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    MTH

    Uploaded by

    kamaleshupadhyay388
    math

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    bniT3. Primeiple of tetusiver- Exclusion sou of ae ale AA mtaup) = (A) 4708) mans) or lavsl = AA + IBI - ans) roach vised to frvcel fivicte sel snes MME of element Awe Ame OPI du car wnrto of A090 aus students ot O college wsho ‘tave taken Q couse tn caltulus, Std uso: have taker. a course "Ln Aicrete mathematica, and 18% Oe hove Anke ee dn Aetr calara arr Aiserete awathematica: Horo ™ studenk seat cea kG Tien entlas ov aud ott aise? se AM Q. Were are SIM AC Ino of ahudéuts sho Ihave. -faken a Cour, oy ’ pen ie Me Calodus ANB. Vi aap when BL Ne - ob ” " ” course in calenlues VAY 282, WE Bas oy 1A OBL = 18S So, IAvBI = war+iel - 1ANB) - = 2124 5us -1B% . = SS4-1B% Ke _ = 364 | Hous mas positive Uutegers not exceedi Jooo are Aivisi ble aud yo or NP? 4 “4 a folstiont- At, Sea of ive integers met exceeding 1000 thal are Aivisible by +. Bi olivisible by AvB’, Sel of integers not exceeding 1000 chet are divisible either 4 o Il ANS, ——— ahat are Alivisible oy both hand U- We , , , , Nos of ve Autegers not exceeding 1000 that ore olivisi ble doy + ws | 2 2 LJ : Fleor [42-89 Fo: city = 142 fo: [3-s]-4 > yale i inti = 000 \Bl= Le) ' , Bel<9 ae . [aes] <4 IAQB |= |) 100 linen = 2 ? \KUB}= )+IBI- IAB] = 142490-12 = 220 Ang The prihwiple of Inclusion ~ Exclusion for 2 sek Jausuel = IAl4 181 41cl— RAB) - (BAC) -1cdA) + lanboe] For 4 sete, JALB UC UDI = 1A) + 1BI +c] +10) ebay edb epee be) =~ \anel - iene ieavl-laAgel ~ And) - 16809) +A BNC + IANBAD| +160CODI — \anpacod). eee ee | The Pigeonhole Principle Ue ee ds a positive iteg o" and ‘kt aS avie. Mo Suto Kk boxes then hove tu Gilead one bd 7 = ijost eue bo containing 4use_ oF amore of the 1 Eql Among any grup 36% people, there amust be at Jeast sro asthe de same birthday , Aecause these aie only Bee possible birthday? Ey? jn omy er of 3A ah unords, there aust be ot dead aAwo thet begins pith ane zome Letter, oecause anv ane 26 Jeflers in she english alphabet: P : i inang, fades cmt OS ne rontee > atudents receive De fame ACETE je exam & qrnas ona scale hot atleast aw xam, on abe final £ from 0 40 100 points 2 Jolt) Troe ate dod poset ble dewres on the final Te pigeshsl pameyle Answs ahah amenq 4 oe Arucdeuds wu wast pe atleast a shldenk musi th ine Bo sore The euualized: Pi eonhole Prrntaple ay objects ave placed Unto -k boxes, # ctuan there 44 atleast one box containiry atleast Prix] chyects ce Ro " =F ashe j00 people there ane atleast fse)=4 usho wee born in “the same fh. : i What us gm ‘ainirnun mo- of slideut required ae a discrete mathematica cla 4b be dwie shat at lead Aix wil) seceive Ane dame ade, Y thene One five possible Berka ARC, abr EF, ne : ale In] 6 AA kA AO (Ne 26) oo ee — ee¢ e@ Mromw op p “po ae —a. \ eB Pp Forcr FF Q- Horo many cands muit ‘be selected from a standard deck of 52 cards Ao giiratee. that ak least