not fit perfectly into the problem defined.
◦ The objectives, nature and methods used to collect the
secondary data may not be appropriate to the present
situation.
 Secondary data helps to:
◦ Identify the problem.
◦ Better define the problem.
◦ Develop an approach to the problem.
◦ Formulate an appropriate research design by identifying the
key variables.
◦ Answer certain research questions and formulate hypotheses.
◦ Interpret the primary data more in-depth.
 Sources
◦ Central and State government publications.
◦ Publications brought out by international organization
like the UNO, UNESCO, etc.
◦ Foreign government publications.
◦ Reports and publications of commissions
◦ Well-know newspapers and journals
◦ Publications brought out by research institutions,
universities and research workers
◦ Internet/website sources, etc.
 Evaluating Secondary Data
◦ Reliability of data: researcher, sources, methods, time, and
process of anlsysis.
◦ Suitability of data: Data must be evaluated whether they
could serve for another purpose other than the one for which
they were collected.
◦ Adequacy of data: This should be done in terms of area
coverage, level of accuracy, number of respondents, etc.
 Factors to be considers
◦ Purpose and scope of enquiry
◦ Availability of time
◦ Availability of resources
◦ The degree of accuracy desired
◦ Statistical units to be used
◦ Sources of information
 Chapter Five
Processing and Analysis
of Data
 Data Processing
◦ Processing is a statistical method by which the collected data is
so organized the further analysis and interpretation of data
become easy.
◦ It is an intermediary stage between the collection of data and
their analysis and interpretation.
◦ It includes : Editing, Coding, Classification, and Tabulation
 Editing
◦ Editing is the process of examining the data collected through
various methods to detect errors and omissions and correct
them for further analysis.
 Accuracy, consistency, uniformity, completeness, etc
◦ For instance
 Numerical values converted in to same units
 Modification must be indicated properly
 Incorrect answers corrected if absolutely correct
 Coding
◦ Coding is the process by which r response categories are
summarized by numerals or other symbols to carry out
subsequent operations of data analysis.
◦ In general it reduces the huge amount of information collected
in to a form that is amenable to analysis.
 Coding Rules
◦ Give each respondent a code number for
identification.
◦ Provide code number for each question.
◦ All responses including ‘don’t know’, ‘no
opinion’. Etc is to be coded.
◦ Assign additional codes to partially coded
questions.
 Classification
◦ Classification is the process of reducing large mass of data in
to homogeneous groups for meaningful analysis.
◦ It converts data from complex to understandable and
unintelligible to intelligible forms.
◦ It divides data in to different groups or classes according to
their similarities and dissimilarities.
 Objectives of Classification
◦ To organize data in to concise, logical and intelligible
form.
◦ To take the similarities and dissimilarities s between
various classes clear.
◦ To facilitate comparison between various classes of
data.
◦ To help the researcher in understanding the significance
of various classes of data.
◦ To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations.
 Basis of Classifications
◦ Geographical
◦ Demographic
◦ Behavioral and attributes
◦ Variables
◦ Chronological
 Good Characteristics
◦ Unambiguity, stable, flexibility, homogeneity, suitability, and
exhaustiveness
 Tabulation
◦ It is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns. It is
defined as the “measurement of data in columns and rows”.
◦ Table format:
 Simple (contains only one variable)
 Complex (two or more variable in one table)
 Some of the objectives are:
 To clarify the purpose of enquiry
 To make the significance of data clear.
 To express the data in least possible space.
 To enable comparative study.
 To eliminate unnecessary data
 To help in further analysis of the data.
 Data Presentation
◦ Tables
◦ Bar charts
◦ Histograms
◦ Pie charts
◦ Ogives
◦ Pictograms
◦ Line graphs
 Benefit
◦ They help in presenting quantitative facts in
simple, clear and effective pictures.
◦ They make the whole data readily
intelligible.
◦ They can be used for comparison purpose.
◦ They are useful in analyzing complex
economic theories.
 Benefits
◦ They save much time in understanding data.
◦ Facts can be understood without doing
mathematical calculations.