three cards. of dine “some suet, ore chosen 7 fof ye ° ne 4 @® Repatisn det A B be seh A Cee Helotion rom A ko ie = RGAXB RB is a subset of AXB @ Cup ea member of vtelatiow ther we, 444 rm per or xRy 7 vshith “means ® Couyp ts not Heletted doy, wu stelated tg ‘then Gay ER. by Relntiow,.en a set A A elation on set AU helation from A tp Ae e Ua -cthensens, & felahdn on” ack 4 is subset of AXA. Rxomple > her Az W234 Re f(a,» | a oivides b} Refergd , 042950,3), 4s (2,2) + (214), (3,3), 0n} + Hove many relations are there On a set avith an elements 2 (alan > jaxalenn 2n" ? Total no. of subset of AXA 22 relatiom are there 4rom : \A\=™m and \B)=7- soi") A” is. relation Aubset of AXB) which haw subsets of AXB act A do Act B, ). Heo Umxn) elemeals Tee no. Helatiows, ig o- of 1Ax8l m1 as a Bropestian_o} Reterion 2 de Reflexive: A relation Rien ja iaek AB neflexive y laadeR jr ou a&R ' a Symmetric A Melatiow Qion a seth ds called aymmebic if (baer ushenever (a bIER 4sr oll ayb EA 4a called Antiy mmebic 3. Avbsymmetnes- A relation Rona st if (ab) ER) nen Unay FR G atb oR : it (opeR ond (yaeR are A. Transitive A reoteen me na net A Js walled sranuitive f (abyER ond (b,c) eR Ahern Cae) ER, a, bie éa xive S-. chrreptedive ty , "ae nelation Ro ow tae ser A irvefle “if fer ou AEA, (aadeR be, Rd ivveflerive Jf no element in A is related © dtself pont 6 Angry | 4 relation R & callect Aagenmetic of (a bdER | > (ya éR- Consider dn rebttions on act & | Reta] a=b} Craenstity Ceaio’) Retead | asbh | me {cab | oot Re4Q) [27 by a) Equality nelation ©) 4) Subset relation (Ee) Oo Shicty les han nelation (<) a) Shichy qrentercthan, velaction ( ed Greaken thon equal 4o relation ») (*) R=4 cay | azby $) Lew Than equal 40 elation (4) Re fCayb).} aesy © perpendicular retarion CL Lim) R24) ee 44 4) Paraltel elation (ill) Reis) | A Net 4) Bivide yelation (} ) : Rafcap| ale. Reflexive Relation'- = Syrmebic Relatin = by o,4.7) 2,2) N \ €,754,7U,\ Ny ‘but not Lar i Transitive Relation- Dowiayrmmeme Relation =) S647) 4% St \wreplexive Relation! <7 » lar bd Adynmet ic Relation’ <<, 7 yder Q. How m relation ore there on a Act. thar are ©) dynmerie | qomers ‘2 ») Antisy medic | ; ” Pig o nice ; snl la. A) Trretlexive! ing? “ antn-1)) 2 °) Reflexive te Aymmehic f) Neither Reflecive mor * exive! D + Reftexi Hf et exive Bid ee fe a Combining Helatout Sunee relation from A dp B joo relatou from A dB can be moe} ways to Combine tuoo dete: worth clermer| ? me. mln-1) Q- Ad are dubsets of AXB, _ eombivied an any : het A=fh43¥ 4 Be thus Example *- The pletion: “gy 2 f OP (22), C3,8Y 4 Bye 15D, (295 0,399 CD] ‘Cam be “hembined do oblain RURE R08, = Lay Rhee {i2) DY Re-B = Uhr) 5 C43)» CDT FEUD, 294013) 9 CHD @Y , G2) R.@R= ROR— BOR > AY jy3) 9Clo4) , 642) 163:3)4 \ : Argonne ie ely foenee Composila_oj Rand $_nelatirns ker REA XB RLS BKC 4 B she Tue composite a Rand S ta the relation comistng ef ordered pairs (a,c) where aed bh cl bf whide ue xu on cement bE B Auch thet abyeER' & (b,c) €S- We deusle the compostte af R&S by oR, as Whot ds Ane Aompoice. of gre julanbn RAS Ushou R & elation from fijasy te Pasty yy POAT YS us felatiow from fai with Bo TO, (4) (43) 639 3,49) $= 14,0, 00) (3) 03,9 cuyny 2 SOR iH FUE) yb), 640), (42) 363:0), (3,04 Aol”. Dey det R be a rulatow on a awa: Te power RM, Ne ddr te defined aeususively. “ H d ReR 7 Re PoR Ratok or Ro® eR Far der Re YU, (17 9 (3 4,307 Ten pg? 9 Fe RoR = TON 54,3, C90 fh Rete 14M C4 GP Cony, os Re Boke Foun (aD (30) CHOY 2 Pew for nz 5b,F--- * Theorem = 7 A. relation on Rom set Aw TRANSITIVE “ab oud only u Qrer fr WAG: | b= ORS +5eR + SR ib deyined ushen — Codemain Meariy Repraen election 4% | “pt RLAB he REAKB “The feletion R cau be repress by “the matrix : Mage Imyz], where order 4 soe aft Cai, BER - = vale tel. wB o if (aay) eR Lee Re {ad Cains Cady where, (Bde retalion sm A #8 Wa where A = {184 B= {24 Ned <1) 0): 0 al yO sn J 2. bet A= Yo, 41 Bz fbi, bs, bay by bs} ‘ Whicr ordered pair are in the ‘reotion R represented by. ne mabix fio 6 1° a) all ci | 4 ? Wl Ge 1 Oy = ftrks (BD 9 Cad) 9 (Hib Cbd (45)b5)s (a3 1s) . of R= domain of S. Me Sol” Ideatification Of reledcon 4 ating Matto ep recenttheon A the elemuils of yrindip le diagonal are one's then relation Heplexive : Ty Mp uw syrmehic matrix ive: (AeA) chen the relation must be tyrametsia - (mig = mye) MOF Jf miyz=l akg othe m=, Ban Toe relation must be Audi gymmebae Tp mipalasg then mgi=O, Moresver Ait =O than reledibnrnutt be Aagomets Transitive Petal cannot be analyzed By the matns vrepreemlaaiow: Q- Suppose that the relatiomt R aud R, ona se A are papresested by A ant Mp, =/[4 6 yt ‘. o jad 1 0.0] and RJR. ? “pe matnces o14 0 What are due matrices dol™'- M = MeN efi, woo.4 RoR 8 gi ane 1., 4 6 represenking ROR, Vay & AW meet Mean. Me,* Mp? 1 6 a. rem de defuutiow ofthe Booleau. product, Mice Fee © Me + Find ane moacbux represenlation ot SoR, wheve Rand S me Tepresenting ae ° | and “fe ° ne matricad 4 40 o 0 O ae Mage MOM =f1 of b-a Oy, asa BEG oS) oo olLt Os = [4.0 +0-0+4-4 dob 4OD4J-0 g0rod tht AD+1-04+04 ded ¢4-04 0-0 404 44+ O4 0-40-0401. — ON + 0-040°0 as OL + 0-4 = [oqori 44040 ord+1 a 4 o4d+D «Lt OF 0 O+140'} ad o'0 O D+0+0 D+0+0 0+0-+40) Representing Relations Using Digrapts i A Dirested graphy comiste of a det Vet vesttices’ together pertic,, Oy 4tb, E ce ordered. pais of, elements 4 Vv ed edges. : . The vertex ‘a’ Called “tue inichal verter, of the edge Card) and the vortex ‘bi called tthe ermtina) vertex ot thie ae oy ate ; An edge of the dorm (0,4) & called a Aeop. * a Directed Graph: 4 “gmk of relation with divecton - Eq; Th dusted qe of relation — Re Ferd 9 C3), CaM» 643d Ca by tee det £1,347 % if 3 How +o determine te type of 4 Seca ee dex, deep for each ede. + Reflexive’ Ha mq i 1 dto-b then & Syenmebriet= I there ig an edge from 4 there must be im edge 4rom boa oR alintinet / Exactly too edgeg Bye eon patr vst ventives but in eppost direction: 3 Antiagmmettic’s- Ex oe edge blw dutnet pair of