◦ They help in lo0cating statistical measures
such as median. quartile, mode etc
 Data Analysis
◦ Descriptive Analysis and Inferential Analysis
◦ Parametric and Non-parametric Techniques
◦ Univariate, Bivariate and Multivariant Analysis
 Descriptive Techniques
◦ Frequency Distribution
◦ Measures of Central Tendency: Mean ,
Mode, and Median
◦ Measures of Dispersion: Range, Standard
Deviation and Variance
◦ Measures of Shape: Kurtosis and Skewness
 Inferential Analysis
◦ Measures of Correlation: Simple and Ranking correlation
coefficients
◦ Regression: Simple and Multiple (OLS and Logit)
◦ Measures of Significance: Z-score, t-test and F-distribution
◦ Measures of Associations
 Chapter Six
Interpretation of Data
 Meaning
◦ Interpretation refers to the technique of drawing inference
from the collected facts and explaining the significance of
those inferences after an analytical and experimental study.
 It is a search for broader and more abstract means of the research
findings.
 If the interpretation is not done very carefully, misleading
conclusions may be drawn.
 The interpreter must be creative of ideas he should be free from
bias and prejudice.
 Meaning
◦ Interpretation is the process by which meaning and
significance is attached to the analysis.
◦ Interpretation leads to explanations for descriptive patterns,
identification of relationships between categories, and
theoretical developments.
 Fundamental Principles of Interpretation
◦ Sound interpretation involves willingness on the part of the
interpreter to see what is in the data.
◦ Sound interpretation requires that the interpreter knows
something more than the mere figures.
◦ Sound interpretation demands logical thinking.
◦ Clear and simple language is necessary for communicating the
interpretation
 Importance of Interpretation
◦ It is through interpretation that the interpreter is able to know
the abstract principles lying in his conclusions.
◦ On the basis of the principles underlying his findings, a
researcher can make various predictions about the various
other events which are unrelated to his area of findings.
 Importance of Interpretation
◦ Interpretation leads to the establishment of explaining
concepts.
◦ A researcher can appreciate only through interpretation, why
his findings are and what they are.
◦ The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study
usually results in to hypothesis for experimental research.
 Steps Involved in Interpretation
◦ Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations
he have found. He must be able to see uniformity in diversified
research findings so that generalization of findings is possible.
◦ If any extraneous information is collected during the study, it
must be considered while interpreting the final result of
research study.
 Steps Involved in Interpretation
◦ The researcher can consult with those having insight in to the
study who can point out the omission and errors in logical
arguments.
◦ The researcher must consider all relevant factors affecting the
problem at the time of interpretation.
◦ The conclusions appearing correct at the beginning may prove
to be inaccurate later. So researcher must not be in a hurry
while interpreting.
 At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself
that the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate
for drawing inferences, the data reflect good
homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done
through statistical methods.
 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors
that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting
results.
 The researcher’s task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to
identify and disengage the factors that are initially
hidden to the eye.
 The task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.
 There should be constant interaction between initial
hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions.
 Conclusions
◦ The conclusion of a research paper reaffirms
the thesis sentence, discusses the issues, and
reaches a final judgment.
◦ The conclusion is not a summary; it is a
belief based on your reasoning and on the
evidence you have accumulated.
 Good Conclusion
◦ Logically synthesized
◦ Systematic and brief
◦ Able to stand on its own
◦ Answers research question
◦ Contains theoretical and policy implications
◦ Setting agenda for further studies
 In quantitative research, generalizability is
considered a major criterion for evaluating the
quality of a study.
 Generalizability is a thorny, complex, and
illusive issue even in studies that are
considered to yield high-quality evidence
 Findings are always embedded within a
context (make it difficult for generalization)
 Approaches of Generalization
◦ Statistical generalization = quantitative
◦ Analytical generalization = qualitative
◦ Transferability
 Generalizations
◦ A hasty generalization is where we fallaciously infer some
general claim from just a few (too few!) instances.
◦ A sweeping generalization is where we fallaciously apply
some general claim to a specific instance
◦ A hasty refutation of a generalization is where we point to
just a few (too few) cases to refute some general claim.
◦ Overgeneralization is the use of small and/or non-
representative samples of real data to make an inference that
is incorrect.
 Bias can be of different form.
◦ Preference Bias: It occurs when a research result
unduly reflects the researchers’ preference for it
over other possible results.
◦ Selection Bias: related with the selection of sample
◦ Information Bias: bias with collection and
recording of data
◦ Publication Bias
 Some Causes Of Bias
◦ Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is
inappropriate.
◦ Defective measuring device: In survey work, systematic
bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is
biased.