seed Say top is allowed P Ay Absgrmmelne 5 En one edge ble clstrnct paic: Vartites - No alg Joxp 4 allmoed- 5 Tromilves- A velolien is 4ransctive. oa and ont wine there ls an edge fret a voter ba Vortkex ond edge qromta voutkex 4 fo By then there must be ‘an edge -from x toe: But gt ts Aharel to scetrom the Clirected grabh thet DR ‘we teanirtive® te g ke ) 13,9 (3 cary} relachons from dire dled grab | ; ( r ( ( c 4 c ¢ ( 4 ‘ ¢ ‘ ( ¢ « ( ( ( ( « ( ( ¢ ( c ( c c c ‘ ‘ ‘ Kquivalence Peloton DA relation ona set & reflexive , aymmebric: and transitive Aw alled equivalence ap ur Bxts het ASTUBHtY aud RE AKA Whe R & a relation sleptned as if aber athen aRb &> O see Re {Caib)| 2LA-4 . v exoedly bi divuible by 2 vA Us divides - i such thak, Soll A= $1230 sf R= fay» 2) (BiB) 9 bid » C43) 903195 (ain) C439} enmetic & Clearly Ain relation ig reflexive, AY vdyansrtive >Re equivalence relation! om An Bar Lee R-be the relation pw she tet of real “numbers Anan? ded “aR, xf el only if -a-bs wan integer Tie equivalence rebation 2 Sel” Referer R- {@d) | are <= For Retlerive, if (a,ayeé R aq 2» g-aso€l 7 Ru reflexive - i dat ab “Then O° > te kearbs Ke Zz > -kK= bra > ib-as KE 2b Ra St Aotows that wm a-bé ay Now suppose b & an integer Re syrovmetic “4 ‘Tf ORD. and bRe dhen Q-b and b-c & are integers. Thunfere , a-c = a-b+b-c & also an integer > Hence, ae. Thue ® ie hamitive 3 Consequently , Riu an equivalence relation. ° Eegcirnphe 7 La Qe & (med mn) if, ang only Fa: 2be2(meds) =y 5|@a-a) . 35 divides (22-2). Congruence Module ™ : f om divide (a-b) Exomple- het me tea positive inte er with mal “Ahow thal the relation’ R= fcayny| a= blmed mj A on equivalence relation on dhe det of ales Posoof Reflexive * aka > asalmodm) & tue because m|ca- -a) 9 m|o > conapence modulo m as reHlexive. Symmmebric Augpese 0 b (med =) Then = m|la- -b), > abekm , mez > b-a=-km > bealmoedm) a cuence module mk, Agarmedne > tong 7 : Toons ttive azbGnedlm) b b2.clmod m) Avypose 3 mJ@-b) mm] Lb-c) Da-bskm 9 b-c=k,.m i vege ct Kex 3 Qc ce a-btb-c= Km+kem = (kK th)” DPPPRPPARARPADRADODBORAAARAMAAHRARAAAAR AMAA OO®D Po MLAKD syortnorses ae pp ¢ ry > aze (mod) m is transitive => congruence mer Hamer , congruence meduto m telatin iy an equivalence Equivalener Cass.- : tee R “be an equivalence relaten, on The set of all elements that are related to an element ‘a of ‘A is called equivalence class of ‘a - “The equivalence - lass of ‘4 "a is denoted by tal er dla) be detined os. Lal ='{+] (ajadeRy classes of 0 and 4 for congruence a ack As Q. What one ithe equivalence, medulo 42 Lol = “occ etecto ribo , L- feces FecBoby 598 eed Q. bet AH {Asay ' : R= 7 CH, (22) C3 BD 9 HD 5 1,399 (BH ON CUD] Equivalence claws of 4 Lig? {51 GD eR HIER} ve, [L]g= {bay SA , Cals fas SA [3], = {134 SA Ca, = faye dst No- cy distinct - equivalence dese: in above example ns “f [a] g= (3]q a (r},.= Ldp, Theotem?- Ler R be an equivalence reliably ona set A- These atatement for elements a” and 4 ef A are equivalent G aRb dip [a] = Cb) Ui) Tal NCE] # > : Prowt:- le will prove the & uivalence of these statements oy showsing that dy implies Cid. coh Ci) aplies ci), ti) implies Gh ‘ Auppses aRb ond tet ce [al = aRe Aine, ORb and Rie syometrie f : \a7_ bRa ~ Furthermore bRa and aRe' “ - => bRe eR ls traniitive > 6G fbleo's =e (al S (bt -- 6% i : - Airilarly , we can thew that Chl Stal “4 ). Hence Cal =CbT > Co Sa5| Now, ossume that [al = Cb] a Aince aetal % Ru reflexive and [o] = Cb = aetbl Ao fal nth) +60 =. [uo Sci New, we Will shew that Gi} Gmplies CL) : Auppose fal N{bl4o chen there 8 2 element c ‘auch’ that Li celal and cé Lb) ln other words aRe and, -bRe Be aymmebic property » Rb Tren, by traniitve, arb Ao, these three ptoremenls are equivalent | Ths theorem shows Hat ce. equivalence Clases of Avo” ; wlemen of A dither identi cal ‘or disgeint + Parilition ofa det S A partition of a ack a a coltecdion of dlafoint — men- empty ube of S thal -have S04 Hair thee une: Inetherwords, the céllection ef AL forms a. partition oho. at S if and only ° + AA Lae A a AL NAG = > shen i+ g CD, ae At te8s Exoungle!- g . Auppose tha S= {1435/6 }-, The collection F sek Ae tha) conte Ase {4s} and Ay= is} Forms a. partition of S- : a ener velalion : ena ab S — -F | re equival a & Then phe equivalunet alas of KR forms o podine of uivalence relakon ties, din the fant List * Ag tary Ae tS, Pye tsy of A ordered pave he pauittion pet S= $34 SY FAyswerl- : : Re] Gyn yur (2) La 22) C9) 9D) G2, ee oe - 7 n ‘i “Zyyy C45) yes), (595) faom pail €6,6) fom A. A 1 V . frm & DR is equivalence relation Paritial Ordering >.> ; A sulattion wana 4a ordering br partial orden as Sk stefleiwe » ed Rhanttive, Aad dogether sith a portal ordecing R i called a partially ordered ct (poset) ond is demeted by (S)® : Si ‘called pactial 13 “ ® R— ylation Ack — Reflexive Frvtisgnmebie : Frawifve: Examples ‘- ldentify che POSETS (a, <) poset (zt,<) Poser : (uw, 7) POSsET (2, &) Poset % CZ, J) wrPoseT cat, |) Pose T (zw, =) PoseT (vt, =) PoseT (wx) * (A>) x (wo x WMD x : ' \ x Cece) 5) POSET Aadesek 7 Pevoen Aet of S arables-. The elemerits ‘a and ‘b’ of o poseT ($,6) are called Comparable 34 ' ab or beta @® Treomparables- When a and b are element tS Auth that nerthe: AO &b nor bea in Poset LS,%) then, A Bb are called incemparable- Enamples- dn ahe poset (2, |), cute sth Gat Comparable? Are 3 ae are crn ibee Amvoer, Bf and 113 Sr 3 NF ate Incomparable 3)4 end 473 > 3881 ore comparcble. TOTALLY ORDERED ‘SET: He aml TE (8,4) is a PoseT—cora em wo elements of S one cape aey Sidueallea 1. open ordered set or Lins ordered (act, and) [sq itealled & ote! order or a Ainear orden: The Jotally ordered set iu also wont called Chain - Kg: The POSET (Z,&) ds Sota ordered +e, t 4S tess than ual to : / ease Ooh ee whenever atend > one integes HASSE OWGRAM; St de agraplical representation a4. POSET. “Hews ato convert” a.’ wlireated qrath ot a. (elation on a 44 ge equivalent «HASSE DiAGeAM. } _Stepit-' The verukices HASSE