◦ Non-respondents: individuals in the sample may not
cooperate
◦ Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that
individuals act differently when kept under observation
◦ Natural bias in the reporting of data:.
 Fallacies of Inconsistency: cases where something
inconsistent or self-defeating has been proposed or
accepted.
 Fallacies of Inappropriate Presumption: cases where
we have an assumption or a question presupposing
something that is not reasonable to accept in the relevant
conversational context.
 Fallacies of Relevance: cases where irrelevant reasons
are being invoked or relevant reasons being ignored.
 Fallacies of Insufficiency: cases where the evidence
supporting a conclusion is insufficient or weak.
 Chapter Seven
Research Report Writing
 The goal of any research project is a
report in which the researcher tells
others (readers) why and how the
research was conducted and the
implications of research findings.
 Meaning
◦ A Report is a detailed description of what has been
done and how it has been done with respect to a
particular area or topic.
◦ Inaccurate, poorly written and incomplete reports
fails to achieve its purposes and may end up in
wrong decisions.
◦ Report is a self-explanatory statement of facts
relating to a specific subject and serves the purpose
of providing information for decision making and
follow up actions
 Types
◦ Practical Report VS Academic Report
◦ Technical Report Vs General Report
 Report writing is a process that takes time.
 Writing is unique, intellectual challenge.
 There is no mystery to becoming a good
writer. ( good writers write well because they
write often and learn from experience)
 Good writers never work in isolation i.e. work
with others and seek constructive criticism.
 Presentation of findings and results
 Future references
 Formal completion
 Guidance for other researchers
 Written evidence
 Clarity
◦ Simple words and with less semantics
◦ avoiding jargon
◦ Avoiding long quotations
 Continuity
 (linking the different discussion in the report )
 Consistency
◦ Avoiding duplication

 Brevity (concise and exact use of words)

 Readability
◦ Understandable vocabulary
◦ Grammatically correct
◦ Proofread
 Interestand Appeal
 Judicious Selection of Materials
 Avoiding personal opinion
 Concentrate on Central Ideas
 Proper Reference
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter
◦ Chronological
◦ Connections and association
◦ Contents and contexts
2. Preparation of the final outline
◦ Tentative table of content (report skeleton)
3. Preparation of the rough draft
◦ First time writing of the content of the report
◦ What comes to the mind will be?
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
◦ Reading and re-reading
◦ Checking, Revisions and Re-revisions
◦ How much? - Until the researcher convinced
5. Preparation of the final bibliography

◦ Preparing the list of materials consulted

6. Writing the final draft
 Preliminary
◦ Title page
◦ Acknowledgment
◦ Declaration
◦ Table of content
◦ List of tables
◦ List of figures
◦ Abstract/ executive summary
◦ Acronym
 Introduction
◦ Background
◦ Statement of the Problem
◦ Research Objectives
◦ Research Hypothesis or Questions (If any)
◦ Significance of the Study
◦ Delimitation of the Study
◦ Limitations of the Study
◦ Organization of the Report
 Literature Review
 Research Design (Methodology)
◦ Research Approach and Strategies
◦ Population and Sampling Procedures
◦ Data Source and Collection Procedures
◦ Data Presentation and Analysis Procedures
◦ Conceptualization and Operationalization
◦ Validity and Reliability
 Main Body
◦ Data Presentation
◦ Discussion on findings
 Better making the structuring in line with the objective
 Objectives based chapterization
◦ Summary
◦ Conclusions
◦ Recommendation
 Supplementary Part
◦ References
◦ Appendixes
 For instance questionnaires
 Supporting tables
 Authentications
 Style and physical design
◦ Fonts and margins
◦ Paragraphing
◦ Spacing
 Procedures
 Lay out
◦ Proper structuring of the report according to well defined outline
 Treatment of quotations
 The footnotes
◦ Supplementary values and cross referencing
◦ Bottom and consecutive
 Documentation style
◦ Citations
◦ Books, periodicals, journals, news papers
◦ Second hand citation (articles in a books edited by other )
◦ Treating multiple authors
◦ Alphabetical arrangement
 Punctuations and Abbreviations
 Use of Statistics , Charts and Graphs
 Reference Preparation
 Create time for your writing
 Write when your mind is fresh
 Find a regular writing place
 Set goals and achieve them
 Use word processing
 Generate a plan
 Get friends to read your work