are dewoterl by : Appinks, etben, urde > Step2t- PoseT us reflexive » 4° remove _Aelf Leepe: Step3- pose T ais transitive,’ 40 af there ig an cage f° a dp b amd b to & thew remove ont jee, Ebininate all edges, that sinplies tranivtive property| Stepyr Ef o voter tg Js cowneated™ do veer te by on edges pe, ab, R Framplet- consider ne per $4i5 644: der R be gre relating Pe on A: Draw othe dviested graph the Hasse Solubsu: 2m ae ae A i given Ray (usd> Cb) sth ts 15,9, (616), cay). : ‘Tae dareeted gmp af te relation R ts o% how | TH draw tun tase duigram of partial Bod eles pointe *- D— Relete all edges inplied by reflexive prperty bey (at) 56555) £606) 7- 2» Relete alll eres aduplied by trancitive prepety bey CB D146) 3» Replace the cores Yepresentin: she verte ‘and plee minimum orders, apply. es by dots - 4) Omut the arrow? (.smaltest) element oF the bottem- + £ ; ; L Smp Place Wiminnut the bottom: : Qe Praw tw. Harse duagroro for he partial andesite $ CAB) |acey on a power set p(s) where S-fabxt by fact, fb.4 stared} element at Zoi’ plsy=f dy tats SeYa ite 1% | fas <2 > tec} | ES | % Fg Pe f23P4 oo 3 P84 vohete atba & divides (isolated qh) . 5 | 2 .3 QUI) 4 e185 9 9 10012 \) £as ‘ Divide relate) Important Terms ™ Mirimal Clemens Au element yeP ia called minimal une of P aelative do et (partial ordeting) ig n6 EP’ a xy: Maximal demunt 2-- An element yer is called maximal element ot P wnelotive to ve ea -for no ZEP aa yee e ey SK tq and 'b are minimal elements Aa we y'e! and 'g' are maximal a s . elements Notet- 4. Minimal and Maxunal mag or may mot be Lunigue . “9. Munemal aad maximal an or mag mot exist - dw cae unfivute Sebins —- 3 |solated point both can be maxiinal and minimal. Greatest element = The domed tn tu poseT that qreater other element is called qreatest element - than vi qreatat element of te Poser CP, That “a, SO" is the ‘ye bia ¥. bes: past Te greatest element is mae Oushen ik exits dens}! élenmnt An clemeud is called the least element | 4s Ge as. lee than all other demerits ‘ 5 ve, (oh is Bu least clemed of Ou poser (p,x) Jf Bb aor all bes: ane : ae Tae feast clemed iu unique ashen tk exis RENE PY Oe A Se + Muvimal . .o a,b a,b a Metal bod ead a lea heast ao = - a Greateat = — 7 a a. deast Upper Bound ~ The element x te called “the least upper: bound af the Aubset 4 Sp me i an upper bound | that is les than every other upper. bound of A. iSrplag) Upper bound e- 7 i an element of S uc thak atu OaeA “tan ue called am upper bound of A “wshere A & subset of a POSET CS, 4): : Gyredtlert Lower Bound - The dement 4 is called the vee lower bound a ” if 4 ds a lower bound tat, ie erect than every other ower bound ‘of 4- ZT Lis an element aS dus, ght Loo Aor oll ata, un Ala palled on lower bound of A. dower ound > Find tae lower and Upper bounds of tu subset fa, b,c}, *] fgeh} ond faodg} tn te Poser with the Haste diagram. ¢€ d t d e 6 c a + Tu upper bounds of fac} are erfigrh

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